IRRIGATION

AND
DRAINAGE
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil.
It is used to assist in the:
- growing of agricultural crops
- maintenance of landscapes
- revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas
- during periods of inadequate rainfall

It is practiced in;-
1. Dry areas
2. During dry period
3. Growing of paddy rice
Types of irrigation
1. Total irrigation-This is where the Water requirement of plant is supplied by the grower
throughout the growing session up to harvest. It is practiced where there is no rainfall at all.
2. Supplementary irrigation-The grower supplements water requirement to crops. It is applicable
to areas where rainfall is not equal to zero e.g. semi arid areas where rainfall is
poorly distributed and inadequate.

Reason for irrigation

1. To settle the Landless people e.g. Bura irrigation scheme, Pekera irrigation scheme.
2. To meet food requirement in view of increasing population. To alleviate economy of the
individual i.e. increase the living standards of people due to income and food security.

Benefits of irrigation
1. Increase food production.
2. Ensure maximum utilization of water i.e. it is possible to obtain maximum yields with an amount
of water.
3. Elimination of mixed cropping farmers adopt mixed cropping when weather conditions are not
favourable so that if one crop fails they harvest the other hence with irrigation the problem of
unfavourable weather conditions are solved.
4. General prosperity- Revenue returns are sometimes quite high and help in all round
development of the country and the prosperity of the nation and the community.
 5. Cheaper power generation e.g. hydro electric power can be generated from projects primal
designed for irrigation alone e.g. canal falls can be used for power generation as a by product.
6. Domestic water supply-Some irrigation helps on regimenting the town water supply where
water is available with great difficult. It provides water for swimming, bathing, and domestic
use.
7. Facility of communication-Irrigation channels are generally provided with big embankment and
inspection roads. This inspection roads provide a good road way for the villagers for walking,
cycling.
8. Inland navigation-Sometimes larger irrigation canals can be used and developed for
navigation purposes.
9. Settle the landless people-It is a method of land reclamation.
10. A forestation-Tree is generally generating growth along the banks of the channels which increase
the timber wealth of the country and help in reducing the soil erosion.
11. Climatic control-By controlling high temperatures.

12. It can be used to apply fertilizers e.g. in drip irrigation where the fertilizers are mixed with
irrigation Water (fertilization)
13. Employment
Effects/Problems of irrigation
1. Pollution of underground water-Agro chemical dissolving in irrigation.
2. Irrigation results to cold and dumps localized climate which may cause outbreak of water borne
diseases.
3. Accumulation of salts on the soil after the water has evaporated.
4. Over irrigation may lead to water logging and may reduce crop yields.
5. Irrigation is complex and hence it is an expensive way of food production e.g. the irrigation
equipment such as pumps, pipes are expensive and skilled engineer is required in laying them
out.

Factors considered during irrigation

1. Type of soil
2. Type of crop to be grown
3. Climatic factors
4. Scale of the project
5. Economic factors
6. Topography of the land
7. Farmers preference
8. Mechanisation ( automation)
 9. Skills needed
10. scale of production

Plant, Soil water relationship

Water in the soil mainly occurs in liquid phase although it may exist in vapour phase.
water in the soil is never completely pure but contains a variable concentration of cations and anions.
Soil particles hold water and prevent it from moving down wards as a result of adhesive forces.

The same forces also cause upwards movement of water in the soil (capillary rise).

The upward movement of water is only possible if top soil is drier than the soil below.

Soil zone or root zone

Intermediate zone Soil moisture
Water table Capillary zone

Imperial strata
 Definition of terms
Soil texture-This refers to the relative proportion of the sand silt and clay particles.
Soil structure-This is the arrangement of individual soil particles in respect to each other in
form of a pattern.
Bulk density-This is the weight of the soil per unit volume given in g/cm3 or kg/m3.
Soil profile-This is the vertical section through the soil.
Ground water-Water below the water table.
Soil moisture-Water above the water table.
Soil zone-Depth of over burden soil that is penetrated by plant roots. It is the most important zone
for irrigation. Because it is the zone from where the plant gives water supply. When the water
falls on the ground, part of it gets absorbed in the root zone and the rest flows down under the
section of gravity and it is called gravity water. This is water that moves downwards into the soil.
Minimum allowable balance. The soil water content at which crops begin to experience water
stress (a shortage of water)

Field capacity-This is the amount of Water which is retained on the surface of soil grains after the
gravity water has freely drained. This water is held in the soil grains by molecular force of
attraction and by force of chemical bonds Adsorption. This water cannot easily be drained under
the action of gravity. The period of free gravity drainage is generally taken as 2-5 days. Field
capacity can also be defined as the water retained by a saturated soil after being acted upon by
gravity.
Field Capacity is the amount of soil moisture or water content held in the soil after excess water
has drained away and the rate of downward movement has decreased. This usually takes place 2–
3 days after rain or irrigation in pervious soils of uniform structure and texture.
 Field capacity
Field capacity water is sub divided into;-
1. Capillary water
2. Hygroscopic water

Capillary water: This is the water that is attached in the soil molecule by surface tension
(adhesion and cohesion) against gravitational forces and can be extracted by plants by
capillarity.
Hygroscopic water: This is the Water which is attached to the soil molecules by loose chemical
bonds and it cannot be removed by capillarity. This water is highly held by soil that surrounds it
and it needs a pressure of 10000 atmospheres to extract it. It is not available to plants. Therefore,
it is termed as unavailable water.

Field capacity is not the same as saturation.

When the soil is saturated, all the spaces between the soil particles are filled with water. When
the soil is at field capacity, the spaces between the soil particles contain both air and water. The
structure and texture of the soil determines how much water can be held in the soil. Sand, for
example, does not hold a lot of water because the large grains do not have a lot of surface area.
Clay particles, on the other hand, are often shaped like upside-down dinner plates randomly
stacked on top of one another creating large amounts of surface area. The large surface area and
structure of clay soils result in field capacities that can exceed 40% volumetric water content.

