Natural Resources: Meaning, Types and Characteristics

(Unit-II)
Dr. Salma Sultana

Meaning of Natural Resource

Natural resources are derived from the environment. Every man-made product in an economy is
composed of natural resources to some degree. The long-term viability of the food supply
depends upon the sustainable use of natural resources. Resource economists study interactions
between economic and natural systems with the goal of developing a sustainable and efficient
economy. Resource economists provide science-based information to deal with natural resource
management based on economic management principle.

Natural resource economics deals with the supply, demand and allocation of the earth natural
resource. The field of Natural Resource Economics seeks to value natural resources to aid in the
optimization of the production of goods and services from agricultural lands while protecting the
environment. Main objective of natural resource economics is to better understand the role of
natural resources in the economy in order to develop more sustainable methods of managing
those resources to ensure their availability to future generations. In other words, the goal of
natural resource economics is to develop an efficient economy that is sustainable in the long-run.
Natural resource economics also demonstrates how policy incentives might motivate better
choices by agriculture producers and makes predictions about the potential side effects of those
choices.

Meaning of Natural Resource

In simple words, natural resources are natural assets (raw materials) occurring in nature that can be used
for economic production or consumption. Natural resources can also be defined as the resources that exist
naturally on the earth planet independent of human actions for its generation or production. It refers to any
source of wealth that occurs naturally, such as land, water, soil, plant, animals and minerals, especially,
fossil fuels, coal, etc. They are the natural capital out of which other forms of capital are made. These are
the resources that are found in the environment and are developed without the intervention of humans.
They are known as Natural Resources because they provide for the basis of life on earth.
Types of Natural Resources

There are numerous ways to classify the types of natural resources which are discussed as
below:

A) In terms of the source of origin, natural resources can be divided into the followingtypes:

1. Biotic: The Biotic natural resources are the ones that come from the organic and living
materials. These include resources such as animals, forests (vegetation), and other
materials obtainable from them. Fossil fuels such as petroleum, oil, and coal are also
included in this grouping because they are generated from decayed organic matter.
2. Abiotic: The abiotic natural resources are the ones that come from non-organic and non-
living materials. Examples of abiotic natural resources are water, land, air and heavy
metals like iron, copper, silver, gold, and so on.

B) Natural resources can also be categorized based on their stage of development:

1. Potential resources: Potential resources are those natural resources which are already
easily available but humans are yet to discover their real power. For example, solar and wind
energy are two natural resources, which have a high potential for human life. Though we are using
it, we can use these even more in the future once we understand their true potential. Similarly, if a
country has petroleum in sedimentary rocks, it is a potential resource until it is actually drilled out
of the rock and put to use.
2. Actual resources: Actual resources also known as developed resources are those resources
which humans have discovered and developed over a long time. They have already been surveyed,
their quantity and quality has also been determined and are currently being used. Most of the water,
fossil fuel, minerals, plants and animals that we use for our need today, are actual resources. The
development of actual resources is dependent on technology.
3. Reserve resources: Reserve resources are those actual resources which we are not
extracting them at present in spite of technological availability. They are stored to meet world’s
future requirements. Storing of water in dam to meet energy requirement such as generating
electricity in future is an example of reserve resources.
4. Stock resources: Stock resources are those resources for which presently there is no
technology to extract them. These are resources that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due a
lack of technology. For example, Water consists of Hydrogen and Oxygen which are inflammable
but we do not know the technology to extract energy from these elements.
C) Natural resource is also classified based on their renewability:
1. Renewable natural resources: Those resources that are available in infinite quantity and
can be used repeatedly are called renewable resources also alternative called as inexhaustible
resources. These are resources that can be replenished. Examples of renewable resources include
sunlight, air, and wind. They are available continuously and their quantity is not noticeably
affected by human consumption. However, renewable resources do not have a rapid recovery
rate and are susceptible to depletion if they are overused.
2. Non-renewable natural resources: Those resources that are limited in abundance due to
their non-renewable nature and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-
renewable resources also alternative called as exhaustible resources. These resources form
extremely slow and do not naturally form in the environment. A resource is considered to be
non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of recovery. Examples of non-
renewable natural resources are minerals and fossil fuels.

The ecological footprint measures human demand on nature, i.e., the quantity of nature it takes to
support people or an economy. The global hectare (gha) is a measurement unit forthe ecological
footprint of people or activities and the biocapacity of the earth or its regions. One global hectare is
the world's annual amount of biological production for human use and human waste assimilation,
per hectare of biologically productive land and fisheries.

Forest Resources
A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other woody
vegetation usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means ‘outside’.
India’s Forest Cover is 6,76,000 sq.km (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists estimate that India
should ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have about 12% thus we need
not only to protect our existing forests but also to increase our forest cover.
Functions of Forest

1. It performs very important function both to human and to nature.

2. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wild life.
3. They recycle rain water.
4. They remove pollutant from air.
5. They control water quality.
 6. They moderate temperature and weather.
7. They influence soil condition and prevent soil erosion.

Uses of Forest

1. Commercial uses
2. Ecological uses

1. Commercial uses:

1. Wood – used as a fuel

2. Supply wood for various industries – Raw materials as pulp, paper, furnituretimber etc.
3. Minor forest products – gum, dyes, resins
4. Many plants – Medicines
5. Supply variety of animal products – honey. Ivory, horns etc.
6. Many forest lands are used for - Mining, grazing, for dams and recreation.

2. Ecological uses: Forest provides number of environmental services.

a. Production of oxygen: Photosynthesis produces large amount of oxygen which is
essential for life.
b. Reducing global warming: Carbon dioxide is one of the main greenhouse gas. It is
absorbed by plants for photosynthesis. Therefore the problem of global warming caused by
CO2 is reduced.
c. Soil conservation: Roots of trees bind the soil tightly and prevent soil erosion. They also
act as wind breaks.
d. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watershed in forest act like giant

e. Sponges and slowly release the water for recharge of spring.

f. Pollution moderators: Forest can absorb many toxic gases and noises andhelp in
preventing air and noise pollution.
g. Wild life habitat: Forest is the home of millions of wild animals and plants.

Reason for Deficiency of Forest:

In India the minimum area of forest required to maintain good ecological balance is about 33% of
total area. But at present it is only about 12%. So over exploitation of forest material occurs.
Over Exploitation of Forest:
Due to over population, there is an increased demand for medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. Hence
exploitation of forest materials is going on increasing.
Cause of over exploitation:

1. Increasing agricultural production.

2. Increasing agricultural activities.
3. Increase in demand of wood resources.

Deforestation: It is process of removal of forest resources due to naturalor manmade activities

(i.e.) destruction of forests.
Causes of Deforestation:

1. Developmental projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation throughtwo ways.

 Through submergence of forest area.
 Destruction of forest area.

 Ex: big dams, hydroelectric projects, road construction etc.

2. Mining operations: It reduces forest areas. Ex: Mica, coal, Manganese and lime stone.
3. Fuel requirement: Wood is the important fuel for rural and tribal population.
4. Shifting cultivation: Replacement of natural forest ecosystem for mono specifictree
plantation. Ex: Teak
5. Forest fires: Forest fire destructs thousands of acres of forest.
6. Over grazing: Over grazing by cattle reduces the cultivation land

Consequences of Deforestation (or) Impacts of Deforestation:

1. Economic loss
2. Loss of biodiversity
3. Destructs the habitats of various species
4. Reduction in stream flow
5. Increases the rate of global warming
6. Disruption of weather patterns and global climate
7. Degradation of soil and acceleration of the rate of soil erosion.
8. Induces and accelerates mass movement / landslides.
 9. Increases flood frequency, magnitude severity.
10. 10.Breaks the water cycle.
11. Breaks the nutrient cycle

Preventive Measures (or) Avoid of Deforestation (or)Methods of Conservation of

Forests
a) New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the trees cut
down for timber
b) Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.
c) Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aero planes
d) Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques.
e) Over grazing by cattle must be controlled.
f) Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of people into the
islands from mainland.
g) Education and awareness programs must be conducted.
h) Strict implementation of law of Forest conservation Act.

Case Study:

Deforestation in the Himalayan region, involves clearing of natural forests and plantation of
monoculture like Eucalyptus. Nutrient in the soil is poor; therefore soil losing their fertility,
hence, Himalayan area facing the serious problem of desertification.

