PREFACE

Biology is a rapidly developing branch of science. The major advances being

made continuously affect our life on earth. Some of these important advances are
included here.

The results of a recent survey on the attitudes towards existing literature avai-
lable to high school students showed that many were unhappy with the material used
in teaching and learning. Those questioned identified a lack of the following: ac-
companying supplementary material to main text books, current information on new
developments, clear figures and diagrams.

This book aims to improve the level of understanding of modern biology by

inclusion of the following: main texts, figures and illustrations, extensive questions,
articles and experiments. It is the intention and hope of the authors that the contents
of this book will help to bridge the current gap in the field of biology at this level.

This book has been carefully reviewed and the language is considered suitable
for students for whom English is a second language.

To the students

Being curious students, you may have wondered why you resemble your pa-
rents or why you need to breathe. In this book, I try to summarize some major subjects
of biology. These are the most promising and perhaps the most complicated subjects
of modern biology.

Group work will greatly enhance your learning abilities as well as give you an
opportunity to share your knowledge and experience with your friends. I hope that,
being assiduous students, you will work hard throughout this academic year and do
your best to satisfy your scientific curiosity and, of course, to pass all of your exams
successfully.

The author
 Chapter 1

Photosynthetic pigments

Pigments are molecules which can absorb light with distict wave length
and other light reflect or pass through it. Organisms are vary according to type
of chlorophyll they have. Chlorophyll A and B have active role in photosynthe-
sis. Carotinoids have role in photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll can absorb most of purple, blue and red wave length. Ch-
lorophyll reflect most of green wave length so it is in green colour. Chloroplasts
may contain chlorophyll A and B, carotinoids, xantophylls and other pigments.
Xantophylls are yellow colored and insoluble lipidios pigments and appear in
autumn season.

Do you know?
Organisms Color Main Pigments
Only 42 % of sun light energy
reach the earth.
And only 1-2 % of this Plants, Blue-green algae Bluish green Chlorophylls
energy is used in photosynthesis.
Remain energy absorbed by Green bacteria, Purple bacteria Green Bacteriochlorophylls
atmosphere or transform into
heat.

Organisms Color Additinal Pigments

Plants, Algae, Bacteria Red, Orange, Yellow Carotinoids

Plants, Algae, Bacteria Red, Yellow Xantophylls

Brown algae, Diatoms Brown Fucoxanthin

Red algae, Bluish green Blue Phycocyanin

algae

Red algae Red Phycoerythrin

Fossil bacteria Purple Bacteriorhodopsin

Table 1-1 Pigments used in photosynthesis (For study)

12
 Nutrition and Digestion

6. Soil ventilation
Soil ventilation helps root cells to absorb more oxygen. Insufficency of
oxygen in soil cause root cells to lose their vitality. Roots cannot absorb enough
water and minerals and it affects the photosynthesis adversely.

7. Plant diseases

Viruses, bacteria or fungi infect the leaves of plants and decrease

in rate of photosynthesis.

8. Atmospheric pollutant

Dust, pesticides and smoke of factories effect photosynthesis directly

or indirectly. These pollutants can close the stoma on leaves of plants. Then
enough carbondioxide cannot be absorbed and rate of photosynthesis decrease.

9. Genetical factors

Thickness of cuticle layer on surface of leaves, number of stoma,

structure of cells in mesophyll layer, number of chloroplasts and amount of
chlorophyll they contain are genetical factors which effect the photosynthesis.
Also enzymes which used in photosynthesis and production of chlorophyll
synthesis are genetical factors.

Leaves and photosynthesis

Water and carbondioxide are used in photosynthesis. Water absorbed

by roots and transported by xylem vessels in plants. Carbondioxide is absorbed
by stoma and diffuse to the chloroplasts. Remember chloroplast consist of two
main parts; grana and stroma. (figure 1-2).

There are chlorophyll A and B inside the thylakoid membrane. These

pigments absorb sun light. Reaction in which carbondioxide used take pla-
ce in stroma and organic materials are used at the end of these reactions.

15
 Chapter 1

Ingested large food particles are broken down into their monomers and
transpoted to the body cells by help of circulatory system. Monomers like glu-
cose are broken down by cellular respiration in cells, energy and heat release at
the end of reactions. All of these reactions are called catabolism.

Feeding mechanisms

All organisms need to get food to survive and they have different adap-
tations to do it. There are different methods of getting food among animals,
some of them are;

1- Direct method

Only little amount of animals take the food directly from environment.
They are parasitic organisms get the ingested food in form of monomers from
the host. Some kinds of worms like tapeworm is an example for these animals.
Some aquatic invertabrate animals get some food directly from water.

2- Feeding on planktons

Planktons are tiny plant like (phytoplankton) or animal like (zoop-

lanktons) tiny organisms which live in sea and oceans. They hunted by inver-
tabrate and vertabrate animals by filter feeding method. Worms, bivalves and
cephalochordates take the planktons with water in their body and capture them
by mucous in their mouth and send them to their digestive tract. Some animals
have cilia around their mouths to capture the planktons.

Some animals feed on accumulated organic materials in the deep of

water and this kind of feeding is called deposit feeding. Some kinds of hemi-
chordata and some insects are examples for it. Figure (1.7)

3- Feeding on solid particles

Animals have different body structures according to type of nutrition.

A. There are cutting regions in mouth of invertabrates to increase surface area

of food to accelarate the digestion.

Figure 1.7 Amphitrite B. Insects have chitinous teeth, tongue and absorbtion tubes. They involved in
detection, grinding and absorbtion of food particles.
This animal feed on deposits and live Nereis from invertabrates has muscular pharynx supported by chitinous teeth.
in deep sand of water. Has many fe- Pharynx extend out of body capture the food and take into the body quickly.
eding tentacles extended in different
directions and covered with mucous. C. Some vertabrates catch their prey strongly by their front extremites and
Tentacles capture the food and then paralise them by poison secretion.
send it to the mouth.

18
 Chapter 1

Add to your information 4. Feeding on liquids

Herbivore mammals like horse It is kind nutrition in parasites but there are some non-parasitic orga-
and cow have bended molar te- nisms feed by this method. Some internal parasites absorb digested food of
eth to broke the cellulosic wall host organisms and some of them absorb blood through damaged wall of intes-
of plant cell. This process facili- tine. Some insects and leech feed on blood by using their driller and absorber
tate the digestionof cellulose by mouth parts.
microorganisms that live in their
digestive system.

Digestion

Digestion is broken down of big molecules into their monomers. Car-

bohydrates, proteins and lipids are main nutrients. These nutrients need diges-
tion to be used by organisms in production of energy and building new organic
molecules. Digestion takes place in cell ( intracellular) or out of cell (extracel-
lular).

1. Intracellular digestion

Food vacuole which formed at the end of phagocytosis unites with

lysosome. Digested food particles which can be used directly, like glucose and
aminoacids diffuse into cytoplasm. Wastes are removed from the cytoplasm by
exocytosis. (figure 1.9)

Figure 1.9 Exocytosis in cell

20
 Nutrition and Digestion

2. Extracellular digestion

Extracellular digestion is a process by secreting enzymes through the

cell membrane into the food. The enzymes catalyse the digestion of the food
into molecules small enough to be taken up by diffusion phagocytosis. Since
digestion occurs outside the cell, it is said to be extracellular. It takes place eit-
her in the lumen of the digestive system, in a gastric cavity or other digestive
organ, or completely outside the body.

Extracellular digestion is a form of digestion found in annelids, crus-

taceans, arthropods, lichens and chordates, including vertebrates.

B A
Figure 1.10 Intracellular and extracellular digestion
(A) Intracellular digestion. It can be observed in unicellular organisms like paramecium and sponges.
(B) Most of animals do extracellular digestion. For example hydra has a simple digestive system and do perform extra-
cellular digestion.

Digestive tract

Animals have different digestive system.