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐚 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥

𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∗ 100
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥

𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐚 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥

𝐹=
𝛾. 𝑑

Given;
d=Depth of the root zone – in metres
‫= ﻹ‬density of the soil – bulky density of the soil
F=field capacity as a ( %)
Ρ = Given density of water = ρ (kg/m3)
The depth of water stored in the root zone
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒(𝑘𝑔/𝑚 2 )
𝐷=
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝜌) 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 3

= (F ‫ ﻵ‬d) metres
ρ

EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the field capacity in a field given that the weight of water extracted is 30g and the
soil was extracted using a cylindrical auger of 3cm diameter and 30cm depth
Volume of soil = π r2h = 22/7x0.0152x0.030= 212.14cm3

Mass of water=30g
𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐚 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∗ 100
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐚 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥

𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∗ 100
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 ∗ 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑒 1500

=9.43%
EXAMPLE 2
A soil has field capacity moisture of 20mm per metre depth. Given the depth of the root zone
=10mm and the bulk density of the soil is 1500kg/m 3Calculate the depth of water stored in the root
zone per metre. Take density of water = (1000kg/m3)
Solution

Depth of water stored =

F= field capacity
γ= density of soil
d= depth of soil zone
ρ = density of water
Where F =20mm=0.02m
d=10mm=0.01m
 0.02 × 1500𝑘𝑔/𝑚 × 0.01𝑚
𝐷=
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 3

=0.02 ×1.5 ×0.01m

=0.00003m3
Depth of water is = 0.03mm

J. Permanent wilting point: Permanent wilting point (PWP) or wilting point (WP) - is defined as
the minimal point of soil moisture the plant requires not to wilt. If moisture decreases to this or any
lower point a plant wilts and can no longer recover its turgidity when placed in a saturated atmosphere
for 12 hours.

K. Available water/moisture: This is the water that is available to plants and it is the difference of
field capacity water and permanent wilting point water. It is also referred as the maximum storage
capacity of soil.

L. Unavailable moisture/Hygroscopic water: This is the water left in the soil after a permanent
wilting point is reached and it cannot be removed.
M. Readily available moisture: This is the position of the available moisture which is most easily
extracted by plants and is approximately 75-80% of the available moisture.
N. Soil moisture deficiency/field moisture deficiency: This is the Water required to bring the
soil moisture content of given soil back to its field capacity.
O. The wilting range: This is the range in the soil moisture through which plants under go
progressive degree of irreversible wilting.
P. Moisture stress : Moisture stress occurs when the water in a plant's cells is reduced to less than
normal levels. This can occur because of a lack of water in the plant's root zone, higher rates of
transpiration than the rate of moisture uptake by the roots, for example, because of an inability to
absorb water due to a high salt content in the soil water or loss of roots due to transplantation.
Q. Ultimate wilting point: This is the moisture content within the soil in which the wilting is complete
and the plant dies.
R. Non-limiting water range (NLWR): The Non-limiting water range (NLWR) represents the range
of water content in the soil where limitations to plant growth (such as water potential, air-filled
porosity, or soil strength) are minimal.
S. Moisture equivalent: This is similar to field capacity. It is measured by saturating sample of soil 1
cm thick, and subjecting it to a centrifugal force. This is Water retained by a saturated soil after being
centrifuged for 30 minutes by a centrifugal force of over 1000 times that of gravity. Therefore, it is
slightly less or at the most equal to field capacity.
Estimating the depth and frequency of irrigation on basis of soil moisture regime
Plants consume water or soil moisture through their roots sufficient moisture received available
in the soil from the surface to the root zone depth. The soil moisture in the root zone can vary
between field capacity (upper limit) and the wilting point moisture content (lower limit)

N/B
1. The soil moisture is not allowed to be depleted up to wilting point as it would result in
fall of crop yields. The option level up to which the soil moisture may be allowed to be
depleted in the root zone without fall in crop yield has to be worked out for every crop
and soil by experimentation.
2. The irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture falls up to the optional
level (fixing irrigation frequency) and its quantity should just be sufficient to bring the
moisture content up to its field capacity, making allowance to application losses (thus
fixing water depth)
Field capacity
Moisture content

Available capillary
(M.C)

Optimum water
(M.C)

Wilting
point
Hygroscopic water
Moisture
Unavailable
content
(M.C)
U. Soil moisture tension curve

is a measure of the force with which water is retained in the soil and so the force per unit area that
must be exerted by the crop to remove the water from the soil. Soil moisture tension is measured
using a tensionmeter.
MEASURING OF THE SOIL MOISTURE
1. Weight percentage by volume
2. Moisture content by volume
3. Gravimetric method
4. Use of tension meter
5. Electric resistance method

The water content in soils is usually expressed as either a dimensionless ratio of:
a) two masses or two volumes, or
b) is given as a ratio of a mass per unit volume.
c) These dimensionless ratios can be reported either as decimal fractions or percentages, if

1. The volumetric water content, in the soil (also called the volume wetness or volume
fraction of soil water) represents the fraction of the total volume of soil that is occupied by
the water contained in the soil.

volumetric water content is calculated via the volume of water Vw and the mass of water
mw
Procedure Weight percentage of volume
`- Take a sample of soil weigh it; put the soil sample in an oven at 1050C for 24 hours to dry.
- When it is dry weigh it again and record the results.
- Calculate
2. Soil moisture content %= (Weight of moist sample-weight-weight of oven dry sample) ×100

Weight of oven dry sample

= (W-W2) ×100
W2
Example
A sample of 200g of soil is oven dried to 179g. Calculate the moisture content by weight.
Soil moisture content %= (Weight of moist sample - Weight of oven dry sample) ×100
Weight of oven dry sample
= (200- 179) ×100
179
=11.73%
Work out this
A Sample of loam soil which was extracted using a cylindrical auger of 12cm and 2cm ( height
and radius respectively) was oven dried, and the moisture content was found to be 12%.
Calculate
i) The volume of the soil.
ii) The weight of the soil before oven drying ( density of sandy soil is
1.6g/cm3), loam density is 1.4g/cm3 and clay is 1.1g/cm3)
iii) The weight of the soil after oven drying.

Moisture content by volume= Moisture content by weight

Bulk density (p)
Bulk density (D) = Mass
Volume

3. Gravimetric method: Is expressed by mass (weight) as follows:

ᶹ=

where mw is the mass of water and m is the mass of the substance. Normally the latter is taken
before drying. The weight of different augered soil samples of different layers of soil are dried at
 1050C for 24 hours and difference in weight noted on volume basis and weight basis.
4. Tensiometer: This utilizes the principle with which the Water is held by soils. At saturation
point water is easily pulled or drained than at wilting point.

5. Electric resistance: Utilizes the purposely of electrical conductivity of porous solids or the
amount of water contained in it, two electrodes are used between the soil sample.

Movement of Water within the soil

1. Water intake-This is the movement of irrigation water from the soil surface into and
through the soil. Infiltration rate/Intake rate-This is the depth of Water taken by the soil
per unit time.
Intake rate= Depth of water in the soil
Time

2. Percolation: This is the downward movement in Water in saturated soil in response to

the force of gravity.
E.g. 200cm of water infiltrated through the soil for 2 hours
Intake rate = 200cm = 100cm/hr
2 hrs
Importance of calcu lating infiltration rate
a. To select the correct method of irrigation
b. Determine the amount of Water required for irrigation and its conveyers.
c. Determine the rooting zone of the plant.
3. Interflow
Permeable
layer

Spring

Imperious layer
This is the lateral movement of water in a relatively pervious soil above a less pervious
soil layer and may appear on the surface of the soil at a lower elevation.