Major Activities in Forests

Timber Extraction

Wood used for engineering purposes like building houses, making furniture is called timber. The
products derived from timber have been important to many civilizations, and thus it has acquired
value within these civilizations. Timber extraction results in deforestation and in the
fragmentation of the last remaining forests. It harms valuable species of trees, birds and wild
animals. In spite of this, it is sometimes necessary to extract timber, so as to meet the needs of a
developing country. During the extraction of timber, cutting, felling and handling should be done
selectively, carefully and in a planned manner, in order to save the remaining forests and
biodiversity.
Effects of Timber Extraction

The major effects of timber extraction on forest and tribal people include:

1 Poor logging results in a degraded forest.

2 Floods may be intensified by cutting of trees or upstream watersheds.
3 Loss of biodiversity.
4 Climatic changes such as less rain.
5 New logging roads permit shifting cultivators to gain access to logged areas and cut
the remaining trees.
6 It results in forest fragmentation which promotes loss of biodiversity because some
species of plants and animals require large continuous areas of similar habitat to
survive.
7 Exploitation of tribal people by the contractors.
8 Soil erosion especially on slopes occurs extensively.
9 Sedimentation of irrigation systems, floods may be intensified by cutting oftrees
on upstream.
Case Study-Chipko Movement
The world famous Chipko Movement, pioneered by Dasohli Gram Swarajya Mandal in
Gopeshwar brought about a general awareness about conservation of forests. The first Chipko
Movement dates back to 1731, when a village woman named Amrita Bai led the Bishnoi women
against the Maharajas men to prevent them from cutting trees. In this attempt to save the trees,
she sacrificed her life along with the lives of her husband, three daughters and 363 people. The
movement was given this name because the village women embraced or hugged the trees to stop
them from being cut. In 1972, in Uttar Pradesh, the Chipko Movement was led by Bachnoi Devi
of Advani who protected the hill forests from the contractors axe men.

Dams

Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role in
communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic development.
Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. Hydropower,
another important the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of the world’s total electric
power supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s two most populous countries –
China and India –have built around 57% of the world’s large dams.
Dams problems
Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the rivers to store water for much
beneficial purpose. “Dams are considered a “Temples of modern India”. Dams destruct
vast area of forest area. India has more than 1600 large dams.

Effects of dams on forest:

1. Thousands of hectares of forest will be cleared.

2. Killing of wild animals and destruction of aquatic life.
3. Spreading of water borne diseases.
4. Water logging increases the salinity of the soil.

Ex: Narmadha Sagar project it has submerged 3.5 lakhs hectares of forest.

Effects of dam on tribal people

1. Construction of big dams leads to the displacement of tribal people.

2. Displacement and cultural change affects the tribal people both mentally and physically.
3. They do not accommodate the modern food habits and life style.
4. Tribal people are ill-treated by the modern society.
5. Many of the displaced people were not recognized and resettled or compensated.
6. Body condition of tribal people will not suit with new areas and hence they will be
affected by many diseases.

Case study- Sardar Sarovar Project:

The World Bank’s withdrawal from the Sardar Sarovar Project in India in 1993 was a result of
the demands of local people threatened with the loss of their livelihoods and homes in the
submergence area. This dam in Gujarat on the Narmada has displaced thousands of tribal folk,
whose lives and livelihoods were linked to the river, the forests and their agricultural lands.
While they and the fishermen at the estuary have lost their homeland, rich farmers downstream
will get water for agriculture. The question is why should the local tribals be made homeless,
displaced and relocated to benefit other people? Why should the less fortunate be made to bear
the costs of development for better off farmers? It is a question of social and economic equity as
well as the enormous environmental losses, including loss of the biological diversity of the
inundated forests in the Narmada valley.
Mining

The process of extracting mineral resources and fossil fuels like coal fromthe earth is called
as mining.
Types of mining

1. Surface mining: Mining of minerals from shallow deposits

2. Underground mining: Mining of minerals from deep deposits

Steps involved in mining

1. Exploration
2. Development
3. Exploitation
4. Ore processing
5. Extraction and purification of minerals

The extent of damage by underground mining is more than that of surface mining, which
needs enormous amount of land area for its operation and management.

Effects of mining

1. Pollute soil, water and air.

2. Destruction of natural habitat.
3. Continuous removal of minerals leads to the formation of trench where water islogged
which contaminates the ground water.
4. Vibrations cause earth quakes.
5. Produces noise pollution
6. Reduces shape and size of the forest.
7. Increased risk of landslides.
8. Spoils the aesthetic beauty.
Water Resources

Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country is for
irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic
consumption.

Uses

1 Is essential for all forms of life.

2 Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and
environmental activities. Virtually, all of these human uses require fresh water.
3 No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in our body drops by 1%
we feel thirst, if it drops by 10% we face death.

Sources of Water Resources

Surface water Ground water

Distribution of Water:
Ocean: 97%
Ice/Glacier_ 2%
Ground water-0.75%
Lakes/River/Ponds- 0.25%

Surface Water: Surface water is water on the earth surface which includes river, lakes, ponds etc.

Ground Water
The water which gets collected under the surface of the land is known as ground water or the water
found below the water table is known as ground water.

Aquifer: Layers of highly permeable rock that can store water is called an aquifer. Layerof sand
and gravels are good aquifers. Clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers.
Problem associated with water resources:
There are several problem associated with water resources, including:
  Water scarcity
 Ground water depletion
 Flood
 Drought
 Water pollution

Water Scarcity:
Water scarcity or shortage of water happens when communities can’t fulfill their water needs.
Causes of water scarcity:
 Large and growing population leads to the greater demands for water and unequal
access to it.
 Traditional irrigation techniques results in lot of water loss and evaporation.
 Irregular rainfall patterns affect the recharge of rivers and ground water.
 Large amount of water is used for generating hydropower that leads to shortage of
water.
 Rapid urbanization and industrialization leads to increased pollution of water bodies,
making them unfit for consumption.
 Natural calamities such as droughts and floods, which can destroy clean water
sources for communities.
 Deforestation leads to less rainfall and disturbance in water cycle process as a result
water scarcity.
 Irrigation is one of the primary causes of falling ground water level, may have a
negative impact on people’s water supply.
Effect of Water scarcity:
 Water scarcity reduces agricultural productivity, which can lead to the food
insecurity.
 Water scarcity can affect industrial production; reduce energy generation, so the
cost of industrial product is increased.
 Lack of access to safe drinking water lead to various disease like cholera,
dehydration diarrhea etc.
 Water scarcity threatens wildlife and natural resources.
Decrease of ground water:

 Increased usage decreases the ground water.

 Insufficient rain fall
 Building construction activities sealing the permeability of the soil.
Ground subsidence: If ground water withdrawal is greater than its recharge rate, then the
sediments in the aquifers get compacted. As a result shrinkage of land surface takes place.
Problems:
a. Structural damages to the buildings

b. Fracture in pipes.
c. Reversing the flow of canals.

Lowering of water table:

Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi-aridregions for agriculture disturbs the state
of equilibrium of the hydrological cycle.
Problem:
a. lowering of water table

b. Decrease the number of aquifers

c. Change the speed and direction of water.

1. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area over exploitation of ground water leads to the
intrusion of salt water from sea. Therefore that water cannot be used for drinking and
agriculture.
2. Over utilization of water causes earth quakes, landslides and famines.
3. Drying up of wells: Due to over utilization, ground water level decreases much faster
than can be regenerated. It leads to drying up of dug well and bore wells.
4. Pollution of water: Near the agricultural land ground water decreases therefore water
containing nitrogen enters into the ground and pollutes the ground water.
Problem: Water which contains excess nitrate content is not suitable for drinking.