General functions of digestive tract are;

A. Swallowing the food.

B. Breaking down the food into monomers.
C. Absorbtion of digested food.
D. Excretion of wastes.

21
 Nutrition and Digestion

Figure 1.12 Digestive system

in earthworm

Movement in digestive tract

Food transport by movement of muscles in wall of digestive tract and

fimbrea. Movement of food by fimbrea performs in animals which have pseu-
do-coelom. In other animals food transport by contraction and relaxation of
muscles in wall of digestive tract. These wave like movement of muscles is
called as peristaltic movement. (figure 1.13)

Anatomical and physiological structure of digestive system

There are different types of digestive systems in animals depend on the

nutrients that they ingest.

Parts of digestive system according to their function as follows:

A. Food reception zone

It is front part of digestive tract and consist of mouth, mouth compo- Figure 1.13 Peristaltic movement
nents and muscular pharynx.

Digestion start in this zone by secretion of Ptyalin enzyme which in-

Do you know?
volved in digestion of complex carbohydrates like starch. This enzyme found
in snail, some insects, mammals and human. Ptyalin enzyme lose its function
Glands which found in mouth has
when reach the stomach with semi digested food. Digestion of starch comp-
different functions than secretion
lete in small intestine. Tounge is a distinctive feature of vertabrates that help
of digestive enzymes. They so-
chewing and swallowing of food. Epiglottis closes the trachea during swal-
metimes involved in calmness of
lowing and food pass into esophagus then by peristaltic movement transports
prey, prevent pain during biting
to the stomach.
prey or prevent blood coagulation
in some insects
B. Transport and storage zone

Pharynx involved in transmission of nutrients to the digestive tract of

invertabrates and some vertabrates. Pharynx is followed by esophagus. It`s
front part enlarged to form crop in some animals. Crop stores the food, mois-
tens it before digestion in birds. This stored food became semi digested before
coming back for offsprings. (figure1.14)

23
 Chapter 1

B. Proteins

They are the basic structural elements of the body. The development of
an organism from a zygote and the formation of its organ systems are entirely
depend on proteins.

As has already been stated, proteins contain 20 different amino acids

which are structurally and functionally different subunits. Some of them are
synthesized within the body and some are imported, since they are unable to be
synthesized in the body. There are nine vital amino acids that can not be synthesi-
zed in the body and they have role in development of children.

Foods vary in their quantity of vital amino acids. The qualified pro-
teins contain adequate amounts of vital amino acids and are easily digested.
Generally, animal proteins are qualified but plant proteins are nonqualified.

Add your information: C. Fats

Mother milk is main source of These giant molecules yield the most energy in comparison to other
necessary nutrients for babies. it molecules. There are two kinds of fats; saturated and unsaturated. Saturated
contains all necessary materials for fats are generally obtained from animal products with exeption of some plants
baby and contents change periodi- like coconut oil. Plant fats are unsaturated fats and necessary for human body
cally according to growth of baby. for health.

Milk secretion of mother is in three Consuming large amount of saturated fats causes arterisclerosis. Fish
stages: contain omega-3 fatty acids which have a role in prevention of heart attack.

1. Colostrum secretion stage.

D. Vitamins
2. After fifth day of secretion colst-
rum secretion decreases and natu-
Vitamins ingested in food and plays important role in regulation of
ral milk secretion start and continu-
body metabolism. Most of them cannot be produced in the body. Vitamins
es until third or fourth week.
have two types according to their solubility; water soluble vitamins and lipid
soluble vitamins.
3. Mature milk secretion stage start
after fourth week.
E. Minerals

Inorganic molecules, or minerals, are as important for body functions

as organic molecules. They are required for health, continuity of metabolism
and in the formation of bones and teeth.

They are divided into two main groups:

Essential minerals (calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium)

Non essential but recommended minerals (magnesium, iron, copper, zinc

and other trace elements)

28
 Chapter 1

Question 1. Read the sentences carefully and write if it is true or false?

1. Plants use inorganic materials from environment to produce necessary material.

2. Chemosynthesis is production of organic materials by oxidizing some elements.
3. Water is split into hydrogen and oxygen in light rections of photosynthesis.
4. Some invertabrates have a muscular pharynx which supported by chitinous jaws to catch and swallow the prey.
5. Incompleted digestive tract contain mouth and anus.
6. Bile liquid is produced by liver.
7. Chloroplast is a double membraneous organelle.
8. Digestion of carbohydrates completed in stomach.
9. Food materials transported by diffusion through digestive tract.
10. Oat contain dissolved fibers which are important for heart.

Question 2. Answer the following questions

1. What is the function of gizzard and which organisms have it?

2. Explain the structure of chloroplast.
3. What are the factors affect the rate of photosynthesis?
4. Explain the extracellular digestion.
5. Explain the complete digestive tract.
6. Write the parts of digestive tract and their functions.
7.Write the functions of liver.
8. Which nutrients are used as source of energy?
9. Explain feeding in planaria.
10. Write kinds of teeth and their function.

Question 3. Explain the following scientific fact.

1. Some reactions that occur in chloroplast are called as light reactions.

2. Photosynthesis rate decrease and stop after a certain degree of temperature.
3. There are finger like projections (villi) in structure of small intestine.
4. Defecated wastes are in solid mass form.
5. Some pepole suffer from arteriosclerosis.

Question 4. Define the following terms.

Photosynthesis, Thylakoid, Stoma, Nitrosomonas, Carnivores, Planktone, Digestion, Phagocytosis, Villi, Chyme,
Amylase
 Chapter 2

Add to your knowledge CO2

H2O
Gas exchange happen between Photosynthesis
organisms and their environment
during respiration. Oxygen used
in reactions and carbon dioxide Respiration
released to environment. Sun light
Unicellular organisms provide
gas exchange through plasma
membrane by diffusion. O2
Small sized multicellular
organisms provide gas exchange
through body surface
by diffusion. Big sized multicel-
lular organisms need a complete
system to provide gas exchange. Simple organic Organic
acids materials like
(Pyruvic acids) glucose

Glycolysis

What is metabolism?

Metabolism is sum of bioche- Figure 2.1 Main reactions of carbon cycle

mical reactions take place in
cell. Organisms have different structures, organs or systems for respiration. Gas ex-
change performed by skin, gills or lungs among organisms.

Cellular Respiration
Glucose is broken down into water (H2O) and carbondioxide (CO2) in
cellular respiration. And energy released at the end of reaction.

Glucose, fatty acids, glycerol and aminoacids are reactants of respira-

tion. Enzymes which activated by ions and co-enzymes are used during respi-
ration.
Remember!
Respiration can be summerized in following reaction:
External respiration is gas exc-
hange between blood and envi-
ronment.

Internal respiration is gas exc-

hange between blood and body
cells.

36
 Respiration and Gas Exchange

Lenticels:

The epidermis forms a protective layer on the surface of young higher

plants and the outer tissue becomes woody as the plant matures and ages. The
stomata lose their ability to function and are replaced by lenticels. They ma-
intain gas exchange between a woody plant and the atmosphere and are found
mostly on the roots, stem and branches.

Hydrophytes absorb dissolved oxygen in water by their body surface.

Respiration in Animals
Figure 2.4 Lenticels in woody plants
All animals need oxygen to maintain the metabolic avtivities. Animals
vary according to their respiration mechanism depending on their living condi-
tions. Animals use gills, body surface or lungs for respiration.

Levels of Respiration

Respiration occurs in three levels in animals;

1. External respiration:
Oxygen and carbondioxide diffusion takes place between blood and
respiration surfaces. (figure 2.5)

2. Internal respiration:
Gas exchange takes place between blood and body cells. (figure 2.5)

3. Aerobic cellular respiration:

It is the breaking down of glucose in cell to produce energy in presence of
oxygen and carbondioxide released at the end of it.