4. Seepage: This is the infiltration (vertically) downward and lateral movement of water
into the soil from the source of supply e.g. a running furrow. Water gets into the soil as it
moves.
5. Permeability: This is the readiness of a soil to transmit fluids through e.g. sandy soils are
more permeable in comparison with clay soil.
6. Hydraulic conductivity: This is the effective flow velocity at an hydraulic gradient
7. Hydraulic Head: This is the elevation with respect to a standard datum
8. Hydraulic gradient: This is the rate of change of hydraulic head with the horizontal
distance.

Reservour

H1
Reservour

H2
Datum line

Hydraulic gradient = hydraulic head = H1-H2

Horizontal distance X

EXAMPLE : Calculate the ;

i) Hydraulic head
ii) Hydraulic gradient
Given, H1= 20 m, H2 = 13m and X=120m
 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE FOR DIPLOMA IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING; NOTES PREPARED BY ENGINEER
ELIAS WAWERU NGOTHO- RVIST

Solution
i) Hydraulic head = H1-H2=20-13= 7m
ii) Hydraulic gradient = hydraulic head = H1-H2
Horizontal distance X
= 20-13
120
= 0.05
9. Hydraulic equilibrium of water in the soil
This is the condition of flow rate of liquid or a film of water in the soil. The soil holds
Water by its attractive force. At this point there is no gradient hydraulic equilibrium happens
when the pressure gradient is equal to the force of gravity.
IRRIGATION METHODS

Four methods of water application;-

1) By flooding the water on the field surface. ( surface irrigation)
2) Applying the water beneath the soil surface so that the water rises to the root zone
through capillarity ( sub surface irrigation)
3) By spraying the water on the crops (surface --- sprinkler irrigation)
4) The drip/ trickle irrigation ( drip irrigation) Surface irrigation
The water is brought to the crop field from its source through channels/canals.
1. Surface irrigation methods
a) Boulder/flood irrigation: The water is allowed to flow in to
the crop field from a source such as a river or lake and spread
on to the crop field I a thin sheet of water down the slope on a
piece of land but it is restricted from spreading by some small
ridges. This is applicable when the slope is greater then zero.
Advantages of Boulder/flood irrigation
i) It is cheap to establish

Disadvantages of Boulder/flood irrigation

i) It requires a lot of water
ii) Uneven distribution of water in the crop.
b) Furrow irrigation: Water flows from irrigation canals
through gates into furrows which can be dug along the contour
to reduce erosion. The crops are either planted on the ridges or
furrows
Advantages of Furrow irrigation
i) There is no water content with the plant leaves hence
reduce fungal diseases
ii) It is cheap to establish and maintain
iii) It requires little skills.
Disadvantages of Furrow irrigation
i) a lot of water is wasted
ii) Soil erosion may occur where furrows are not
properly planned.
c) Basin irrigation: This involves flooding the area enclosed by
dykes.
 Dykes

Basin

water

Advantages of Basin irrigation

i) Reduces incidents of fungal diseases
ii) Cheap to establish and maintain.
Disadvantages of Basin irrigation
i) Dykes are expensive to construct if the land is not
leveled
ii) It may result to salt accumulation in the soil if not
properly managed.
Water losses in surface irrigation
a) Evaporation
b) Seepage
c) Deep percolation
d) Overflows
 Maintenance of surface irrigation
a) Repair the dykes if broken.
b) Lining the channels to reduce seepage and percolation.
c) Uproot weeds to reduce transpiration and loss of water.
d) Trooping moles and compacting the soil.

Quiz: State the soil characteristics suitable for surface irrigation-Soil

retention

2. Subsurface irrigation or Subirrigation: Water does not wet the surface.

Subirrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is
a method of artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below
the plants' root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or
river valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations,
canals, weirs and gates allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of
ditches and thereby control the water table.
Subsurface can be divided in to 2 categories; -
a) Natural subsurface irrigation. This is where canals are
provided in which water in the neighborhood is lowered
where the water table is the same. The water nourishes the
plants capillary action.
b) Artificial subsurface irrigation. This is where perforated
pipes are buried in the ground and water drips to the
surrounding soil. This method involves use of perforated
pipes, distribution system with water under pressure. The
pipes are placed well beneath the surface. This method is
expensive but economical on water conservation. It works
well in soil which have higher horizontal hydraulic
conductivity and high capillary action.

Advantages of sub-surface irrigation

i) Minimizes labour especially in changing water pipes.
ii) No need of constructing dykes, leveling or making level basins.
iii) It can be practiced on sloppy or flat lands
iv) Water does not cause erosion because it comes out in small amount. v)
Less water is required in comparison to sprinkles and surface
irrigation
 vi) Fungal disease s such as blight are reduced because water does not
accumulate on the leaves.
Disadvantages of sub-surface irrigation
i) It is expensive in undertaking because e.g. buying pipes and laying
them especially irrigating large areas
ii) Pipes can be broken during weeding or land preparation
iii) Nozzles can be blocked and make irrigation insufficient.
Steps in laying out pipe lines for sub surface irrigation
i) Measuring and marking
ii) Selection of the depth and grade of laying pipes iii)
Digging the trench to the proper depth and grade
iv) Lowering the pipe and squeezing them in the trench, sealing
the joints and tightening them
v) Back filling trench

Maintenance practices of sub-surface irrigation

i) Unblocking the nozzles by blowing water under pressure
ii) C o mp a ctin g mole holes.
3. Sprinkles Sprinkler irrigation (Overhead irrigation)—Surface irrigation
Water is supplied to crops by sprinkles/watering cans in form of spray or rain. Sprinkler
may be a rotating head mounted on a vertical pipe thus the water must pass through the
sprinkler under high pressure. The system consists basically of a Water source, a pump or
pressure generator, pipe network, nozzle and a riser.

In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within
the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns.

Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water source by a
hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers may irrigate
areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended.