Reasons for Decline of Ground Water

Population continues to rise at an unprecedented and unsustainable rate; many more areas are
expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.
1. Population explosion: World population is 6 billion and will continue to increase
 significantly during the next few decades - Enormous demands on the world’s limited
freshwater supply. The total annual freshwater withdrawals today are estimated at 3800 cubic
kilometers, twice as much as just 50 years ago (World Commission on Dams, 2000).
2. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater: Occurs at various levels. Use of more water
than really needed by human beings. Many agriculturists use more water than necessary to
grow crops. Industries in order to maximize short-term economic gains, does not bother its
liquid waste and releases it into streams, rivers and the sea.
3. Deforestation: Once hill slopes are removed of forest cover, the rainwater rushes down the
rivers and is lost. Forest cover permits water to be held in the area permitting it to seep into
the ground. This charges the underground stores of water in natural aquifers. This can be used
in drought years if the stores have been filled during a good monsoon. This soil and water
management and afforestation are long-term measures that reduce the impact of droughts.
The destruction of forests influences the regulation of natural water cycle. The removal of
dense and uniform cover over the hilly zones leads to occurrence of floods in drainage
basins. Nations situated in tropical climates including India experience disastrous floods
caused by the indiscriminate deforestation of the slopes above the valleys.
4. Hydropower generation: Large amount of water is used for generating power which
otherwise used for human needs.
5. Dams - for Agriculture and Power Generation
6. Rain fall: The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage in subsurface
reservoirs. The building construction activities are sealing the permeable zone, reducing the
area for percolation of rainwater into subsurface and increase in surface runoff.
7. India’s increasing demand for water for intensive irrigated agriculture, for generating
electricity, and for consumption in urban and industrial centers, has been met by creating
large dams. Dams support 30 to 40% of this area.

Flood

It is an over flow of water. It happens when the magnitude of flow of water exceeds thecarrying
capacity of the channel within its bank.
Causes of Flood

1. Heavy rainfall,
2. Melting of snow
 3. Sudden release of water from dams. (Flash floods)
4. Reduction in the carrying capacity of the channel.
5. Deforestation, mining and over grazing increase the runoff from rains and the level
offlood raises.

Effect of Flood

1. Water spreads in the surrounding area and submerges them.

2. Cultivated land gets affected.
3. Extinction of civilization
4. Loss of life and properties.
5. Flooding can cause soil and bank erosion.
6. Flooding can increase the risk of landslide.
7. Flooding can contaminate water. Leading to health risk.

Flood Management

1. Floods can be controlled by dams.

2. Channel management control flood.
3. Flood hazards reduced by forecasting or flood warning.
4. Flood may also be reduced by reduction of run off by increasing infiltration through
appropriate afforestation in the catchment area.

Drought

Drought is nothing but scarcity of water, which occurs due to

1. Inadequate rain fall

2. Late arrival of rain fall
3. Excessive withdrawal of ground water.
4. Climate change
5. Rapid urbanization and encroachment on water bodies and wetlands can contribute to drought.
6 When annual rain fall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought is created.
7 High population.
8 Intensive cropping pattern
Ex: Maharashtra: There has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due to over exploitation of water
by sugarcane crop.

Effects of Drought

1. Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water an also changes the
quality of water.
2. Drought causes widespread crop failure leading to acute shortage of food and
adversely affects human and livestock population.
3. Worst situation of drought causes desertification.
4. Raw materials of agro based industries are critically affected during drought time,
hence industrial and commercial growth decreases.
5. Drought increases the degradation of natural resources.
6. Drought causes large migration of people and urbanization.

Drought Management

1. Indigenous knowledge is essential.

2. Rain water harvesting system.
3. Construction of reservoirs to improve ground water level.
4. Modern irrigation technology (drip irrigation) very useful to conserve water.
5. Afforestation activities also improve the potential of water in the drought area.
6. Crop mixing and dry forming are the suitable methods which minimize the risk of crop
failures in dry area.

Dams

Dams made significant contributions to human development and the benefits derived from them
have been considerable. Large dams are designed to control floods and to help the drought prone
areas, with supply of water. But large dams have proved to Cause severe environmental
damage. Hence an attempt has been made to construct small dams. Multiple small dams have less
impact on the environment.
Benefits: Dams ensure a year round supply of water for domestic use and provide extra
water for agriculture, industries and hydropower generation.
Problems: They alter river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as wetlands
and flood plains, and destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild plant and animal
species, particularly is the case with mega dams.

Some of the problems are mentioned below.

 Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of farmland and forest and land
submergence
 Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reduces
agricultural productivity
 Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species and
ecosystems, deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture
 Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement of tribal
people.
 Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers
 Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property andlivelihood
 Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribal
people
 Dislodging animal populations
 Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities
 Emission of greenhouse gases due to rotting of vegetation
 Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological hazards due
to large-scale impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone diseases.

Sustainable Water Management

Sustainable water management is the practice of using water in a way that ensures there is enough
water for present and future generation.

 Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects

 Developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands
 Treating and recycling municipal waste water for agricultural use.
 Preventing leakages form dams and canals and loss in municipal pipes
 Effective rainwater harvesting in urban environments
 Water conservation measures in agriculture, such as using drip irrigation, control of growing
water intensive cash crops ; control of water logging.
 Pricing water at its real value makes people use it more responsibility and efficiently and
reduces wastage
 In deforested areas where land has been degraded, appropriate soil management practices,
making bunds along the hill-slopes and making nalla plugs can help retain moisture and make
it possible to revegetate degraded areas
 Use waste water for activities that does not need fresh water – Recycling
 Adopt mini water harvesting models for domestic usage.
 Protect existing tanks
 Develop systematic water management and adopt strict water auditing
 “Save water Campaigns” for public awareness on water scarcity
 Through rainwater harvesting, community based participatory initiatives and holistic
watershed management.
 Responsible water usage can only be achieved by empowering local communities and
creating local accountability.
 The government should develop policies that protect water resources, promote sustainable
watershed management and invest in technologies that will increase efficiency in irrigation,
industrial usage and improve water harvesting techniques.

Water Conflicts

Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water led to interstate and internationaldisputes.
National conflicts:

a) Sharing of cauvery water between Karnataka , Kerala and TamilNadu.

b) Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andrapradesh
c) Siruvani – TamilNadu and Kerala.
d) Narmada water disputes between Gujrat, M.P, Maharashtra and Rajasthan,
e) International conflicts: Indus – India and Pakistan & Colorado river – Mexico and USA
Mineral Resources
Naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with uniform chemical composition are
called as minerals.
Types of Minerals

Metallic Non-Metallic Energy/Mineral fuel

Example: Iron, Tin, Example: Limestone, Example: Coal,
Copper, Gold, Mica, Gypsum, Petroleum, Natural Gas
Aluminum, Nickel etc.
Dolomite, Salt

Ferrous Non-Ferrous
Iron ore, Manganese, Gold, Copper, Silver,
Nickel, and Chromium Tin, Zinc

Metallic mineral Non-Metallic mineral

 Metallic minerals are made up of one or  Non- metallic mineral do not contain
more metals any metals
 They are good conductor of heat and  They are bad conductor of heat and
electricity electricity

Use of Mineral:
 Development of industrial plants and machinery.
 Generation of energy by coal, uranium and fossil fuels
 Construction and housing settlement, i.e limestone and clay are used to make cement and cement is
the fundamental component for concrete. Granite and Marble are popular for their use in flooring.
 Communication, telephone, wires, cables, and electronic devices, i.e Lithium is vital for battery
production; copper is widely used for electrical wiring due to its excellent conductivity properties.
 Agricultural purposes: Minerals play a significant role in agriculture by r4enhancing productivity
and soil health, i.e Phosphate, potash etc. are used for enhancing soil fertility.
 Transportation: Transportation industry largely depends on minerals for both construction and
operation of vehicles. i.e aluminum is widely used in automobile industry.
 Gold, silver, diamond and platinum are used in jewelry industry.
 Medicinal Purposes: Iron used for the treatment of iron deficiency, calcium is used for healthy
bones and teeth

Environmental Damages Caused By Mining Activities

1. Devegetation/ Deforestation:

a. Topsoil and vegetation get removed

b. Deforestation leads to several ecological losses
c. Land scape gets badly affected
2. Ground water contamination: Mining pollutes ground water; sulphur is converted into
sulphuric acid which enters into the soil.
3. Surface water pollution: Radioactive wastes and other acidic impurities affect the
surface water, which kills many aquatic animals.
4. Air pollution: Smelting and roasting are done to purify the metal which emits air
pollutants and damage the nearby vegetation. It causes many health problems.
5. Subsidence of land: Mainly underground mining results in cracks in houses, tilting of
buildings and bending of rail tracks.