Breathing mechanisms

Respiration is the exchange of gases between an organism and its en-

vironment (taking in oxygen and releasing CO2).

There are different organs used as respiratory organs by different org-

nisms, including body surfaces, gills, trachea and lungs.

Trachea are system of pipes. Branches of these pipes penetrate all

tissues to facilitate the diffusion of gases into all regions of the body. Mollusks,
echinoderms, crustaceans, fish and amphibians respire with gills. The most
important feature of gills is that they absorb oxygen dissolved in water. Adult
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals respire through lungs. Figure 2.5 Internal and external
respiratio

39
 Chapter 2

Respiration in Invertabrates

1. Cutaneous Respiration

Unicellular orgaisms provide gas exchange by simple diffusion throu-

gh cell membrane. Invertabrates use different methods to provide gas exchange
their wide body surface provides enough area to take enough oxygen. This
method seen in hydra and planaria. These animals provide gas exchange by
diffusion through their wide body surface and body extensions. (figure 2.6)

More developed organisms like earthworm provide gas exchange by

their body surface and oxygen transported to the body cells by circulatory sys-
tem.

Figure 2.6 Gas exchange through

body surface.

(A) Hydra; all body cells are colsed

to source of oxygen.

(B) Planaria; Most of body cells

are closed to the source of oxygen
by help of wide body surface.

2. Gill respiration

Gills are respiratory organs of aquatic organisms. They formed from

projections of epithelium and are closely associated with circulatory system.
Starfish and sea worms have gill respiration.

3. Tracheal Respiration

This kind of respiration seen in terrastrial arthropods like centipeds,

insects with exoskeleton like spider. It branches penetrate all tissues to facili-
tate the diffusion of gases into all regions of the body. Each trachea open into the
exterior of body by a series of spiracle, one pair in each body segment.

In tracheal system, gas exchange occurs at the tracheoles by simple

diffusion. Oxygen is transmitted from spiracle to trachea then through the tra-
cheoles and finally into tissues. Carbondioxide follows the same pathway in
opposite direction.

40
 Respiration and Gas Exchange

Figure 2.7 Tracheal respiratory system in insect

Respiration in Vertebrates

1. Cutaneous Respiration A kind of frog called Rana has 20

cm2 area for each cm3 of air but
Some kinds of vertabrates like amphibia and some fishes use their human body has 300 cm2 area for
skin for gas exchange. For example eel provids 60 % of gas exchange by its each cm3 of air.
skin which is rich in blood capillaries. Cutaneous respiration has a big role for
amphibia during hibernation.

Thikness of skin, being rich in blood vessels and presence of mucous

glands are advantages for cutaneous respiration in amphibia. Some kinds of
salamender cutaneous respiration is unique method to provide gas exchange
because they don`t have gills or lungs.

2. Gill respiration

A gill is a respiratory organ found in many aquatic organisms like

amphibia and fishes that extracts dissolved oxygen from water and excretes
carbon dioxide. The gills are composed of comb-like filaments, the gill lamel-
lae, which help increase their surface area for oxygen exchange.

When a fish breathes, it draws in a mouthful of water at regular inter-

vals. Then it draws the sides of its throat together, forcing the water through
the gill openings, so it passes over the gills to the outside. (figure 2.8)
Salamender is an example for
cutaneous respiration

41
 Respiration and Gas Exchange

2. Respiration in reptiles

All reptiles breathe using lungs. In reptiles, the wall of each lung is
folded to form a wider surface area for gas exchange than in amphibia. Snakes
differ from other vertabrates of their class since they have only a single lung.
The second lung is thought to have dissappeared during metamorphosis. Their
single lung resembles a long sac which functions as an air tank when the snake
swallows its victim.

3. Respiration in birds

The structure of respiratory system in bird is more sophisticated since

it includes air capillaries surrounded by network of blood capillaries.

Additionaly there are five air sacs attached to the lung. These sacs ca-
use much of the body cavity to be filled with air. They penetrate into the bones
and connective tissue under the skin, an inspact that is closely related to the fl-
ying ability of birds. Trachea divided into two bronchi then brochi divided into
branchioles which are connected to the bones via air capillaries and air sacs.

Air enters the respiratory system through the nostrils and flows into the Barn owls live in trees and abando-
lungs and then to the air sacs. Air sacs increase the oxygen storage capacity of ned buildings. They feed on small
birds. The oxygen taken by the lungs passes to the blood and is carried to the rodents. Large flight feathers quiet
body cells. the flapping sound of their wings,
while short head feathers help guide
sound waves toward the owls’ ears
(lower left). The barn owl’s hooked
beak helps the bird to tear meat
(lower right).

Figure 2.10 Respiratory system in birds

43
 Chapter 2

Respiratory System in Human

Respiratory system in human consist of following structures:

A. Two outer nostrils.

B. Nasal cavity that covered by mucosal membrane and contain many glands
that secrete mucous.

C. Two inner nostrils that open to the pharynx.

D. Pharynx is a common passage way for food and air. It contains a small piece
Do you know? of cartilage called as epiglottis. It prevent entering of food into trachea.

Smoking shortens lives. Many E. Larynx contains vocal cords and help to produce sound hence it called as
people could have lived 10, 20 or voice box.
even 30 more years if they had
not smoked. Among 1000 young
people who smoke, about 6 will
be killed on the roads, but about
250 will be killed before their
time by tobacco.

Women who smoke when they are

pregnant run a greater risk of mis-
carriage, and of their baby being
born premature or underweight.

Figure 2.11 Structure of respiratory system

F. Trachea

It is a tube which is located in the chest in front of the esophagus.The

inner surface of the trachea is covered by mucous glands and cilia. The mucous
glands secrete mucous which moistens the air and the cilia catch and throw out
the foreign particles.

Trachea is divided into two branches called as bronchi. The main

bronchi are divided into smaller branches which are called bronchioles and lo-
cated in the lungs. In the lungs, bronchioles are subdivided into air sacs which
consist of small rooms called as alveoli. Alveoli have thin walls surrounded by
a network of blood capillaries which are branched from pulmonary artery. The
exchange of gas between blood and environment occurs through the walls of
the alveoli.

44
 Respiration and Gas Exchange

In animals and in human, the lungs are located in the thorax, which is separa-
ted from the body cavity by a diaphragm.

Lungs are surrounded by a thin, double-layered membrane known as

the pleura. The space between the pleural membranes covering the lung and
the pleural membrane lining the thoracic cavity is called the pleural cavity. A
fluid in the pleural cavity provides lubrication between the lungs and the chest
cavity.

The lungs consist of many similar units, known as alveoli. Alveoli are
composed of a single layer of squamous epithelial cells and are surrounded by
a network of capillaries. The alveoli are the site of gas exchange in the lungs.

Respiration Mechanism

Inhalation, or breathing in, is the intake of air into the lungs. Exhalati-
on, or breathing out, is the expulsion of air from the lungs.

During inhalation, diaphragm contracts and becomes flattened and in-

tercostal muscles found between the ribs contract. So, inner pressure of the
lungs decreases and the volume of chest cavity increases. At the end, the air
passes through the respiratory organs and enters the lungs.

During exhalation, diaphragm and ribs return to normal position; di-

aphragm relaxes and intercostal muscles relax. So, inner pressure of the lungs
increases and the volume of chest cavity decreases. At the end, the expulsion
of air from the lungs to outside happens.

Figure 2.12 Respiratory movements

a. During inhalation, the chest cavity

expands, the ribs move upward and
outward, and the diaphragm flattens.
The pressure in the lungs decreases,
and air rushes in.

b. During exhalation, the volume

of chest cavity is reduced, the ribs
move downward and inward, the di-
aphragm moves upward. The pres-
sure in the lungs increases and deo-
xygenated air is expelled.

45
 Respiration and Gas Exchange

Review
Question 1. Read the sentences carefully and write if it is true or false?