Center pivot
Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation consisting of several segments of
pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminum) joined together and supported by trusses,
mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. The system
moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the
arc. These systems are found and used in all parts of the world and allow irrigation of all
types of terrain. Newer systems have drop sprinkler heads as shown in the image that
follows.
Features of sprinkler irrigation
i) It is expensive
ii) It is useful for all types of soil and different slope categories.
iii) It ensures uniform distribution of water hence it is useful for all
types of crops
iv) It is useful where surface irrigation is not useful i.e. it does not
encourage run off in the irrigated area.
v) The nozzle easily gets blocked by debris and silt
Advantages of sprinkler irrigation
i) There is even distribution of Water over the irrigated area
ii) Less wastage of water than in furrow irrigation
iii) Suited on slopy ground
iv) Soluble fertilizers can be applied together with irrigation water
v) Sprinkles can easily be moved from one put to another
vi) Sandy soils can be irrigated within minimum distance of its top
soil
vii) It does not create drainage problem
viii) It does not take much of the farm land unlike the ditches or
channels for the surface irrigation
Disadvantages of sprinkler irrigation
i) Expensive in installation e.g. buying the pipes and water
pumps.
ii) Encourages fungal diseases e.g. blight, rust due to water
accumulation on leaves
iii) It causes soil erosion if not properly controlled especially on
sloppy grounds
iv) May require establishment of wind breakers
v) Maintenance requires a lot of skills and it is also expensive
Design Factors of Sprinkler Irrigation System
The system for sprinkler irrigation system compromises of;-
i) Conveyance system-The pipeline consists of the main pi[peline and the lateral
lines. They convey the water from the pump to all parts of the fields
ii) Water supply-determine the distance of water source, the amount of water
available in the source and how to get it (gravity or pumping)
iii) Distribution system-The applicators. These are the devices for applying water
to the soil such as sprinklers
iv) Prime movers-This refers to the pump that will facilitate getting the water from
the source to the field. It can be gravity flow or pumping

Components of the pumping set for sprinkler irrigation

i) The debris screen
ii)Non return valve/foot valve
iii) The suction line-This is the pipe used to draw water from source.
iv) Pump
v) The prime movers-Engine or motor
vi) The pressure gauge
vii) The gate valve
viii) The delivery pipe
The pipelines for sprinkler irrigation
i) The main pipe
ii) The sub main
pipe iii) Lateral line
Lateral line for sprinkler irrigation
This has the riser which holds the sprinkler. It has end caps or plugs which
confine water within the lateral lines.

When using the sprinkler system one should carefully select the following;-
i. The nozzle size
ii. The operating pressure
iii. Sprinkler capacity
iv. The amount of irrigation water required (crop water requirement)
v. The rate of application to suit the soil intake rate
Factors to consider when spacing sprinkler

i) Operating pressure
ii) Sprinkler irrigation rate
iii) Time of application
iv) Amount of water required
v) Weather condition
vi) Crop spacing
vii) Topography
viii) Soil type
ix) Overlap area
x) Wind direction and intensity (drift of water)
xi) Water viscosity (gravity flow of water)
4. Drip irrigation/Trickle irrigation
It uses polythene pipes with perforation. Sometimes inverted bottles are used. The pipes
are laid on the ground surface and the perforation drip water at the plant root zone
wetting the root zone.

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In this system
water falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is delivered at or near the root zone of
plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if
managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimi
In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further
reducing evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is
known as fertigation.

Drip irrigation layout and its parts

Advantages of Drip irrigation/Trickle irrigation

i) Little amount of water is required compared to other
methods. ii) Water under low pressure can be used as long as it
can flow
along the pipe.
iii) It discourages diseases such as blight because it doesn’t wet the
leaves.
iv) It doesn’t encourage the growth of weeds between the roots.
Disadvantages of Drip irrigation/Trickle irrigation
i) Pipes are expensive to buy therefore irrigation is practiced in
a limited scale
ii) When using perforated pipes only clean water should be used
to avoid blockage of the perforation.
iii) The polythene pipes are easily damaged by rodents.

Portability of Irrigation System

 i. Portable system-It is a system in which everything is movable-applicable
to large farms.
ii. Semi portable systems-This is a system where everything is movable
except the pumping unit. The system is applicable in medium sized farms.
iii. Semi permanent-In this system everything is fixed except the lateral
pipes- applicable in small scale farms.
iv. Solid set system-In this system everything is fixed including the lateral
pipes but not for all sessions.
v. Permanent system-Everything is fixed for all session

Factors to Consider in Selecting the Right Method of Irrigation

1. The water supply-Amount of water at the source. This depends on quantity and quality
of water available for irrigation. Inadequate water supply is not basic for irrigation. If the
water supply is low the drip irrigation is better.
2. High quality water is required for sprinkler irrigation. Poor quality water damages
pipes and the prime movers contaminates water by sediments indicates surface
application. Saline water suggests flood irrigation so that the salts can be flushed out. If
water supply is for the choice of the conveyance then conveyance is linked to the
method of irrigation. Conveyance by pipes goes with sprinkler systems, drip. Furrow
goes with surface irrigation method. If the water supply is high, surface irrigation is
used. If water for irrigation is below the irrigation land, water is supplied by pumping
and if then water supply is above the irrigation, land water supply is by gravity flow.
 3. Soil type factor-Soils with high storage capacity of water suggest surface
application. Since large amount of water is applied frequently. Since with low storage
capacity requires more frequent application in small amounts. This suggests the use of
sprinklers. Soils with medium infiltration rates are suited for any method.

4. Crop type-Sprinklers irrigation is best suited for shallow rooted crops or crops requiring
frequent watering. For row crops, furrow are best sprinklers are possible but bounder
irrigation is unsuitable for forage crops. The furrow irrigation is best for orchard.
5. Climate factors-Sprinkler system is unsuitable in windy areas because of drift. Areas with
high evaporation retes flood irrigation are suitable since it has low evaporation rates e.g.
2% compared with 5% for sprinkler.
6. Frequency of application-Watering depends on the soil moisture storage capacity and
crop water requirements and whether irrigation is to be supplementary or total. In general
the sprinklers have more flexibility of frequent light watering and for supplementary
irrigation e.g. when there is a dry spell between to rain.
7. Economic factor-This is to do with capital expenditure and operating cost for the
irrigation system e.g. personnel labor. Sprinklers system is expensive compared to other
irrigation methods although it is very efficient and flexible.
8. The scale of the project-Large scale land for irrigation means longer distribution canals,
pipes hence higher costs.
9. Level of mechanization/automation-Mechanization improves performance e.g. sprinkler
and drip system are basically automated. They are also applicable in desert places where
light irrigation is applicable. For open channel it is difficult to use machines in the farm.
There is difficult to use machines in the farm. There is difficult crossing the canals with
machines.
10. Government policy/National requirement-If the irrigation project is subjected to meet
the national or international political and environmental or capital requirement. There is
likelihood of the government or foreign investment funding. The government wish is to
intensify small scale farming in order to increase food production and number of farmers.
The national policy encourages production of crops to reduce import of food materials
Physical Factors Influencing Irrigation Planning
1. Climate-Temperature, rainfall, evaporation rate, humidity, daily sunshine
hours.
2. Resources-Land, soil type, financial resources.
Climate-The climate will decide whether irrigation is needed or not while the resources will tell
whether irrigation is possible. It is therefore important to obtain possible information about
climate. The most useful data with respect to climate are as follows;-
i) Rainfall-The rain gauge is used to measure the rainfall. The rainfall
is measured in terms of depth of water falling on a horizontal surface
over a period of time e.g. weekly, daily, monthly or yearly.