Effects of Over Exploitation of Minerals and Mineral Extraction:

Mineral extraction is the process of removing minerals from the earth’s crust to make a profit. The
extraction of mineral and over exploitation of mineral resources can have several impacts on the
environment and society, these are:

1. Rapid depletion of mineral deposits

2. Wastage
3. Environmental pollution
4. Needs heavy energy requirements.
5. Health hazard
6. Landslide
7. Water scarcity
Management of Mineral Resources

1. The efficient use and protection of mineral resources.

2. Modernization of mining industries
3. Search for new deposit
4. Reuse and recycling of the metals.
5. Environmental impacts can be minimized by adopting eco-friendly miningtechnology.

Case Studies-Mining and Quarrying in Udaipur

200 open cast mining and quarrying in Udaipur. But 100 mines are illegal. 150 tons of explosives
are used per month. It pollutes air, soil and water. It affects irrigation and wildlife.
Energy Resources
Energy (term by Thomas Young in 1807) has been described as the capacity to do work. Today,
energy is an essential input for the all economic development and improvement of quality of
life. Matter that stores energy is called a fuel. Energy resources are all forms of fuels used in
the modern world, that can produce heat, power life, move objects, generate electrical energy,
or for other forms of energy conversion processes. Energy resources can be roughly classified
in two categories:

Energy Resource

Non-Renewable
Renewable Sources
Sources
(Non- Conventional
(Conventional Sources)
Sources)

1. Non-Renewable Sources: sources of energy are only available in limited amounts and
develop over a longer period of time. These are also known as “dirty” or “Conventional
Source” because they can endanger the environment or human health and which are being
traditionally used for many decades. These resources are found in specific parts of the
world, making them more plentiful in some nations than others. The generation of energy
from these resources is relatively less expensive. Examples: Coal, Petroleum, Natural
Gases, Oil, Nuclear Energy etc.
Disadvantages:
 Highly polluting.
 Available only in few places.
 High running cost.
 Limited supply and will one day get exhausted.·
2. Renewable Sources: energy available in unlimited amount in nature since these can be
renewed over relatively short period of time. These are also known as “clean” or “Non-
conventional” Source because they have very limited environment impacts and which are
considered for large scale use after oil crisis of 1973. These resources are found in every
country like every country has access to sunshine and wind.
In present time, the generation of renewable energy is often more expensive but the cost of
renewable energy is now falling so fast that it should be a consistently cheaper source of
electricity generation than traditional fossil fuels in coming years. Examples: Solar energy,
Wind energy, Hydro power, Ocean thermal energy, Tidal or Wave energy, geothermal energy
etc.
The Government has set a target of installing 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by the year
2022 which includes 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from Biomass and 5 GW
from Small Hydro. Total installed RE capacity according to MNRE, to 86.32 GW as of
January 31, 2020. Wind leads with
37.61 GW, Solar power at 34.03 GW, with Bio-Power at 10 GW and small hydro at 4.68GW.
Though due to the misuse, these resources are not present in the pure form as they are and
therefore resources such as water, sunlight, should be used with care and focus should be on
managing the quantity as well as the quality of it, so our future generation can also use them.

Disadvantages:

 Unreasonable supply.
 Usually produced in small quantities.
 Often very difficult to store.
 Currently per unit cost of energy is more compared to other types.
3. Alternate Emerging Energy Sources: Alternative energy is energy that does not comes
from fossil fuels and thus produces little to no greenhouse gases. This means that energy
produced from alternative sources does not contribute to the greenhouse effect that causes
climate change. These energy sources are referred to as “alternative” because they
represent the alternative to coal, oil, and natural gas, which have been the most common
sources of energy since the Industrial Revolution. Alternative energy, however, should
not be confused with renewable energy, although many renewable energy sources can
also be considered alternative. Solar power, for example, is both renewable and
alternative because it will always be abundant and it emits no greenhouse gases. Nuclear
power, however, is alternative but not renewable, since it uses uranium, a finite resource.
Examples: energy from waste, Hydrogen energy, Fuel cells, Alcohol as energy source,
Energy plantation etc.

Benefits of Alternative Energy Sources:

 Alternative energy is considered a reliable source of energy because the technological
 development in recent years allowed these clean energy sources to enter more and more
into the global energy.
 Alternative energy is good for the environment that produces very low emissions or zero emission.

 Alternative energy represents a renewable energy source that never runs out.
 Alternative energy sources are the solution to getting energy independence for every
household. It enables the poor to stretch their period of economic activity and their
children can help them in daily chores and then study in the evenings.
 Lower dependency on fuel wood and other household fuel sources reduces the drudgery
of women by eliminating the distances they travel for fuel collection.
 Reduce or eliminate health problems associated with using conventional cook stoves,
including respiratory diseases and eye problems.
 Alternative energy sources can provide local employment opportunities through direct use
of energy in small-scale industry and agriculture, through construction, repair, and
maintenance of energy devices, or through the sale of energy to local utilities.

 Alternative energy represents a renewable energy source that never runs out.
 Alternative energy sources are the solution to getting energy independence for every
household. It enables the poor to stretch their period of economic activity and their
children can help them in daily chores and then study in the evenings.
 Lower dependency on fuel wood and other household fuel sources reduces the drudgery
of women by eliminating the distances they travel for fuel collection.
 Reduce or eliminate health problems associated with using conventional cook stoves,
including respiratory diseases and eye problems.
 Alternative energy sources can provide local employment opportunities through direct use
of energy in small-scale industry and agriculture, through construction, repair, and
maintenance of energy devices, or through the sale of energy to local utilities.

Geothermal Energy
The term geothermal comes from Greek word Geo means Earth and Thermos means Heat. Energy
which obtained from the earth’s core is known as geothermal energy. In earth’s core geothermal
energy continuously produce due to collision of tectonic plates and due to decay of radioactive
materials.
  Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth. To produce power
from geothermal energy, wells are dug a mile deep into underground reservoirs to access the
steam and hot water there, which can then be used to drive turbines connected to electricity
generators.
 There are four major types of geothermal energy resources: Hydrothermal, Geopressurised
brines, Hot dry rocks and Magma.
 According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), geothermal energy has
grown steadily from around 10GW worldwide in 2010 to 13.3GW in 2018.
 The world’s largest producer of geothermal energy is “The Geysers” in California (U.S.),
spread over 117 square kilometres and formed of 22 power plants, with an installed capacity
of over 1.5 GW.
 The GSI (Geological Survey of India) has identified 350 geothermal energy locations in the
country. The most promising of these is in Puga valley of Ladakh. The estimated potential
for geothermal energy in India is about 10000 MW.
 There are seven geothermal provinces in India: the Himalayas, Sohana, West coast, Cambay,
Son- Narmada-Tapi (SONATA), Godavari, and Mahanadi.
Advantage of geothermal energy
a) It is also a renewable source of energy.
b) Unlike solar cell, it works all day and night.
c) Low cost of maintenance.
d) Geothermal energy is advantageous over fossil fuel.
Disadvantage of geothermal energy
i) Underground hot water is necessary for geothermal energy.
ii) Installation cost is high.
iii) Production efficiency is lower.

Wind Energy
Moving air is called wind. The energy produced from the force of wind is called wind energy. For the
generation of wind energy, a wind speed should be more than 10 km/hr is suitable. Wind speed more
than 10km/hr are prevalent over the parts of the coastal region of Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar Island. Asia’s largest wind farm is located at
Lamba in Gujarat.
Ocean Energy
Tidal waves and sea waves are main sources of ocean energy. Ocean tides are generated due to
gravitational force of sun and moon which produce enormous amount of energy. The suitavble3 areas
for the generation of ocean energy are
1. The Gulf of Khambat
2. The Gulf of Kachh
3. The estuary of Hooghly

Biogas
It is formed by the bacterial degradation of biomass under anaerobic condition (airtight digesters).
Biogas mainly contains methane (50-70%), carbon dioxide and trace amount of water, sulfur and
hydrogen sulphide.
Biogas Generation
The biogas generated by anaerobic digestion of organic waste (animal waste, plant residue, crops) in
biogas plant, mainly involve three steps: hydrolysis, acid formation and gas production. Bio-gas is
mixture of metane, carbondioxide ad hydrogen sulphide.
Example of bio-fuel are Ethanol, Gasohol etc.
Biogas is uased for cooking, power generationetc.
U.P has the highest potential in biogas and leading producing states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, and
Karnataka.
Advantage of Biogas
i) Produce organic waste
ii) Burn without smoke
iii) Renewable
iv) Help to reduce waste.