1. Only 20 % of stored energy released from glucose in glycolysis.

2. Glucose broken down into water and carbondioxide during respiration reactions.
3. Glycolysis takes place out of cell and enrgy used in it.
4. 38 molecules of ATP are released from one molecule of glucose.
5. Oxygen and carbondioxide happen by aid of lenticels in leaves and woody stems.
6. In aerobic reactions, oxygen is used and carbondioxide is released.
7. Gills are respiraratory organs for aquatic organisms.
8. Adult amphibia respire by lungs, gills and skin.
9. Alveoli provide gas exchange between blood and body cells.
10. Human body does not capture nitrogen from air.

Question 2. Answer the following questions:

1. Explain the structure of lungs in human.

2. What are the types of respiration for invertebrates?
3. Explain cutaneous respiration for invertebrates.
4. Explain the respiratory structures for plants.
5. Explain the oxygen and carbondioxide excahange in human.
6. Write the parts of respiratory system in human.
7.What are the levels of respiration?
8. What are the importance of air sacs in birds?
9. Draw the main reactions of carbon cycle.
10. Write the phases of cellular respiration.

Question 3. Explain the following scientific facts:

1. More energy is released in aerobic respiration.
2. Larynx is called as voice box.
3. 2 ATP used at the begining of glycolysis.
4. Some organisms can survive without food ingestion for several months but can not survive without oxygen for a few
minutes.
5. Cutaneous is best respiration method for amphibia.

Question 4. Define the following terms.

Operculum, Glycolysis, Matrix, Stoma, Alveoli

47
 Chapter 3

2. Mesonephros

This type of kidney differs from a pronephros kidney in that the ciliary
funnels replaced with Bowman`s capsules. Additionally, a glomerulus located
in each Bowman`s capsule and waste flows directly into it from each glome-
rulus. Channels drain from each Bowman`s capsule and drain into the mesone-
phric duct. This type of kidney is found in the embryonic stage of reptiles, birds
and mammals and in the adult form of fish and amphibia. (figure 3.6).

3. Metanephros

This type of kidney found in adult reptiles, birds and mammals. Me-
tanehpros kidneys are found in pairs and located at abdomen of the body. Each
kidney contains millions of nephrons.

The first excretory channel splits into two and also known as wolf
Figure 3.6 Mesonephros kidney channel. In fish and amphibia, its functions as apart of both of excretory and
reproductive system.

All vertabrates excluding mammals have a single channel through

which all wastes are excreted. The same channel also forms a part of reprodu-
ctive system. In mammals however, a seperate channel exists for the expulsion
of waste and in reproduction.(figure 3.7).

Human Excretory System

The human excretory system is composed of kidneys, a urinary tract or

ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra.

A. The Kidney

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs situated in the lower thoracic
region of the back. It is composed of three main parts:

1-Renal Cortex: It is red in color and contains the Malpighian bodies, compri-
sing the Bowmann’s capsule and glomerulus, which give it its rough structure.

2-Renal Medulla: It is located directly beneath the cortex. Urinary tracts which
drain from the cortex form pyramids in this region. There are approximately
(8-10) laterally arranged Malpighian pyramids. The apex of each pyramid is lo-
Figure 3.7 Metanephros kidney cated in the medulla and its base is located in the cortex.

3-Renal Pelvis: It forms the innermost portion of the kidney. Its function is the
collection of urine from the Malpighian pyramids, the site of 15-20 orifices
opening into the pelvis. The pelvis transmits the accumulated urine to the ure-
ter.

56
 Excretion

Review
Question 1. Read each sentence carefully and write if it is true or false?

1. The main function of the kidneys is filtration of metabolic wastes from the blood.
2. The first step in urine formation is filtration of blood.
3. Returning of substances back into the body from the nephron is called reabsorption.
4. Unicellular organisms like paramecium and amoeba provide excretion by aid of contractile vacuoles.
5. In single-celled organisms, waste products are discharged by flame cells.
6. Fish has pronephros type of kidney.
7. About 5 liters of urine formed each day.
8. In insects urine is excreted by means of tracheal vessels or tracheoles.
9. There is no specilized system of excretion in plants.
10. Excess water eliminated from plant in form of drops through hydathodes by a process called transpiration.

Question 2. Answer the following questions

1. What are the main parts of a kidney?

2. Explain the mesonephrons type of kidney.
3. List the components of excretory system in human.
4. Do plants have excretory organs? How can they excrete their wastes?
5. Explain the parts of nephron.
6. Explain the excretion in planaria.

Question 4. Define the following terms.

Excretion, Glomerulus, Kidney, Nephron, Urinary bladder, Urea, Metanephros, Guttation

Question 5. Compare between the followings.

1. Mesonephros and pronephros

2. Excretion in planaria and earthworm

Question 6. Draw the followings and name the parts of them.

1. Structure of pronephros kidney.

2. Structure of kidney in human.
3. Structure of a nephron.

59
 Movement

b. Nasty

Movement of a flat plant part, oriented relative to the plant body and
produced by a variety of stimuli that cause disproportioinate growth or increa-
sed turgor pressure in the tissues of one surface.

The opening and closing movements of many flowers and the respon-
ses of leaves to changes of temperature and light, are externally directed nas-
tic movements. Specialized plants, such as the insectivorous sundew, move in
response to the touch and chemical stimuli of captured insects.

Figure 4-6 Thigmonasty in insecticorus plants

Opening and closing of stomata is

a kind of nastic movement

Figure 4.7 Thigmonasty in mimosa plant

67
 Chapter 4

Movement in Animals
Generally movement in animals is provided by contraction and relaxa-
tion of muscle fibers which are specifically organized to perform their function.
There are three different kinds of muscles which perform these movements;

- Smooth muscles
- Skeletal muscles
- Cardiac or Heart muscles

Skeletal muscle is responsible for moving parts of the body, such as

the limbs, trunk, and face. Skeletal muscle tissue is made up of elongated cells
called muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber contains many nuclei and is crossed by
light and dark stripes, called striations. Skeletal muscle fibers are grouped into
dense bundles. These bundles are bound together by connective tissue to form
a muscle. Because their contractions can usually be consciously controlled,
skeletal muscles are described as voluntary muscles.

Smooth muscle forms the walls of the stomach, intestines, blood ves-
sels, and other internal organs. Individual smooth muscle cells are spindle-sha-
ped, have a single nucleus, and interlace to form sheets, as shown in Figure.
Notice that smooth muscle lacks the striations found in skeletal muscle tissue.
Smooth muscle fibers are surrounded by connective tissue, but the connective
tissue does not unite to form tendons as it does in skeletal muscles. Because
most of its movements cannot be consciously controlled, smooth muscle is
referred to as involuntary muscle.

Cardiac muscle makes up the walls of the heart. Cardiac muscle shares
some characteristics with both skeletal muscle and smooth muscle. As with
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle tissue is striated; as with smooth muscle, it is
involuntary and each cell has one nucleus.

Figure 4.8
These light micrographs
show the three types of musc-
le tissue. Skeletal muscle tis-
sue (a) has a striped appearance
when viewed under a microsco-
pe. Smooth muscle tissue (b) is
found in the digestive tract, the
uterus, the bladder, and the blo- Figure 4.9 Skeletal muscles consist of densely packed groups of elongated
od vessels. Cardiac muscle tissue cells, called fascicles, that are held together by connective tissue. Muscle fibers
(c) is found only in the heart. consist of potein filaments called myofibrils. Two types of filaments are found
in muscle fibers—actin and myosin.

68
 Movement

Muscle Structure

A skeletal muscle fiber is a single, multinucleated muscle cell. A ske-

letal muscle may be made up of hundreds or even thousands of muscle fibers,
depending on the muscle’s size.