The rainfall data required include;-

i) Amount of rainfall in mm or cm
ii) Data on rainfall intensity-mm/hr or cm/hr.
iii) Data or rainfall distribution of the area of study i.e. spatial
distribution.
iv) Rainfall frequency-Probability of occurrence
v) Rainfall record may however not be available in all places or stations,
in such case use data from neighboring stations. This is done
especially for preliminary studies.

Irrigation water distribution and efficiencies

Irrigation as a process can be divided to five stages;-
4. Diversion of water from the source which includes pumping or gravity-Diversion point
at the head wards or intake.
5. Conveyance-It is the transfer of water from the intake to the head of the scheme or project
conveyance channels or main pipes.
6. Distribution of water-It is distribution of water in the farm or into the various irrigation
units in the farm. This can also be called secondary channels.
7. Application – This is application of water into soil by tertiary channels or pipes and it is
used in held to apply water.
8. Drainage – The used water which needs to be removed and taken to disposal site or river.
Distribution efficiency
Not all water taken from a source (river, well) reaches the root zone of the plants. Part of the
water is lost during transport through the canals and in the fields. The remaining part is stored in
the root zone and eventually used by the plants. In other words, only part of the water is used
efficiently, the rest of the water is lost for the crops on the fields that were to be irrigated.
Shows the irrigation water losses in canals; these are due to:
1. Evaporation from the water surface
2. Deep percolation to soil layers underneath the canals
3. Seepage through the bunds of the canals
4. Overtopping the bunds
5. Bund breaks
6. Runoff in the drain
7. Rat holes in the canal bunds

Irrigation water losses in canals

Figure shows the irrigation water losses in the field; these are due to:
1. Irrigation water losses
a) Surface runoff, whereby water ends up in the drain
b) Deep percolation to soil layers below the root zone
2. Water Use Efficiency: Percentage of the applied water that is beneficially used
(consumptive use and/or satisfying the leaching requirement)
 3. Irrigation water losses in the field: To express which percentage of irrigation water is used
efficiently and which percentage is lost, the term irrigation efficiency is used.
4. scheme irrigation efficiency (e in %) is that part of the water pumped or diverted through
the scheme inlet which is used effectively by the plants. The scheme irrigation efficiency
can be sub-divided into:
5. conveyance efficiency (ec) which represents the efficiency of water transport in canals, and
6. Field application efficiency (ea) which represents the efficiency of water application in the
field. The conveyance efficiency (ec) mainly depends on the length of the canals, the soil type or
permeability of the canal banks and the condition of the canals. In large irrigation schemes more
water is lost than in small schemes, due to a longer canal system. From canals in sandy soils more
water is lost than from canals in heavy clay soils.

The following factors are considered in design of irrigation water distribution system;-
1. Topography
2. Size of channel
3. Required slope of channel
4. Volume of soil to be removed during channel excavation
5. Intake point in relation to the command area
6. Ground foundation for the intake structure

Water losses during Distribution.

1. Conveyance losses-This include;-
a) Leakage from the channel which may not be conducted or lined
b) Seepage
c) Deep percolation losses
d) Evaporation from the cropped field
e) Direct loss to the drainage channel or drain

Water application efficiency refers to the amount of water applied that is stored in the crop
root zone. This value is determined by water distribution characteristics, system management,
soil conditions, the crop, and weather conditions. Water application efficiency pertains to an
individual irrigation event.

Irrigation efficiency refers to the amount of water removed from the water source that is used
by the crop. This value is determined by irrigation system management, water distribution
characteristics, crop water use rates, weather and soil conditions. Irrigation efficiency pertains to
the use of water for an entire growing season.

PREVENTION OF WATER LOSS

This can be achieved by;
1) Channel lining
2) Increasing slope/channel gradient i.e. to reduce Conveyance losses.
3) Through proper management and training of farmers on the need
of water conservation.
Modes of water application
1) Continuous delivery-All farers receives a share of water flow
that is proportional to the area to be irrigated so long as the
conveyer conveys the supply.a flow is delivered to the farmers
during a certain period in a accordance with requirements.
2) Delivery on demand: - it is applicable whereby the farmer
receives water when he requires it.
3) Rotational Delivery:- Each farmer receives water at his or
interval when his or her turn comes. A flow is delivered to the
farmer during a certain period in accordance with requirements.

QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

The quality of irrigation water is determined by the soil constituents of the soil to be irrigated
The types of impurities which make water unsuitable for irrigation are classified as:-
1. Sediment concentration in water.
2. The total concentration of salts in water i.e.
a) Concentration of Na+ (sodium ions) ,calcium ions (Ca++ )
,magnesium(mg2+ )ions, Potassium (K+ ) e.t.c
b) Concentration of toxic elements present in water e.g. Pb (Lead), Zinc
(Zn), Copper (Cu) e.t.c.
c) Concentration of bicarbonates as related to the concentration of calcium
plus magnesium.
3. Bacterial concentration-presence of human and industrial wastes i.e.:- Sediment
effects depend upon the type of irrigated land. Effects are:-
a) Fine sediment deposited on sand improves its fertility.
b) Eroded areas become less fertile/less permeable.
 c) It causes blockage in water canals and irrigation nozzles.
4. Total concentration of soluble salts, e.g. calcium, magnesium and potassium if
present they injure the plants in that:-
a) They reduce osmotic activities of the plants.
b) Prevent soil aeration.
NB/ Proportion of Na+ to other cations should be less than 5% if sodium
is 10% or more it will have the following;-
a) It causes the soil aggregates to break down (destroys the soil structure)
b) It makes soil become less permeable.
c) Set soil of poor quality.
d) Soils start crusting when dry.
e) PH increases towards that of alkaline soil.
NB High sodium soils are plastic and sticky when wet and they are prone to
form chlorides and crusts when dry.

MEASUREMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER

The quantities of water in river and its reliability have to be ascertained before planning
for irrigation we have to understand the river regime to ensure that:-
1. The water required to be diverted for irrigation is available throughout the
growing season.
2. To ensure that some water is left for downstream users i.e. to comply with
the water law that some water has to be left in the river for downstream
users .(Not more than 30% of water should be diverted) for irrigation.
3. To ensure that the degree of its reliability in terms of when we need it and
the amount we need.
4. To know the amount of water in order to plan for water storage and in order
to design dams, drains and bridges.
5. The quantity of water flowing in a river is quantified as discharge in the
river varies throughout the year. Following distinctive seasons similar to
rainfall.
 NB/
1. The discharge can vary from extremely low period called base flow to extremely
high flow called flood flow.
2. Whether base flow or flood flow, the important flow for irrigation design is based
on the base flow, but for design of diversion structures their design is based on the
flood flow period.
3. River discharged is usually measured on daily basis from which total and average
discharges can be over a longer duration of time.