Disadvantage of Biogas
i) Methane is health hazardous.
Not efficient like fossil fuel
Hydropower
1. Hydropower refers to the conversion of energy from flowing water into electricity.
Historically, one of the first uses of hydro power was for mechanical milling, such as
grinding grains. Today, modern hydro plants produce electricity using turbines and
generators. Hydropower technologies generate power by using a dam or diversion structure
to alter the natural flow of a river or other body of water.

2. In 1882, the world’s first hydroelectric power plant began operating along the Fox River in
the United States.
3. The oldest Hydropower power plant in India is in Darjeeling District in West Bengal. Its
installed capacity is 130KW and was commissioned in the year 1897.
4. The hydropower potential of India is around 1, 45,000 MW and at 60% load factor, it can
meet the demand of around 85, 000 MW. Around 26% of Hydropower potential has been
exploited in India.
5. Chamera - II HE Project (300 MW) in Distt. Chamba, HP. has been completed in a record
period is Four & Half years.
6. The world's Largest operating Hydro Electric Power Station is ITAIPU with installed
capacity of 12,600 MW. It is located at the Border of Brazil and Paraguay.

Advantages of Hydropower:
 Hydropower is fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source, meaning it won't pollute the air
like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas.
 Hydroelectric power is a domestic source of energy, allowing each state to produce their
own energy without being reliant on international fuel sources.
 Impoundment hydropower creates reservoirs that offer a variety of recreational
opportunities, notably fishing, swimming, and boating. Most water power installations are
required to provide some public access to the reservoir to allow the public to take
advantage of these opportunities.
 In addition to a sustainable fuel source, hydropower efforts produce a number of benefits,
such as flood control, irrigation, and water supply.
Drawbacks of Hydropower:
 To produce hydroelectric power, large areas of forest and agricultural lands are submerged.
 Silting of the reservoirs reduces the life of the hydroelectric power installations.
 Water is required for many other purposes besides power generation. These include
domestic requirements, growing agricultural crops and for industry. This gives rise to
conflicts.
 The use of rivers for navigation and fisheries becomes difficult once the water is dammed
for generation of electricity.
 Resettlement of displaced persons is a problem for which there is no ready solution.

Non-renewable source of energy:

Nonrenewable energy source also known as fossil fuels, that are formed from the remains of plants and
animals that died millions of years ago. Some example of fossil fuels or non-renewable energy sources
is coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.

Characteristics of non-renewable energy source:

 Finite in nature: Finite in nature, which can be destroyed in the process of use.
 Take a long time to form
 Not eco-friendly or can be harmful to the environment.
 Generate radioactive waste.

Coal
Coal is solid fossil fuel. On the basis of formation, coal is divided into four types including Peat,
lignite, bituminous and anthracite. Coal produces more than 60% of India’s electricity. Leading coal
producing states are Jharkhand, West Bengal and Orissa.

Petroleum
Petroleum is naturally occurring liquid found beneath the earth surface which is consists of
hydrocarbon. Important petroleum products are kerosene, diesel, gasoline, lubricant oil etc. Petroleum
and crude oil mainly obtained from sedimentary rocks of marine origin. Petrolem / crude oil producing
regions of India are:
 Bombay High
 Ankleswar in Gujarat coast
  Digboy in Assam

Natural Gas
Natural gas is the cleanest fossil fuels amongst all fossil fuels mainly consist of methane. Natural is
used to produce electricity also use3d in transportation sectors and for domestic purposes. Natural gas
producing regions are Bombay high, Gulf of Khambat, Godavari Krishna Basin.

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Energy or Atomic power: It is the energy which is trapped inside the atom. It is non–
renewable source of energy which is released during fission or fusion of certain radioactive elements.
The most important advantage of atomic power is the production of an enormous amount of energy
from a small quantity of radioactive element. India has 22 nuclear reactors in 7 nuclear power plants,
with a total installed capacity of 6,780 MW that Supplied 3.22% of Indian electricity. In India, the
foundation of Atomic energy program was laid down by Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha. He drew the
road map of the nuclear power program that has helped India in securing a place among the elite club
of nations that possess advance nuclear technology.
Operating Units in India Under construction units in India
Tarapur Atomic Power Station Units Kakrapar Atomic Power Project Unit-3&4
Madras Atomic Power Station Units Rajasthan Atomic Power Project Units-7&8
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station Units Gorakhpur Haryana Anu Vidhyut Pariyojna Units-
1&2
Narora Atomic Power Station Units Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project Unit-3&4
Kakrapar Atomic Station Units
Kaiga Generating Station Unit
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Station Unit

Growing Energy Needs

Power generation and energy consumption are crucial to economic development as economy of any
nation depends upon availability of energy resources. There are wide disparities in per capita energy
use of developed and developing nations. India is the third largest consumers of energy in the world
and country’s energy needs are growing due to its over population, economic growth and
industrialization.
According to Ministry of Power, energy consumption has more than doubled since 2000, and it is
expected to increase by 2.5 times by 2047. In 2023, India’s electricity demand rose by 7% and is
expected to grow by an average of 6% per year until 2026. The percentage of renewable energy
consumption was 2% in 2016 but it is predicted that it is increased by 20% by 2040. So to fulfill the
energy demand diversification of source of energy has been attempted
Biodiversity
Definition: The term bio-diversity was first used by Walter.G. Rosen in 1986. Biodiversity
refers to variety and variability among the living organisms and ecological complexes in which
occur. This includes diversity within species, between species and of the ecosystem. It is
defined as the totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region.
Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity or Biological diversity comprises Genetic diversity, Species diversity and
Ecosystem diversity (level of biodiversity)
Genetic diversity
It refers to the variation of genes within the species stores as immense amount of genetic
information. Genetic variation is seen among the individuals within a species. For instance, in
cattle there are many varieties with respect to colour, milk yield, size or disease resistance.
The genetic variation may be in alleles, entire genes or in chromosomal structures. It leads to
better adaptation of species to the changed environment. New species are formed due to genetic
variation.
Species Diversity
It refers to the various species found within a region. Variability found within a species or
between different species of a community. Species diversity is measured by species richness
(number of species per unit area) and evenness or equitability (evenness in the number of
individuals of a species).
In the case of species richness, higher species diversity represents greater species diversity. In
the second case, evenness of species represents higher species diversity.
Ecosystem diversity
 It defines the diversity observed among the ecosystems in a particular region. Different
ecosystems like mangroves, rainforests, deserts, etc., show a great variety of life forms residing
in them.
 All these diversities help in maintaining the correct balance of nature. But, gradually over the
years, there has been a major loss in the biodiversity across the globe. The loss of biodiversity
could adversely affect our environment as the balance is lost and the natural food web is
disturbed.
 The present diversity has developed over millions of years of evolution and therefore
ecological balance should not be disturbed. The diversity of the habitats over total
 landscape or geological area is referred to as Gamma diversity (or) Landscape diversity.
For example Forest ecosystem, aquatic ecosystem, Grasslands, Deserts, mangroves etc.
 Alpha diversity refers to the average species diversity in a habitat or specific area. Alpha
diversity is a local measure.
 Beta diversity refers to the ratio between local or alpha diversity and regional diversity.
This is the diversity of species between two habitats or regions. It is calculated by the
following equation:
 Gamma diversity is the total diversity of a landscape and is a combination of both alpha
and beta diversity.

Use of Biodiversity:

 Biodiversity is very essential for the health of biosphere and it provides the raw materials
for man in order to make him adapt to the changing environment.
 Man derives many direct and indirect benefits from the living things. Biodiversity
provides ecological services also. The uses of biodiversity are as follows.