Connective tissue covers and supports each muscle fiber and reinfor-
ces the muscle as a whole. The health of a muscle depends on a sufficient
nerve and blood supply. Each skeletal muscle fiber has a nerve ending that
controls its activity. Active muscles use a lot of energy and therefore require a
continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients, which are supplied by arteries. A
skeletal muscle fiber, such as the one shown in Figure 4.8, contains bundles of
threadlike structures called myofibrils. Each myofibril is made up of two types
of protein filaments—thick ones and thin ones. Thick filaments are made of the
protein myosin, and thin filaments are made of the protein actin.

Muscle contraction requires energy, which is supplied by ATP. This

energy is used to detach the myosin heads from the actin filaments. Because
myosin heads must attach and detach a number of times during a single muscle
contraction, muscle cells must have a continuous supply of ATP.

Movement in Invertebrates

Invertebrate animals have both smooth and skeletal muscles and these
muscles have same functional abilities as in vertabrates. Arthropods have de-
veloped skeletal muscles.

There are different kinds of movements in different animals;

a. Movement in Mollusks

Bivalves have two different kinds of muscle fibers. First one is the
skeletal muscles which used in closing and opening of their shells. For example
mussels can keep their shells closed for many days. The second one is smooth
muscles.

b. Movement in Earthworm Figure 4.10 Mussles

Some invertabrates including hydra and earthworm have hydrostatic

skeleton. The movement of earthworm that provided by hydrostatic movement
is can be summarized as follows;

1. Earthworm body is consist of segments and each of these segments has its
own motion units.
2. There are long and circular muscles in body wall of earthworm.
3. Body expand and shrink by activity of circular muscles. And body become
longer and shorter by activities of long muscles. By repetition of these move-
nets eartworm provide its movement.
4. The chitinous stingers help earthworm to attach the ground.

69
 Chapter 4

c. Movement in Arthropods

Arthropods do different kinds of movements like; walking, running, jum-

ping, swimming and flying. We will study on insects as examples for move-
ment in arthropods.

1- Walking

Insects have an exoskeleton which made up of chitin. This exoskele-

ton provide strength against drought, defence against preys and flexibility for
movement of legs. This movement provided by actions of flexor and extensor
muscles in limbs.

2- Jumping

Some insects use their skeletal muscles to jump from leaves and trees.
For example American grasshopper is a symmetrical insect. Extensor
muscles contraction extend the back limbs and flexor muscles get limbs closer
to body.

3- Flying

Some insects achieve flight through a direct action of a muscle on each

wing. One set of flight muscles attaches just inside the base of the wing, and
the other set attaches slightly outside the wing base. When the first set of flight
muscles contracts, the wing moves upward. The second set of flight muscles
produces the downward stroke of the wing.

4- Swimming

A group of aquatic insects swim by aid of their back limbs. These

limbs have flat surface to provide forward movent by pushing water.

fig. 4.11 Kril is an aquatic insect

that has 3cm length and has an exoske-
leton

70
 Chapter 4

3 - Flying

It is movement of birds and birds have different methods and body

parts for flight. Flying in birds depend on air movements and methods of using
their wings. Birds use their front limbs (wings) for flight. Moving their wings
from up to downward cause changes in air pressure and these changes help them
to move forward.

Birds are not unique vertebrates to fly but some mammalian like bat
has ability to fly. There are some types of lizard that have abiliti to fly.

Humming bird

Flying mammalian; bat Flying lizard

4- Running

Most of mammalian have body parts specilized for runnuing. Gene-

rally animals run for hunt or escape from the hunters. Horses, deers and some
predators have long tendons to facilitate the movement. Another factor which
enable to run fact is having light limb endings.

Running animals

72
 Movement

Review
Question 1. Read each sentence carefully and write if it is true or false?

1. Animals perform different kinds of movement including cytoplasmic movement and free movement.
2. Animals obtain necessary energy for muscle contraction from ATP molecules.
3. Paramecium move by cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia.
4. Cilia and flagella similar in structure but different in working mechanism.
5. Movement in animals is provided by contraction and relaxation of muscle.
6. Skeletal muscle cells are cylindirical shaped, branched and multinucliated cells.
7. Invertebrates have smooth, skeletal and heart muscles as in vertabrates.
8. Geotropism is affected by stimulation of light.
9. Movement in response to the stimulus is dependent on direction is callled as tropism.
10. Connective tissue covers and supports each muscle fiber and reinforces the muscle as a whole.

Question 2. Fill in the blanks:

1. Most of mammalian have body parts specilized for ..........................
2. ....................... and ........................ are some kinds of movement in snakes.
3. Muscle contraction requires energy, which is supplied by ..................................
4. Vertabrates have ................................... which provide movement with muscles.
5. There are three different kinds of muscles; ..................... , ................... and ......... .
6. Movement in response to the stimulus is independent on direction, also known as ................ .
7. A ............. is a single lash-like appendage that produced from the cell.
8. There is a jelly like layer under the plasma mebrane called as ectoplasm in ............................ .
9. ..................,..............................and some predators have long tendons to facilitate the movement.

Question 3. Answer the followings.

1. Explain cytoplasmic movement in amoeba.

2. Draw the external structure of bony fish.
3. Explain how snakes move on sand.
4. Explain how earthworm move by hydrostatic movement.
5. Numarate the types of movement in invertebrates.

Question 4. Define the following terms.

Sidewinding, Tropism, Nasty movement, Muscle fiber, Pseudopodia, Cilia, Flagella

73
 Transport

Transportation in Plants

The plant transport system consist of xylem and phloem vessels exten-
ding from roots to the leaves. The xylem absorbs water and minerals from the
soil through the roots and conducts them to the leaves to be used in photosynt-
hesis and other activities.

Carbondioxide diffuse into the leaves via the stoma and reacts with
water, yielding organic molecules and oxygen.This oxygen is one of the products
of photosynthesis, may be either consumed in cellular respiration or may be
diffused out of leaves. The organic compounds however, are distributed to dif-
ferent locations within the plant body phloem vessels.

Aquatic plants differ from the terrestrial plants in that their environ-
ment is always moist and obviously, their habitat is different. Water is the medi-
um in which aquatic plants live and obtain their nutrients and used to support
the body of the plant. In terrestrial plants these functions are provided by the
root, stem and leaves.

Transportation in plants provided by three important activities.

- Transpiration
- Replacement of lost water
- Absorption of water by roots

Transpiration

During the transpiration, excess water is excreted from the stomata

as vapour. The transpiration rate is influenced by wind, humidity and tempe-
rature. Humidity and temperature are inversely proportional. If the humidity
is low, the temperature is high and high water loss results. Conversely, high
relative humidity decreases transpiration since the air is already saturated with
water vapor.

The wind is a factor that most affects the transpiration. There is a cons-
tant dome of water vapour surrounding each stoma. These water vapour
domes persist in high temperatures or dry climates. They can however, be
dispersed by wind. Strong wind gives rise to a high rate of transpiration.

Environmental factors always influence the activities of stomata. They

result in water vapour gradient differences between plant and atmosphere. The-
se factors are;

- Humidity
- Carbondioxide
- Wind
- Radioactivity
- Light

79
 Transport

Transpiration and cohesion theory

The theory was originally proposed by Dixon and Jolly (1894). Os-
motic pressure increaes both during water consumption in photosynthesis and
transpiration at the leaves. A force which pulls water upward is generated in
the upper portion of the plant. This force is 30 times greater then atmospheric
pressure. As a result, leaf cells are always active in drawing water to the top
of plant. Consequently, a water chain is formed between the roots and the le-
aves of plant. The links of this chain are interconnected by an attractive force,
known as cohesion. Thus, the water chain is coninous up through the plant
without any break. Water elevation is halted if air bubbles enter the vessels
and the chain is broken. Transpiration is a prominent factor in maintaining the
chain of water from the roots to the leaves. For example in atree, transmit water
molecules to a height if 100 meters or more. (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4
Demonstration of cohesion theory
of water translocation
a. Evaporation
b. Transpiration

Cohesion

Cohesion is the force which attracts like molecules such as water with
both (+) and (-) charges. The charges attract each other, maintaining cohesion.
(Figure 5.5)

Adhesion

Adhesion is the force which attracts unlike molecules such as water

and the walls of vessels in which it is contained. All of these forces; cohesion,
root pressure and capillarity are effective in the transport of water. Figure 5.5 The water molecules are
both positively and negatively char-
ged. Attraction between these mole-
cules generates a cohesive tension
between them.