QUESTIONS
1) Outline five main causes of salinity and alkanity in soils
2) Outline the problems of using poor irrigation water
3) Outline the factors considered for the estimation of soil loss due to erosion
4) Define the term run off and outline six catchments factors that may affect it
5) Explain the following measures for hill slopes
a) Contour terracing
b) Bench terracing
c) Stone terracing
6. Outline the causes and control of stream bank erosion
7. Outline nay five factors that influence infiltration rate of water into the soil
8. Outline the farming activity that impact negatively on the environment
9. A farmer is supplied with water through a canal. He wants to grow French
bean by furrow irrigation.Explain the following
a) The factor to consider before land preparation
b) The advantages and limitations of using this method
c) The irrigation procedure
10. Discuss the following channel terrace design requirements
a) Spacing
b) Maximum length
c) Gradient
METHODS OF MEASURING IRRIGATION WATER
The methods for measuring water to be used for irrigation depend on;
1) The water source
2) Conveyance of water

This includes the estimation of;

1. Surface run off-un concentrated run off
2. River flow or pipe flow-concentrated runs off

Estimation of surface runs off

Use-cooks method-The rational formula when Q=CIA
360
Where C=Constant (dimension)
I=Rainfall intensity mm/h
A=Catchments area in Ha
Q= Discharge (M3/min)
Estimation of river flow
This is done through stream gauging. This is done to determine the characteristics of the stream
flow. It includes determining the river discharge over a long period of time and also determining
the velocity of flow if needed.

Methods used In Estimation of river flow

A) Use of weirs
-A weir is a barrier installed across the river to measure discharge flowing in the river. The
height of the water over the weir crest (H) is measured and the discharge is calculated by using
the appropriate formulae derived for that particular kind of weir.
Limitations
a) Variation of flow velocity at V1 and V2
b) Foating debris easily damages the weir crest

B) Control meters or ventori fumes

A control is a structure constructed across a stream by which the critical depth of flow can be
provided by changing a sub critical flow into super critical flow and vice versa. This can be done
by either;
a) Raising the bottom of the channel
b) decreasing the width of the channel
c) Both ways
The throat of the sector is made rectangular or trapezoidal.
The floor of the throat is almost level whereas the floor of the outlet is given a steep slope

Q=C.b.Ec3/2
Where C=Constant
B=Width of throat
Ec=Minimum specific energy of water
Where Ec= (2/3Yc)

98
NOTES PREPARED BY ENGINEER ELIAS WAWERU NGOTHO, EDITED BY ENGINEERS JOSEPH ORINA
AND SAMUEL MATIVO
 Advantages of Control meters or ventori fumes over the weir
a) Has the ability to measure discharge even in silt laiden streams (no silting takes place).
b) There is no damage of the meter by logs and debris as it is with weirs.

C) Power plant records

This involves using records from a nearby hydroelectric power generating plant
and the records to be collected;
a) Flow through turbine
b) Flow over the spill way
c) Flow through various sluices, gated)
d) Flow through leakages

Advantages of Power plant records

a) It is a very accurate method when measuring peak flows especially
during floods.
Disadvantages of Power plant records
b) It is an indirect method of discharge computation
D) Velocity area method
It is a direct method of computing discharge. It involves measuring the flow velocity with a
(current meter) and measuring the cross section area of channel.
Q=VA

Factors to be considered when estimating irrigation water

1. Soil moisture storage capacity
a) Soil depth
b) Soil infiltration rate
c) Type of soil
2. Type of crop to be irrigated.
a) Crop water requirement
b) Rooting system of the crop-shallow or deep rooted.
3. Rainfall
a) Amount of rainfall
b) Intensity
c) Distribution
 4. Meteorological factor
a) Wind
b) Sunshine
c) Relative humidity
d) Temperature
5. Ground water distribution in the soil i.e. uniform and non uniform.
6. Leaching fraction or infiltration
7. Irrigation efficiency is conveyance, distribution and application efficiency

Problems in irrigation

Irrigation can lead to a number of problems:

1. Competition for surface water rights.

2. Overdrafting (depletion) of underground aquifers.
3. Ground subsidence (e.g. New Orleans, Louisiana)
4. Underirrigation or irrigation giving only just enough water for the plant (e.g. in drip line
irrigation) gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil salinity with
consequent build up of toxic salts on soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This
requires either leaching to remove these salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts
away. When using drip lines, the leaching is best done regularly at certain intervals (with
only a slight excess of water), so that the salt is flushed back under the plant's roots.[36][37]
5. Overirrigation because of poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water,
chemicals, and may lead to water pollution.
6. Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising water tables which in some
instances will lead to problems of irrigation salinity requiring watertable control by some
form of subsurface land drainage.
7. Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil structure owing to the
formation of alkaline soil
8. Clogging of filters: It is mostly algae that clog filters, drip installations and nozzles. UV
and ultrasonic method can be used for algae control in irrigation systems.
Pumps in irrigation
1) Diaphragm pump

A diaphragm pump (also known as a Membrane pump, Air Operated Double

Diaphragm Pump (AODD) or Pneumatic Diaphragm Pump) is a positive
displacement pump that uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber,
thermoplastic or teflon diaphragm and suitable valves either side of the diaphragm (check
valve, butterfly valves, flap valves, or any other form of shut-off valves) to pump a fluid.

Diaphragm pump diagram.

There are three main types of diaphragm pumps:

a) Those in which the diaphragm is sealed with one side in the fluid to be
pumped, and the other in air or hydraulic fluid. The diaphragm is flexed,
causing the volume of the pump chamber to increase and decrease. A pair of
non-return check valves prevent reverse flow of the fluid.
b) Those employing volumetric positive displacement where the prime mover
of the diaphragm is electro-mechanical, working through a crank or geared
motor drive, or purely mechanical, such as with a lever or handle. This
method flexes the diaphragm through simple mechanical action, and one
side of the diaphragm is open to air.[2]
c) Those employing one or more unsealed diaphragms with the fluid to be
pumped on both sides. The diaphragm(s) again are flexed, causing the
volume to change.
 NB/ When the volume of a chamber of either type of pump is increased (the
diaphragm moving up), the pressure decreases, and fluid is drawn into the
chamber. When the chamber pressure later increases from decreased volume (the
diaphragm moving down), the fluid previously drawn in is forced out. Finally, the
diaphragm moving up once again draws fluid into the chamber, completing the
cycle. This action is similar to that of the cylinder in an internal combustion
engine.