Consumptive Use Value

 It includes food, medicine, fuel, fibre, timber, clothing, etc. 80,000 species are edible wild
plant species. 90% of the crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants. 75%
of the world population depends upon plants for medicines.
 For instance, penicillin from a fungus name Penicillium, quinine from a plant namely,
Cinchona, tetracycline from a bacterium and cancer-curing drugs like vinplastine and
vinchristine from a plant namely, Catharanthus roseus (Nithyakalyani) are obtained.

Productive Use Value

 The products are commercially usable

 The wild gene resources are traded to introduce desirable traits in the crops and
domesticated animals.
 Productive uses of biological resources are fuel, timber, musk, tusk, ivory, honey , fibre,
gums, resins, medicines, silk, wool etc.

Social Value

 Biodiversity in India is related to our religious, cultural and spiritual uses.

  Many plants like Tulsi, Pipal, Hibiscus and Datura are considered to be sacred.
 Peacock, cow, snake, bull and owl have a place in our spiritual areana.
Aesthetic Value

Biodiversity provides us a good deal for fun and recreation. This type of tourism is known as
ecotourism.
Biogeographic Zones of India

 Biogeographic classification of India is the division of India

according to biogeographic characteristics.
 Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and
ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.
 There are ten biogeographic zones in India.

1. Trans Himalayan zone.

2. Himalayan zone
3. Desert zone.
4. Semiarid zone.
5. Western ghat zone.
6. Deccan plateau zone.
7. Gangetic plain zone.
8. North east zone.
9. Coastal zone.
10.Islands present near the shore line.
Trans- Himalayan Region

 The Trans Himalayan regions of the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
are a moonscape land – an arid high altitude desert unlike any other part of the Indian
subcontinent.
 The stark landscape is a panorama of high snowcapped peaks and bare multi-hued hills
sculpted by the forces of nature. The high dusty valleys strewn with rock have altitudes
ranging from 2,500m to 4,500m. Wild ass, snow leopards are found here.

Himalayan Zone

 The Himalayas consist of the youngest and loftiest mountain chains in the world.
  The Himalayas have attained a unique personality owing to their high altitude, steep
gradient and rich temperate flora. The forests are very dense with extensive growth of
grass and evergreen tall trees. Oak, chestnut, conifer, ash, pine, deodar are abundant in
Himalayas.
 There is no vegetation above the snowline. Several interesting animals live in the
Himalayan ranges. Chief species include wild sheep, mountain goats, ibex, shrew, and
tapir. Panda and snow leopard are also found here.

Semi-Arid Areas

 Adjoining the desert are the semi-arid areas, a transitional zone between the desert and the
denser forests of the Western Ghats. The natural vegetation is thorn forest.
 This region is characterized by discontinuous vegetation cover with open areas of bare
soil and soil-water deficit throughout the year. Thorny shrubs, grasses and some
bamboos are present in some regions.
 A few species of xerophytic herbs and some ephemeral herbs are found in this semi-arid
tract. Birds, jackals, leopards, eagles, snakes, fox, buffaloes are found in this region.

Desert Regions

 This region consists of parts of Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and parts of Gujarat. The climate
is characterized by very hot and dry summer and cold winter. Rainfall is less than 70
cm.
 The plants are mostly xerophytic. Babul, Kikar, wild palm grows in areas of moderate
rainfall. Indian Bustard, a highly endangered bird is found here. Camels, wild asses,
foxes, and snakes are found in hot and arid sex positions.

Western Ghats

 The mountains along the west coast of peninsular India are the Western Ghats, which
constitute one of the unique biological regions of the world.
 The Western Ghats extend from the southern tip of the peninsula (8°N) northwards about
1600 km to the mouth of the river Tapti (21°N) including the states of Kerala,
Maharashtra and Goa.
 The mountains rise to average altitudes between 900 and 1500 m above sea level,
intercepting monsoon winds from the southwest and creating a rain shadow in the
 region to their East.

This region covered with dense evergreen forest which is home of large variety of animals
including Malabar giant squirrel, Nilgiri Tahr etc.
Deccan Plateau

 Beyond the Ghats is Deccan Plateau, a semi-arid region lying in the rain shadow of the
Western Ghats. This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India.
 The highlands of the plateau are covered with different types of forests, which provide a
large variety of forest products. Indian wolf one of the important animals found here.
 The Deccan plateau includes the region lying south of the Satpura range. It extends up to
the southern tip of peninsular India. Anaimudi is the highest peak of this region.
 The Deccan plateau is surrounded by the western and the Eastern Ghats. These Ghats
meet each other at the Nilgiri Hills.

Gangetic Plain

 In the North is the Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan foothills. This is the
largest unit of the Great Plain of India.
 Ganga is the main river after whose name this plain is named.
 The aggradational Great Plains cover about 72.4mha area with the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra forming the main drainage axes in the major portion.

Important trees found in this region are sal, teak. mahua, neem, and important animals are
elephant, buffalo etc.

North-East India

 North-east India is one of the richest flora regions in the country. It has several species of
orchids, bamboos, ferns and other plants.
 Here the wild relatives of cultivated plants such as banana, mango, citrus and pepper can
be grown here.

Important animals are rhinoceros, elephant, swamp deer etc.

Islands

 The two groups of islands, i.e., the Arabian Sea islands and Bay Islands differ
 significantly in origin and physical characteristics.
 The Arabian Sea Islands (Laccadive, Minicoy, etc.) are the foundered remnants of the old
land mass and subsequent coral formations.
 On the other hand, the Bay Islands lay only about 220 km. Away from the nearest point
on the main land mass and extend about 590 km.
 With a maximum width of 58 km the island forests of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea
have some of the best-preserved evergreen forests of India.
 Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with thick
forests and some are highly dissected.

Islands have wide variety of mangroves, evergreen and deciduous forest and important animals
including turtle, lobsters, crabs etc.

Coasts

 India has a coastline extending over 5,500 km.

 The Indian coasts vary in their characteristics and structures.
 The west coast is narrow except around the Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch. In the
extreme south, however, it is somewhat wider along the South Sahyadri.
 The backwaters are the characteristic features of this coast. The east coast plains, in
contrast are broader due to depositional activities of the east-flowing rivers owing to the
change in their base levels.

Coastal plains are covered by fertile a soil which is suitable for rice cultivation and important
animals including dolphins, marine turtle are found here.
India as a Mega Diversity Nation

 India, the largest democratic republic of the world, has the seventh largest area (328.73
million ha) and second largest human population (more than 1 billion).
 With about 2.5% of the world’s geographical and 1.8% of the forest area, the country at
present is supporting 16% of the world’s population and 18% of the domestic cattle
population, amounting to about 500 million.
 India is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of biodiversity. This natural
variation in life is also reflected in the demography of the land.
 Although the causes behind biodiversity and demographic diversity are different, the
 human population of the land has depended on the biodiversity in many ways for a long
time.
 At the same time, today, the excessive human population of India is leading to a survival
pressure on the biodiversity.
 Thus, it is important to know and appreciate the diversity in both - human population and
flora and fauna.
 India ratified the International Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) on 18 Feb. 1994 and
became Party to the Convention in May 1994.
 The CBD is an international legal instruments for promoting conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity taking into account the need to share cost and benefit between
developed and developing countries and ways and means to support innovation by local
people.

Endangered and Endemic Species of India

Endangered species of India
A plant, animal or microorganism that is in immediate risk of biological extinction is called
endangered species or threatened species. In India, 450 plant species have been identified as
endangered species. 100 mammals and 150 birds are estimated to be endangered.
India's biodiversity is threatened primarily due to:
1. Habitat destruction
2. Degradation and
3. Over exploitation of resources
Some of the rarest animals found in India are:
1. Asiatic cheetah
2. Asiatic Lion
3. Asiatic Wild Ass
4. Bengal Fox
5. Gaur
6. Indian Elephant
7. Indian Rhinocerous
8. Marbled Cat
9. Markhor
Endemic species of India
Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost 60%
the endemic species in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
Endemic species are mainly concentrated in:
1. North-East India
2. North-West Himalayas
3. Western Ghats and
4. Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Examples of endemic Flora species are
1. SapriaHimalayana
2. Ovaria Lurida
3. Nepenthiskhasianaetc

Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:

1. Lion tailed macaque
2. Nilgiri langur
3. Brown palm civet and
4. Nilgiri Tahr
Factors affecting endemic species:
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.
2. Pollution also plays an important role.