81
 Transport

3. Types of Circulation

a. Coronary Circulation

The heart cells are supplied by the circulatory system, consisting of co-
ronary arteries, capillaries and veins. The aorta directs the oxygen and nutrient
containing blood to the coronary arteries.

The blood is then distributed to the capillaries where nutrients and oxy-
gen diffuse into the heart cells. Simultaneously, nitrogenous wastes and carbon
dioxide diffuse into the blood. The deoxygenated blood, together with the was-
te, is collected by coronary veins which enter the right atrium.
Angina pectoris is chest pain of-
ten, due in general to obstruction
Any disruption of cardiac circulation, such as a blood clot, may cause or spasm of the coronary arteries.
serious disorders. Blockage of the coronary artery in any case results in an in- The main cause of angina pectoris
farction, in which blood is prevented from flowing. is improper contractivity of the he-
art muscle and coronary artery di-
b. Pulmonary Circulation sease, due to atherosclerosis of the
arteries feeding the heart.
Pulmonary circulation of the blood occurs between the heart and the
lungs. It is initiated with the contraction of the right ventricle and the pumping
of deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery. Branches of the pulmonary
artery transport blood into both lungs. In the lungs, CO2 diffuses out of the
blood into the lungs, while oxygen diffuses in. The oxygen-rich blood is then
carried into the left atrium by the pulmonary veins.

c. Systemic Circulation

Systemic circulation occurs between the heart and all other parts of
the body (except the lungs) where materials and gases are exchanged. It begins
with the contraction of the left ventricle and the transport of oxygenated blood
to the tissues via the aorta. The aorta then branches into the main vessels which
carry blood into different parts of the body. The aorta descends and branches
into the diaphragm and down into the coelom (body cavity). Its branches supp-
ly nutrients to the liver, intestines and other parts of the body. Nutrients and
oxygen diffuse into the tissues while wastes and CO2 diffuse into the blood.
The deoxygenated blood is then transported by the superior and inferior vena
cava into the right atrium.

c. Hepatic Portal Circulation

Hepatic portal system consist of a group of veins which transfer the

absorbed from digestive system to the liver before reaching the inferior vena
cava.
The system extends from about the lower portion of the esophagus to the upper
part of the anal canal. Many drugs that are absorbed through the digestive tract
are substantially metabolized by the liver before reaching general circulation.
This is known as the first pass effect. Figure 5.17 Hepatic potal circulati-
on

89
 Transport

a. The structure of blood tissue

Plasma constitutes 55% of the blood, of which 90-92 % is water, 7-9%

plasma proteins, and the remaining 1% is amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids,
hormones, urea, uric acid, lactic acid, enzymes, alcohol, antibodies, sodium,
potassium, calcium, chloride, phosphate, magnesium, copper, iron, bicarbona-
te, iodine and other trace elements.

Blood cells are classified as erythrocytes (red blood cells), leucocytes

(white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets).

1. Erythrocytes

Erythrocytes are 8 mm in length and 2 mm thick. There are approxi-

mately 5 to 5.5 million per mm3 in the average male, and 4 to 4.5 million per
mm3 in the average female.

Mammalian erythrocytes are unique since they have no nucleus. Matu-

re erythrocytes in mammals lack a nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and
endoplasmic reticulum. They transport oxygen and carbondioxide in the body.
In the fetus, erythrocytes are produced by the liver and the spleen. They are
also produced in the red bone marrow of the skeletal system, in the ribs and
sternum. From the fifth month of development until the end of life, production
occurs mostly in the marrow of the long bones.

2. Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

Leucocytes are nucleated, spherical, white cells. They are also referred
to white blood cells due to their color. Leucocytes may be found in both
blood and interstitial fluid. They can also cross the capillary walls in interstitial
fluid. There are three main types of leucocytes and all of them are produced
both in red bone marrow and in lymph nodes. There are two types of leukoc-
ytes according to presence of granules in their cytoplasm.

1. Granulocytes

Granulocytes are formed in red bone marrow. They are phagocytotic

cells. They have segmented nuclei and granules within their cytoplasm they

have three types.

a- Neutrophils
b- Eosinophils
c- Basophils

2. Agranulocytes

The nucleus of an agranulocyte lacks lobes and is partly spherical in

shape. It also differs from a granulocyte by its ability to divide. Most agranulo- Figure 5.21 Typical white blood
cytes, lymphocytes and monocytes are produced in the bone marrow, the spleen cells
and thymus.

91
 Chapter 5

d. The Spleen

The spleen is an organ of the immune system and is located directly

beneath the diaphragm in the upper-left section of the abdominal cavity. It is
approximately 200g in weight.

The spleen is involved in:

- degradation of old and dead erythrocytes.

- storage of blood as a reserve in the event of any shortage.
- production of lymphocytes active in the defense of the body. Both the spleen
and liver work cooperatively in production.
- production of fetal blood until birth. It is then produced by red bone marrow.

The functions of the spleen can be performed by other organs if the

spleen has to be removed from the body due to injury. Therefore its role is not
vital.

Figure 5. 22 Spleen is a lymphatic

organ

92
 Transport

Review
Question 1. Read each sentence carefully and write if it is true or false?

1. Transport system distributes water, ions and other materials necessary for body parts.
2. In diffusion, materials transport from high concentration to low concentration.
3. Transportation of water to the top of plant is provided by transpiration and root pressure only.
4. There are three kinds of animals according to their body cavities: coelomata, Acoelomata and pseudocoelomata.
5. Most of blood cells are formed in bone marrow.
6. Grasshopper and earthworm have open circulatory system.
7. Unicellular organisms do not have a complete transport system.
8. Both spleen and liver work cooperatively in production of lymphocytes.
9. The endocardium, the innermost layer of the heart, is composed of a single layer of epithelial cells.
10. Acoelomates lack a fluid-filled body cavity between the body wall and digestive tract.

Question 2. Fill in the blanks.

1. The heart cells are supplied by the circulatory system, consisting of ..........., .................. and ......................
2. In animals transport system performs two vital roles; ................. and ..............................
3. Transportation in paramecium is provided through plasma membrane by two methods; .............. and ..................
4. Reptiles have a circulatory system with a .......... chambered heart.
5. There are three different kinds of granulocytes; ....................., ................... and ..................... .
6. ........................................ is another way in which gases are exchanged in amphibia.
7. The ....................................... reinforces the movement of water from the soil to the root hairs.
8. ............ is the force which attracts unlike molecules such as water and the walls of vessels in which it is contained.
9. Transportation in plants provided by three impotant activities ................, ............... and ................ .
10. Systemic circulation occurs between the .............................. and all other parts of the body

Question 3. Explain the following scientific facts:

1. Blood color in grasshopper is greeen.

2. Snake like animals are called as poikilothermic.
3. The endocardium is gelanitous structure.
4. Some animals are called as acoelomate.
5. Thymus gland swell during some inflamations.

Question 4. Define the following terms:

Adhesion, Cohesion, Coelom, Pericardium, Lymphatic node, Root pressure, Lymph, Artria.

93
 Nervous Coordinations and Sensations

2. Sensation in Paramecium

Paramecium gives responece responses to the external stimuli in a high Add to your knowledge
speed. Paramecium can not survive under the direct sunlight due to the ultravi-
olet light of sun. It does not respose to the light since it has no photoreceptor
or do photosynthesis.
Sense organs receive changes in
Paranmecium gives positive or negative response to the solid particles environment. And animals adapt
(stimuli). themselves to environment by this
It gives (+) response if stimuli is food and and give (-) if stimuli is not food. way.