Diaphragm pump characteristics:

a) Have good suction lift characteristics, some are low pressure pumps with
low flow rates; others are capable of higher flow rates, dependent on the
effective working diameter of the diaphragm and its stroke length. They can
handle sludges and slurries with a relatively high amount of grit and solid
content.
b) Suitable for discharge pressure up to 1,200 bar
c) Have good dry running characteristics.
d) Can be used to make artificial hearts.
e) Are used to make air pumps for the filters on small fish tanks.
f) Can be up to 97% efficient.
g) Have good self priming capabilities.
h) Can handle highly viscous liquids. A viscosity correction chart can be used
as a tool to help prevent under-sizing aod pumps.
i) Are available for industrial, chemical and hygienic applications
j) Cause a pulsating flow that may cause water hammer (this can be minimised
by using a pulsation dampener)
2. Piston pump

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A piston pump compared to a plunger pump

A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal
reciprocates with the piston. Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress
gases.

Types of Piston Pumps

a) Axial piston pump

b) Radial piston pump

An axial piston pump has a number of pistons (usually an odd number) arranged in a circular
array within a housing which is commonly referred to as a cylinder block, rotor or barrel. This
cylinder block is driven to rotate about its axis of symmetry by an integral shaft that is, more or
less, aligned with the pumping pistons (usually parallel but not necessarily).

3. Radial piston pump

A radial piston pump is a form of hydraulic pump. The working pistons extend in a radial
direction symmetrically around the drive shaft, in contrast to the axial piston pump.
Picture 1: inside impinged radial piston pump

Picture 2: outside impinged radial piston pump

The stroke of each piston is caused by an eccentric drive shaft or an external eccentric tappet
(e.g., stroke ring).

When filling the workspace of the pumping pistons from "inside" (e.g., over a hollow shaft) it is
called an inside impinged (but outside braced) radial piston pump (picture 1). If the workspace is
filled from "outside" it's called an outside impinged radial piston pump (but inside braced)
(picture 2
 Function of radial piston pump

The general mode of operation will be explained at the movement of one pumping piston
The outer ring for bracing of the pumping pistons is in eccentric position to the hollow shaft in
the center. This eccentricity determines the stroke of the pumping piston.

The piston starts in the inner dead center (IDC) with suction process. After a rotation angle of
180° it is finished and the workspace of the piston is filled with the to moved medium. The
piston is now in the outer dead center (ODC). From this point on the piston displaces the
previously sucked medium in the pressure channel of the pump.

Attributes of radial piston pump

These kinds of piston pumps are characterized by the following advantages (of
radial piston pump):

a) High efficiency
b) High pressure (up to 1,000 bar)
c) Low flow and pressure ripple (due to the small dead volume in
the workspace of the pumping piston)
d) Low noise level
e) Very high load at lowest speed due to the hydrostatically
balanced parts possible
f) No axial internal forces at the drive shaft bearing
g) High reliability

A disadvantage are the bigger radial dimensions in comparison to the axial piston pump,
but it could be compensated with the shorter construction in axial direction.

Applications of radial piston pump

Due to the hydrostatically balanced parts it is possible to use the pump with various hydraulic
fluids like mineral oil, biodegradable oil, HFA (oil in water), HFC (water-glycol), HFD
(synthetic ester) or cutting emulsion. That implies the following main applications for a
radial piston pump:
 a) Machine tools (e.g., displace of cutting emulsion, supply for hydraulic
equipment like cylinders)
b) High pressure units (hpu) (e.g., for overload protection of presses)
c) Test rigs
d) Automotive sector (e.g., automatic transmission, hydraulic suspension
control in upper-class cars)
e) Plastic- and powder injection moulding
f) Wind energy

4. Rotary vane pump

An eccentric rotary vane pump. Note that modern pumps have an area contact between
rotor and stator (and not a line contact).

a) Pump housing
b) rotor
c) vanes
d) Spring

A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes mounted to

a rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases these vanes can be variable length
and/or tensioned to maintain contact with the walls as the pump rotates. It was invented
by Charles C. Barnes of Sackville, New Brunswick who patented it on June 16, 1874.
 Types of rotary vane pump

The simplest vane pump is a circular rotor rotating inside of a larger circular cavity. The
centers of these two circles are offset, causing eccentricity. Vanes are allowed to slide
into and out of the rotor and seal on all edges, creating vane chambers that do the
pumping work. On the intake side of the pump, the vane chambers are increasing in
volume. These increasing volume vane chambers are filled with fluid forced in by the
inlet pressure. Inlet pressure is actually the pressure from the system being pumped, often
just the atmosphere. On the discharge side of the pump, the vane chambers are decreasing
in volume, forcing fluid out of the pump. The action of the vane drives out the same
volume of fluid with each rotation. Multistage rotary vane vacuum pumps can attain
pressures as low as 10−6 mbar (0.0001 Pa).

Uses of rotary vane pump

Common uses of vane pumps include high pressure hydraulic pumps and automotive uses
including, supercharging, power steering and automatic transmission pumps. Pumps for mid-
range pressures include applications such as carbonators for fountain soft drink dispensers and
espresso coffee machines. Furthermore, vane pumps can be used in low-pressure gas applications
such as secondary air injection for auto exhaust emission control, or in low pressure chemical
vapor deposition systems.

Rotary vane pumps are also a common type of vacuum pump, with two-stage pumps able to
reach pressures well below 10-6 bar. These vacuum pumps are found in numerous applications,
such as providing braking assistance in large trucks and diesel powered passenger cars (whose
engines do not generate intake vacuum) through a braking booster, in most light aircraft to drive
gyroscopic flight instruments, in evacuating refrigerant lines during installation of air
conditioners, in laboratory freeze dryers, and vacuum experiments in physics. In the vane pump
the pumped gas and the oil are mixed within the pump, and so they must be separated externally.
Therefore the inlet and the outlet have a large chamber–maybe with swirl–where the oil drops
fall out of the gas. Sometimes the inlet has a venetian blind cooled by the room air (the pump is
usually 40 K hotter) to condense cracked pumping oil and water, and let it drop back into the
inlet. When these pumps are used in high vacuum systems (where the inflow of gas into the
pump becomes very low), a significant concern is contamination of the entire system by
molecular oil backstreaming.

5. Displacement Pumps

Displacement pumps force the water to move by displacement (bet you couldn't have guessed!)
This means pumps such as piston pumps, diaphragm pumps, roller-tubes, and rotary pumps. The
old fashioned hand-pumps, the ones you operate by moving a long lever handle up and down, are
piston displacement pumps. So are those grasshopper-like oil well pumps. Displacement pumps
are used for moving very thick liquids, creating very precise flow volumes, or creating very high
pressures. In addition to oil wells they are also used for fertilizer injectors, spray pumps, air
compressors, and hydraulic systems for machinery. With the exception of fertilizer injectors
(used for mixing fertilizer into irrigation water) you will not see them typically used for
irrigation systems, so that is all I'm going to say about them.