Biodiversity Hotspot
Biodiversity hotspot is region that is rich in biodiversity but threatened by human activities.
There are four major biodiversity hotspots in India:

1. The Himalayas
2. Indo-Burma Region
3. The western Ghat
4. Sundaland.
5. Himalayas

The Himalayan biodiversity hotspot encompasses the eastern, central, and western Himalayan
 regions, including parts of Nepal, Bhutan, China, Pakistan and several Indian states such
as Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. This hotspot is
renowned for its unparalleled biological diversity and unique ecosystems shaped by the
towering Himalayan mountain range.
Rich Landscape
The Himalayas offer a remarkable range of habitats due to the dramatic change in altitude.
From the foothills with subtropical broadleaf forests to the permanent snow cover at higher
elevations, the region transitions through temperate forests, coniferous forests, alpine
meadows, and barren, rocky terrain.
Rich Flora and Fauna
The variation in landscapes fosters a rich tapestry of plant and animal life. Estimates suggest
over 10,000 plant species with a staggering 3,160 being endemic. It is home to iconic wildlife
such as the snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, red panda, Kashmiri Stag, and musk deer.
Endemic Species
The Himalayas harbor numerous species found nowhere else on Earth, known as endemics.
These include various species of plants, birds, and mammals uniquely adapted to the
challenging mountain environment.
Ecological Importance
The Himalayan ecosystem plays a crucial role in regulating regional climate patterns, providing
freshwater resources to millions of people living downstream, and supporting agriculture,
tourism, and livelihoods in the region.
Threats and Challenges
The Himalayan biodiversity hotspot faces various threats, including habitat loss and its
fragmentation, climate change and global warming, poaching, invasion of alien species,
and unsustainable development activities such as infrastructure projects and deforestation.
Conservation efforts are essential to safeguarding the region's biodiversity and promoting
sustainable development practices.
Efforts to conserve
The Himalayan biodiversity hotspot involve protected area management, community-based
conservation initiatives, research and monitoring programs, sustainable tourism practices, and
international collaborations among countries sharing the Himalayan landscape. The Himalayas
are a vital ecological treasure trove. International cooperation and continued conservation
efforts are crucial to ensure the survival of this unique biodiversity hotspot for generations to
come.

Indo-BurmaRegion
The Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot stretches across Southeast Asia, encompassing parts
of India, Myanmar, Thailand, China, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. In India, the hotspot
covers states such as Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Tripura, and parts of West Bengal. Key features of the Indo-Burma biodiversity
hotspot in India include:

Rich Ecosystems
The Indian portion of the Indo-Burma hotspot boasts a remarkable variety of habitats such
as Tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous and bamboo forests, grasslands
and wetlands.

Rich Flora and Fauna

The region is characterized by its lush tropical forests, diverse ecosystems, and high levels of
endemism. Estimates suggest over 5,000 flowering plant species, with a high percentage being
endemic. It is home to a staggering array of plant and animal species, including iconic
mammals like the Asian elephant, Bengal tiger, Indian One-Horned rhinoceros, and
clouded leopard.

Endemic Species
The Indo-Burma hotspot harbours numerous species found nowhere else on Earth. These
include various plants, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects adapted to the unique
environmental conditions of the region.

Endemic freshwater turtles

It has the highest number of critically endangered freshwater turtle species in the world.
These turtles face threats from habitat loss and overharvesting for food and the pet trade.

Threats and Conservation Challenges

The biodiversity of the Indo-Burma region faces significant threats from habitat loss,
fragmentation, illegal logging, poaching, infrastructure development, and climate
change. Rapid urbanization, agricultural expansion, and hydropower projects pose additional
pressures on the region's ecosystems.

Conservation Efforts
Conservation efforts in the Indo-Burma hotspot focus on establishing protected areas,
promoting sustainable land-use practices, community-based conservation initiatives, species
monitoring, and trans boundary collaboration among neighbouring countries.

National parks and wildlife sanctuaries like Kaziranga National Park (famous for rhinos)
and Manas National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) offer safe havens for wildlife.

Organization like the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) and various governmental and non-
governmental organizations play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation in the region.

Western Ghats
The Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot is a globally recognized region located along the
western coast of India, stretching approximately 1,600 kilometers from Gujarat in the north
to Kerala in the south. Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Western Ghats is
renowned for its rich biodiversity and unique ecosystems. Key features of the Western Ghats
biodiversity hotspot include:

 Diverse Landscapes: The Western Ghats boast a remarkable variety of habitats packed
into a relatively narrow strip of land. This variation is due to several factors:
 Elevation: The altitude ranges from near sea level to over 2,500 meters, creating a
gradient from tropical lowlands to cool montane ecosystems.
 Rainfall: The Western Ghats receive high rainfall due to the southwest monsoon, leading
to lush evergreen forests on the western slopes. Rain shadows on the eastern slopes
result in drier forests and Deccan plateaus.
 High Levels of Endemism: The region is home to an extraordinary diversity of plant and
animal species, Over 50% of the tree species are found nowhere else on Earth. The
Western Ghats harbor thousands of plant species, including rare and endangered species
such as the lion-tailed macaque, Malabar giant squirrel, and Nilgiri tahr.
 Amphibian Haven: The Western Ghats are a global hotspot for amphibians, with over
 179 species, a staggering 65% of which are endemic. From brightly colored frogs like
the Malabar gliding frog to voiceless caecilians, these amphibians play a vital role in
the ecosystem.
 Reptile Paradise: Snakes, lizards, and turtles add to the reptilian diversity. The
endangered Malabar pit viper, with its unique heat-sensing pits, is a fascinating
example.
 Ecological Importance: The Western Ghats serve as a vital hotspot of biological
diversity, supporting a variety of habitats ranging from tropical wet evergreen forests
and montane grasslands to freshwater ecosystems and coastal mangroves. These
ecosystems provide essential ecosystem services such as water regulation, soil
conservation, and carbon sequestration.
 Threats and Conservation Challenges: Despite its ecological significance, the Western
Ghats face numerous threats, including habitat loss due to deforestation, agricultural
expansion, urbanization, mining activities, and infrastructure
development. Fragmentation of habitat, invasive species, poaching, and climate change
further exacerbate the conservation challenges in the region.
 Conservation Efforts: Conservation initiatives in the Western Ghats focus on
establishing protected areas, promoting sustainable land-use practices, restoring
degraded habitats, and fostering community-based conservation efforts.
 Protected areas: National parks and wildlife sanctuaries like Eravikulam National
Park (famous for Nilgiri tahr) and Silent Valley National Park (a haven for
evergreen forests) provide vital refuges for wildlife.

Sundaland
The Sundaland biodiversity hotspot is a vast region encompassing Southeast Asia, including
parts of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula, and technically spilling over
into India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands. While the majority of the hotspot falls outside
India's borders, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands share some ecological similarities and
contribute to Sundaland's biodiversity. With focus on India's Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, the Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot has:

 Island Ecosystem: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are an archipelago in the Bay of
Bengal, separated from mainland India by over 1,200 kilometers. This isolation has
fostered unique ecological features.
  Tropical Rainforests: These islands boast lush evergreen rainforests, a characteristic
habitat of the Sundaland hotspot. The dense canopy provides a haven for a variety of
plant and animal life.
 Mangrove Forests: The coastlines are fringed with mangrove forests, crucial ecosystems
for marine life and providing a buffer against cyclones and tsunamis.
 Flora and Fauna: The region is filled with endemic species.
 This includes various plant species, such as the Andaman bulletwood (Mangifera
andamanica) and Andaman satinwood (Chloroxylon andamanicum).
 The Andaman wild pig, the Andaman shrew, and the Rutland Island blind snake are some
examples of mammals restricted to these islands.
 Several bird species like the Andaman scops owl, the Andaman cuckoo, and the rufous-
bellied hawk-eagle are island endemics.
 Threats and Challenges: Despite their conservation importance, the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands face various threats, including habitat loss, deforestation, illegal
logging, poaching, overfishing, pollution, and climate change.
 Conservation Efforts: Conservation efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands include
habitat protection, species conservation programs, scientific research, environmental
education, and community participation.
 Protected Areas: Several wildlife sanctuaries and national parks like the Mahatma
Gandhi Marine National Park (protecting coral reefs) and the Great Nicobar
Biosphere Reserve offer sanctuaries for wildlife.