Paramecium give (+) or (-) response to the chemical stimuli. It gives

(+) response if stimuli is food or gives (-) response if stimuli is a harmful che-
mical material.

The optimum temperature is 24 - 28 oC for paramecium. It moves away

from the condition randomly until reach a suitable environment.

3. Sensation in Amoeba

It can identify the harmful or useful stimuli by responses to the envi-

ronmental changes. It gives (+) response to the dim light but gives (-) response
to the bright light.Amoeba gives (-) response to most of materials except food.

Sensation in Plants

Plants do not have a nervous system or sense organs. Coordination

between body parts is provided by physical and chemical methods. Plant cells
detect stimuli at a certain level. And this stimuli is transmitted to the other cells
at different ratios. Generally plant cells transmit stimuli at low levels.

Plants can detect different changes like; light, gravity, mechanical chan-
ges and chemical changes. Plants give response to these changes by tropism
which has different forms like phototropism and geotropism. These respon-
ces varies according to type of plant.

Plants mostly detect chemical changes and give response by different

tropism types as above. For example plants secrete a hormone called as cytoki-
nin which stimulate growth and cell division. Coordination between cytokinin
and auxin hormones provide differentiation in different parts of plants.

Abscisic acid is another plant hormone which provide dormancy in

buds and seeds. It has role in closing of stomata, decreasing transpiration and
prevent water loss in dry conditions.

99
 Chapter 6

Figure 6.2 Opening and closing

of stomata by act of Abscisic
acid.

Ethylene has bad effects on plant physiology. In the past, farmerst war-
mth the orange to culture the un ripe fruits. But after they found that the re-
ason of culturing is ethylen gas which released from the petrolium they use in
heating but not heat. Ethylene have role in falling of leaves for plants.

Figure 6.3 Ethylene produced by the ripening of apple causes the abseission of
the leaves af the holy twig on right. On the left, where no source of ethylene
was present, the holy retins it leaves

100
 Nervous Coordinations and Sensations

a. Central Nervous System

Central nervous system consist of brain and spinal cord in vertebretes.

Brain is located at the front and consist of three parts.

1. Forebrain

It divided into two parts as telencephalon and diencephalon.

Telencephalon is the centre of sense of smell. Hemispheres are invol-

ved in movement coordination and sensations. They also have role in control-
ling mental activities.

Diencephalon consist of thalamus and hypothalamus. Both of these

parts are control center of involuntary activities.

2. Midbrain

There are two vision lobes at the posterior and it is vision center in all verteb-
rates.

3. Hindbrain

Hindbrain consist of metencphalon (cerebellum and pons) and me-

dulla oblangata. Cerebellum provide coordination between voluntary muscles
to provide body balance. Medulla oblangata is the control centre of respiration
and circulation.

b. Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system consist of cranial and spinal nerves. Num-

ber of cranial nerves varies according to kind of organism; fish and amphibia
have 10 pairs of cranial nerves but other vertabrates have 12 pairs of cranial
nerves. Mammalian have 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

c. Autonomic Nervous System

It controls the involuntary body activities and consist of non-myelina-

ted neurons.

It divided into two parts;

- Sympathetic Nervous System

- Parasympathetic Nervous System

Most of internal organs like heart and blood vessels contain perform
involuntary movements. Sympathetic nervous system accelerate function of
some organs while parasympathetic deaccelarate function of these organs. For
example sympathetic nervous system accelerate heart beats rate while parasympat-
hetic system deaccelerate heart beats rate.

107
 Chapter 6

f. Sense of Sight

The structure of an animal’s eye is determined by the environment in

which it lives, and the behavioural tasks it must fulfill to survive. Arthropods
differ widely in the habitats in which they live, as well as their visual require-
ments for finding food or conspecifics, and avoiding predators.

Some jellyfish, sea stars, and flatworms bear the simplest eyes, pig-
ment spot ocelli, which have pigment distributed randomly and which have no
additional structures such as a cornea and lens.

Ocelli in dragonfly Spiders do not have compound eyes, but instead have several pairs of
simple eyes with each pair adapted for a specific task or tasks. The principal and
secondary eyes in spiders are arranged in four or more pairs. The light-sensitive
part of the receptor cells is next to this, so they get direct and reflected light. In
hunting or jumping spiders, for example, a forward-facing pair possesses the
best resolution to see the (often small) prey at a large distance. Night-hunting
spiders’ eyes are very sensitive in low light levels.

The human eye is an organ that reacts to light and has several purposes.
As a conscious sense organ, the mammalian eye allows vision. Rod and cone
cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including co-
lor differentiation and the perception of depth. The human eye can distinguish
about 10 million colors.

Simple eyes in spider

Figure 6.19 Eye structure in human

112
 Nervous Coordinations and Sensations

Review
Question 1. Read each sentence carefully and write if it is true or false?

1. Nervous system coordinates and regulates body functions.

2. Paramecium gives only (+) responces to chemical stimuli.
3. Ethylene have role in falling of leaves for plants.
4. The impulse is generated if the voltage reaches a certain critical point, known as the threshold level.
5. Planaria has a ladder-like nerve system.
6. Midbrain divided into two parts as telencephalon and diencephalon.
7. Ant produces pheromones to paralyze the prey and to mark its path.
8. Sense of taste contains chemoreceptors.
9. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior
of the receiving individual.
10. Spiders do not have compound eyes, but instead have several pairs of simple eyes.

Question 2. Answer the following?

1. Explain the sensation in amoeba.

2. Write the types of nerves with their function.
3. Explain the lateral line system in fish.
4. Draw the structure of human ear and name the parts.
5. Explain the sense of hearing in grasshopper.

Question 3. Define the following terms.

Pheromones, Neuron, Taste bud, Eustachian tube, Receptor,
Statocyst, Eye spot, Propioreceptor, Polarization, Depolarization,

113
 Chapter 6

Question 4. Compare between the followings.

1. Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

2. Sensation in amoeba and Paramecium.
3. Dendrite and Axon.
4. Ear in grasshopper and in vertebrates.

Question 5. Label the missing parts in the pictures below.

1.

3.

114
 Glands & Hormones

b. Cytokinins

This group of hormones is produced in the embryo and the roots and
are transported upward in the xylem vessels of adult plants. In an adult plant,
growth and seed production is regulated by cytokinins. They play an important
role in the prevention of decay in picked fruits and are involved in dormancy,
the condition in which all metabolic activities of a plant are greatly reduced as
a response to environmental conditions.

Cytokinins stimulate cell division, or cytokinesis, and influence the

path of differentiation by stimulating RNA and protein synthesis. The produc-
tion of proteins could be the cause of cytokinins’ ability to trigger cell division.

The most common cytokinin found in plants, Zeatin, is produced in

actively growing tissues, in particular, roots, embryos, and fruits. Cytokinins Figure 7.2 Cytokinins have two
can also slow down the aging of some plant organs by stimulating RNA and functions, they are involved in the
protein synthesis, and by mobilizing nutrients from surrounding tissues. repair of damaged tissue and also
in the differentiation of meriste-
matic cells.
c. Gibberellins

Gibberellins stimulate growth in the leaves and stem. They are produ-
ced in roots and young leaves. In stems, gibberellins stimulate cell elongation
and cell division, as well as bolting. The plant will begin the process of
bolting during the non-flowering stage, when some plants develop low to
the ground with short internodes. A surge of gibberellins causes reproductive
growth and induces the stem to elongate rapidly. They stimulate the growth of
cereal seedlings by stimulating the synthesis of digestive enzymes that mobili-
ze stored nutrients.

Gibberellin injected into plants requires sunlight and low temperatures

for germination and flowering. Additionally, gibberellins are responsible for
germination, flowering and growth of seedless fruit of long-day plants.

d. Abscisic Acid (ABA)

Abscidic acid (ABA) is produced in the terminal bud, and helps pre-
pare the plant for winter and the onset of seed dormancy. The ratio of ABA to
the gibberellin concentration determines whether the seed will remain dormant
or germinate. ABA also acts as a “stress” hormone, helping the plant cope with
adverse conditions. ABA will accumulate in leaves and cause the stomata to
close, reducing transpiration and preventing further water loss.

High concentration of ABA has the following effects;

- it reduces the rate of cell division in meristematic tissues

Figure 7.3 Effect on giberellins
- it initiates the formation of a bud scar from the seed leaves. on cabbage plant. Plant on right
hormonized only.

119
 Chapter 7

The bud scar protects the meristematic tissues against low temperatu-
res and drought during the long winter season. The presence of abscisic acid is
important for the protection of the seed in the soil during the winter. In spring,
the concentration of ABA decreases and the concentration of gibberellin incre-
ases, resulting in germination. This proves that ABA is an inhibitor of embryo
and bud growth.

e. Ethylene

Maturation of fruit and the life span of the plant are both determined
by ethylene. Its production is directly related to the concentration of auxin. If
the amount of auxin is in excess, ethylene production is stimulated in order
to suppress the effects of auxin by inhibiting growth. Fluctuations in auxin
concentration stimulate the secretion of ethylene which then activates some
Figure 7.4 Abscisic acid pro- enzymes in order to;
motes the formation of bud scars
which protect the meristematic - convert starch and acids to sugar molecules
tissue against adverse conditions. - degrade pectin or the cell wall to soften fruit.

Ethylene secreted during fruit development affects the ethylene secretion of

other plants. Thus, all plants in the field develop together.

Figure 7.5 The function of ethy-

lene in the maturation of fruit.
Ethylene inhibits ripening of fruit
and is used by agricultural expor-
ters to prevent spoiling of harves-
ted fruit.

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c. Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is located at the front of the neck, directly beneath
the voice box. The thyroid gland is found in all vertebrates, and in humans it
weighs approximately 25 g. In mammals, the thyroid gland is composed of two
lobes. It has the highest capillary content as compared to all the other endocrine
glands.

If the thyroid gland is removed from a young individual, body growth

is arrested and the rate of metabolism decreases and this may even result in
death.

These effects are less serious in adults. When thyroxine is given to

adults, the effects of its deficiency disappear. When the thyroid gland secre-
tes less hormone than normal in adult humans, the normal body temperature
decreases by two degrees. In addition, the body accumulates lipids and obesity
results, as does acne and loss of hair. The patient’s face also swells and there is
bagginess under the eyes. These conditions are symptoms of the disease myxo-
dema (hypothyroidism in adulthood). Figure 7.8 Hyperthyroidism

If the thyroid fails to develp properly in childhood, a condition called

cretinism results. Individuals with this condition are short and stocky. Thy-
roxin therapy can initiate growth, but unless treatment is begun within the first
two months, mental retardation results.

On the other hand, if the thyroid produces too much of the thyroid
hormones, a person may feel as though the “engine is racing”, with such sy-
mptoms as a rapid heartbeat, nervousness, weight loss, and protrusion of the
eyes. This condition is known as hyperthyroidism.

When the diet lacks iodine, not enough iodine will be available, the
thyroid gland cannot produce its hormones, and the thyroid swells. This condi-
tion is called goiter. Regular consumption of fish, particularly saltwater fish,
will provide adequate amounts of iodine. Another rich source of iodine is gar-
lic. It is found in lesser amounts in lemon, onion and radish. In addition, garlic
cleanses the intestines, strengthens the bones and helps to prevent infection.
Figure 7. 9 Simple goiter usually
The synthesis and release of thyroxine from the thyroid gland is regu-
occurs when iodine is insufficient
lated by TSH secreted from the anterior lobe of the pituitary.
in the diet.
d. Parathyroid Gland

It comprises four distinct areas of tissue embedded in the thyroid gland.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) produced in these glands regulates the amount of
calcium and phosphate in the blood. It causes the blood phosphate (HPO4) level
to decrease and the blood calcium (Ca++) level to increase. The exact amount
of calcium is necessary for the normal functioning of muscles, heart, skeleton
and nerves, and is regulated hormonally by the thyroid and parathyroid, which
transfer calcium between the bones and the blood.

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e. Pancreas

This gland produces and secretes two well-known hormones: insulin

and glucagon.

Insulin decreases blood glucose concentrations by either causing cells

to use it as an energy source or change it to glycogen, a much less soluble form
of carbohydrate, and storing it in the liver and muscle cells, to be used later. A
lack of insulin is known to cause diabetes mellitus. There are two main types
of this disorder.

Glucagon, a second hormone secreted by the islets of Langerhans,

enables the concentration of blood sugar to increase by increasing the rate of
glycogen catabolism in the liver. When the blood glucose level is low, gluca-
Figure 7. 10 Structure of pancreas gon triggers the liver to convert glycogen to glucose. As the concentration of
glucose increases, glucagon secretion is reduced. The presence of insulin acts
as an inhibitor.

f. Adrenal Glands

The human body has two adrenal glands, each positioned on top of a
kidney. Each one is approximately 12 g in weight and is characterized by its
rich capillary network. The adrenal glands have a more extensive capillary
network as compared to other organs of the body. In adults, the adrenal glands
have fibrillar contact with the kidneys and, if a kidney is removed, its neighbo-
ring adrenal gland remains unaffected.

The adrenal glands are composed of two distinct regions. The outer,
lightyellow region is known as the adrenal cortex, and the inner dark-brown
region is known as the adrenal medulla.

The adrenal cortex constitutes the most important part of the gland,
since it is the site of hormone secretion. These hormones are known as cortico-
ids, and are steroidal in structure.

The adrenal medulla is different from most other endocrine tissue in

that its cells are derived from cells of the peripherial nervous system and are
specialized to secrete hormones. Hormones of the adrenal medulla are epi-
Figure 7.11 Adrenal glands nephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). These hormones
respond to stress. They are involved in the immediate response to stress. If a
person continues to be highly stressed over a long time, the result can even be
death.

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Review
Question 1. Read each sentence carefully and write if it is true or false?

1. The synthesis and release of thyroxine from the thyroid gland is regulated by TSH secreted from the anterior lobe
of the pituitary.
2. Gibberellin injected into plants requires sunlight and low temperatures for germination and flowering.
3. The thymus produces a variety of hormones to promote development of red blood cells.
4. Hormonal regulation is seen only in plants and nervous regulation seen only in animals.
5. Glucagon desreases the sugar level in blood.
6. Maturation of fruit and the life span of the plant are both determined by ethylene.
7. Giberellins affects cell division and differentiation at various regions in the seed.
8. Thyroid hormone (PTH) regulates the amount of calcium and phosphate in the blood.
9. RF (releasing factor), secreted by neurosecretory cells of the pitutary gland, stimulates hormonal secretion by the
hypothalamus.

Question 2. Answer the following questions

1. What are the effects of giberellin hormone on plants?

2. Explain the effects of auxin hormone.
3. What is the usage of ethylene hormone?
4. Why hormones effect only some specific parts of body?
5. What are the ways of hormon regulation?
6. What are the effects of thyroid gland?
7. What are the hormones produced by pancreas and their function?
8. What are the functios of hypothalamus?
9. Explain the types of human hormones according to their structure.

Question 3. Explain the following scientific fact.

1. In diabetes, blood sugar cannot be controlled.

2. The adrenal cortex is most important part of adrenal glands.
3. When thyroid gland cannot do its function, it swells.
4. Generally human hormones have no effects on plants.
5. Some persons suffer from hyperthyroidism.

Question 4. Define the following terms.

Hyperthyroidism, Cretinism, Releasing factor, Adrenaline, Hormone, Gland

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