Threats to Biodiversity
Threats to biodiversity are the factors that can cause the reduction of species. Main threats to
biodiversity are:
1. Habitat loss and deforestation: The dramatic alteration of habitats directly threatens
biodiversity. When such habitats are lost due to deforestation and other anthropogenic
activities such as mining, the respective environments are unable to provide shelter, food,
water, or breeding grounds for the living organisms.
2. Climate Change: The global climatic changes throughout the history of the plant have
definitely modified life and ecosystems in the planet. As an outcome, crucial habitats
have been destroyed and a number of species have gone extinct with a huge majority at
the verge of extinction. It therefore means that if the global temperatures continue to
change drastically, especially due to anthropogenic activities that accelerate the process,
the threats to biodiversity will continue to expand as ecosystems and species will not be
able to adapt.
3. Over Exploitation of Resources: On the account of the ever rising human population,
there has been a correlation increase in demand for manufactured products, essential
goods and services.
4. The high demands of these things have resulted in overfishing, overhunting,
overharvesting and excessive mineral resource extraction which has highly contributed to
biodiversity loss.
5. Mineral extraction, poaching, excessive logging and other forms of resource
exploitation for profit has heightened the risks of species extinction. It has also altered
natural habits therefore destroying food chains and interfering with the ecological
balance.
6. Nutrient Loading: As the agricultural sector continue to expand and serve towards
attaining the world’s food security, it has also more than doubled dependence on the use
of fertilizers on a profitable scale.
7. Accordingly, the use of fertilizers beyond limits has contributed to increased level of
nitrogen and phosphorous nutrients in the natural ecosystems.
8. As much as the nutrients exists naturally in all ecosystems, the manufacturing of
artificial fertilizer with reactive nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients to increase crop
productivity has altered the ecological balance over time thereby threatening the survival
of ecosystems.
9. Particularly, the survivals of species that flourish in phosphorous or nitrogen-poor
environments are increasingly threatened.
10. Furthermore, leaches and entry into water systems have resulted in increased
eutrophication.
11. Environmental Pollution: Pollution has continued to harm the biosphere by
releasing and depositing toxic chemicals into the atmospheric, terrestrial and marine
systems.
12. With the high levels of pollution every year, it is gradually disrupting the
Earth’s ecosystems as the chemicals released potentially influences species’ habits and
ecosystems.
 13. Pollution has also depleted ozone levels, created dead zones in marine habitats due to
toxicity and acid rains, altered species feeding and breading habits, and even caused the
death of many species due to oil spills or the consumption of plastic and other toxic
substances.
14. Invasive Species: Invasive species are the non-native species that invade normal and
healthy ecosystems and threaten the survival of the native species either by attacking
them or competing for the habitat’s resources.
15. Accordingly, they upset the native biota and ecosystems thereby causing extinctions
and massive threats to biodiversity.
16. Man Animal Conflict: It refers to the interaction between wild animals and people
and the resultant negative impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their
habitat.
17. It occurs when wildlife needs overlap with those of human populations, creating costs
to residents and wild animals.
18. Poaching of Wildlife: Poaching of wildlife for trade and commercial activities has
been on the rise for the last many decades. It has been a significant cause of the extinction
of hundreds of species and the endangerment of many more, such as whales and many
African large mammal, Asian tigers, etc.
19. Most extinction over the past several hundred years is mainly due to overharvesting
for food, fashion, and profit.
20. Illicit trade in wildlife in current times is driving many species of wild animals and
plants to extinction.
21. Elephants are poached for ivory; tigers and leopards for their skin; pangolins for meat
and scales; and rare timber are targeted for hardwood furniture.

Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation of Biodiversity is the protection and upliftment of the living organisms for
sustainable benefits.

 We all need to conserve biodiversity, as it leads to the conservation of essential ecological

diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains.
 In-situ and Ex-situ conservation are the two strategies practiced for the preservation of a
variety of living species globally.
In-situ Conservation

 In-situ conservation is the on-site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations

of plant or animal species.
 In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected as
biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected forests and
nature reserves.
 India now has 18 biosphere reserves, 104 national parks and 500 wildlife sanctuaries.
 Plantation, cultivation, grazing, felling trees, hunting and poaching are prohibited in
biosphere
 Reserves, National Parks and Sanctuaries.
 Protected Area Network in India
 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for
policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country.
 The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the

people’s participation and their support for wildlife conservation.

Ex-situ Conservation

 In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat
and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
 Zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks and seed banks serve this
purpose.
 There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be
maintained in zoological parks.
 In recent years ex-situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species.
 Now gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for
long periods using cryopreservation techniques.
Food Resource
Food is essential for growth and development of living organisms. Main components are
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and minerals. These essential materials are called nutrients and
these nutrients are available from variety of animals and plants.
Sources of Food: There are three major sources of food:

1. Croplands,
2. Rangelands and
3. Fisheries.

Croplands: The land is used to grow crops, such as cereals, oil seeds and livestock. Croplands
contribute around 76% of the world’s food.
Rangelands: The land primarily covered by grasses, shrubs and grass-like plants that are
suitable for grazing. Rangeland produces 17% world’s food from trees and grazing animals for
example fruits, milk and meat.
Fisheries: Fisheries provides fish which are major source of animal protein in the earth.
Fisheries contribute 7% world’s food.

World food problem: World food problem refers to the challenges that the world faces in
producing and distributing enough food to meet the needs of the global population. These
problems includes
Declining Soil Fertility: Soil fertility is declining due to over-use, intensive farming practices,
monocroping pattern. This reduces the productivity of agricultural land can cause the food
shortage.
Food Waste: A significant amount of food is wasted each year, contributing to the problem of
hunger and malnutrition.
Climate change: Climate change causing extreme weather events such as floods and drought
that destroy agricultural production that can cause crop failure and food shortage.
Population growth: Large and growing population increasing the demand for food that can
cause unequal distribution of food and shortage of fopod.
Poverty and lack of purchasing power also contributing hunger malnutrition.

Types of nutrition
To maintain the god health and diseases resistance, we need large amount of carbohydrate,
protein, fats, vitamins etc.
Under nutrition
People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs suffer from under
nutrition. They receive less than 90% minimum calorie. Under nutrition person have less
energy for doing any kind of work. They are susceptible to disease, their body become week.
Malnutrition
Lack of essential nutrients like protein, vitamins, minerals etc. Marasmus is the severe
malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency. It is caused by lack of protein and calories.
Anemia is the lack of iron.
Over nutrition
Over nutrition is a form of malnutrition arising from excessive intake of nutrients.

Changes Caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing

There are two types of agricultural system:

 Traditional agricultural system

 Modern agricultural system

Traditional farming: Labour intensive farming characterized by low productivity. Traditional

farming uses traditional tools and techniques. It is also known as small scale farming. This
method of farming is environment friendly.
Modern Agriculture: Modern farming also known as industrial farming. Modern farming
focuses on large scale production for global market. Modern farming uses modern tools and
technologies.

Effect of Modern agriculture:

 Declining soil fertility: Monocroping pattern and excessive use of chemical

fertilizers and pesticides can reduce soil fertility.
 Water shortage: Modern agriculture uses large amount of water from rivers and
ground water which can lead to water shortage.
 Water pollution: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture
can cause water pollution.
 Health risk: Exposure to pesticides can pose significant health risk including
 cancer, blue baby syndrome due to nitrate pollution.
 Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorous in the crop fields washed out by runoff
water in the water bodies which increase the nourishment of the lakes/ponds/rivers
are called eutrophication.
 Water logging: It occurs when the soil becomes saturated with water due to poor
drainage, over irrigation etc. Water logging can reduce the crop yield.

 Salinity: Salinity can cause when the soil become too salty, which is cause due to
poor drainage, over irrigation, that reduces the soil fertility.

Over grazing
Overgrazing is the process of eating vegetation by cattle without giving enough time to
regenerate.
Effect of Overgrazing:

 Deforestation: Removing the vegetation cover that can cause deforestation

 Soil erosion and soil degradation
 Reduce soil moisture
 Desertification
 Loss of biodiversity