Variable displacement vane pump

One of the major advantages of the vane pump is that the design readily lends itself to become a
variable displacement pump, rather than a fixed displacement pump such as a spur-gear (X-X) or
a gerotor (I-X) pump. The centerline distance from the rotor to the eccentric ring is used to
determine the pump's displacement. By allowing the eccentric ring to pivot or translate relative
to the rotor, the displacement can be varied. It is even possible for a vane pump to pump in
reverse if the eccentric ring moves far enough. However, performance cannot be optimized to
pump in both directions. This can make for a very interesting hydraulic control oil pump.

A variable displacement vane pump is used as an energy savings device, and has been used in
many applications, including automotive transmissions, for over 30 years.

6. Centrifugal pump; Almost all irrigation pumps fall into this category. A centrifugal
pump uses an "impeller" (sort of like a propeller, but a little different) to spin the water
rapidly in a "casing", "chamber", or "housing" (any of those terms may be used). This
spinning action moves the water through the pump by means of centrifugal force. Centrifugal
 pumps may be "multi-stage", which means they have more than one impeller and casing, and
the water is passed from one impeller to another with an increase in pressure occurring each
time. Each impeller/casing combination is referred to as a "stage". All centrifugal pumps
must have a "wet inlet", that is, there must be water in both the intake (inlet) pipe and the
casing when the pump is started. They can't suck water up into the intake pipe. They must be
"primed" by adding water to the intake pipe and case before the first use. To prime them you
simply fill the intake pipe with water and then quickly turn on the pump. To put it simply,
this type of pump can't suck air, only water, so if there is no water already in the pump it
won't pull any water up into it. Once it gets water in it the first time, most centrifugal pumps
are designed to hold the water with a small valve so the pump doesn't need to be primed
again every time you turn it on.

Multistage centrifugal pumps

A centrifugal pump containing two or more impellers is called a multistage centrifugal pump.
The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or on different shafts.

For higher pressures at the outlet, impellers can be connected in series. For higher flow output,
impellers can be connected in parallel.

A common application of the multistage centrifugal pump is the boiler feed water pump.

All energy transferred to the fluid is derived from the mechanical energy driving the impeller.
This can be measured at isentropic compression, resulting in a slight temperature increase (in
addition to the pressure increase).

End-Suction Centrifugal Pumps

The most common type of pump. Typically the pump is "close-coupled "to an electric motor,
that is, the pump is mounted right on the end of the motor's drive shaft and the pump case is
bolted straight into the motor so that it looks like a single unit. The water typically enters the
pump through a "suction inlet "centered on one side of the pump, and exits at the top. Almost all
portable pumps are end-suction centrifugal type pumps. If the pump isn't one of the next two
types, then chances are it is an end-suction centrifugal. End-suction centrifugal pumps generally
need to be primed the first time they are used (including many so-called self-priming models,)
after that most will not require priming unless a leak develops in the intake pipe. If the pump
needs to be primed each time it is turned on this almost always means there is a tiny leak in the
intake pipe.

End-Suction Centrifugal are designed to push water, not pull it. They are great for use as
irrigation booster pumps. They are also very good for pumping water from any source where the
water level is higher than the pump, where the water can flow down an intake pipe to the pump
using gravity. But any time they need to actually suck the water up into the pump they perform
much less efficiently. Therefore end-suction centrifugal pumps are not the best choice for
drawing water from a water source that is lower than the pump, ie; they are not good when
mounted on the bank of a pond, stream, river, etc. When sucking water up into the pump they
must be installed as close to the water surface level as possible, which is often inconvenient.
Each pump is different, so check with the manufacturer to determine the maximum height the
pump can be above the water surface. As a general rule they perform very poorly if they are
more than 5 feet above the water surface. Just remember, end-suction centrifugal pumps are great
at pushing water, but they suck at sucking it!
7. Submersible Pumps: Submersible pumps are installed completely underwater, including the
motor. The pump consists of an electric motor and pump combined in a single unit. Typically
the pump will be shaped like a long cylinder so that it can fit down inside of a well casing.
Although most submersible pumps are designed to be installed in a well, many can also be
laid on their side on the bottom of a lake or stream. Another common installation method for
lakes and rivers is to mount the submersible pump underwater to the side of a pier pile (post).
Submersible pumps don't need to be primed since they are already under water. They also
tend to be more efficient because they only push the water, they don't need to suck water into
them. Most submersible pumps must be installed in a special sleeve if they are not installed
in a well, and sometimes they need a sleeve even when installed in a well. The sleeve forces
water coming into the pump to flow over the surface of the pump motor to keep the motor
cool. Without the sleeve the pump will burn up. Because the power cord runs down to the
pump through the water it is very important that it be protected from accidental damage. You
wouldn't want a boat tangled up in the cord or a snapping turtle or alligator to bite through it!

A Submersible Pump
Turbines and Jet Pumps

A turbine pump is basically a centrifugal pump mounted underwater and attached by a shaft to a
motor mounted above the water. The shaft usually extends down the center of a large pipe. The
water is pumped up this pipe and exits directly under the motor. Turbine pumps are very efficient
and are used primarily for larger pump applications. Often they consist of multiple stages, each
stage is essentially another pump stacked on top of the one below. It works like a train with
multiple engines hitched together pulling it, each stage would be a engine. Turbine pumps are
typically the type of pumps you see on farms. When you see a huge motor mounted on its end
and a pipe coming out sideways below the motor, that is most likely the motor for a turbine
pump down inside the well. I use turbine pumps for large parks and golf courses where we are
pumping from lakes. The turbine pump is mounted in a large concrete vault with a pipe
connecting it to the lake. The water flows by gravity into the vault where it enters the pump. The
pump motors are suspended over the vault on a frame. I usually use two or three different sized
pumps side-by-side to handle different flow combinations. A jet pump is similar to a turbine
pump but it works by redirecting water back down to the intake to help lift the water.
Booster Pumps

You're going to run into the term booster pump now and then as they are common in irrigation,
so let's start by defining it. Most pumps are used to take water from a standing (or non-
pressurized) source and move it to another location. For example, a pump might take water from
a lake and move it to a sprinkler system. A booster pump, on the other hand, is used to increase
the water pressure of water that is already on its way somewhere. Example; say you have a
sprinkler system that needs 80 PSI of pressure to operate. But the water line coming onto your
property only has 50 PSI of pressure. In this cases you would install a booster pump to raise the
pressure from 50 PSI up to 80 PSI for your sprinkler system. So to put it another way, a booster
pump is used to "boost "the water pressure. Any of the types of pumps listed below can be used
as a booster pump, but almost all booster pumps are the "end-suction centrifugal "type. More on
that later.

What is a Floating Pump?

A floating pump is simply a submersible pump or a turbine pump that is attached to the bottom
of a float. The pump hangs below the float, and the float is anchored in a lake, pond, or river. A
flexible pipe is used to take the water from the pump to the irrigation system. A floating pump is
a good option to look into for installing a pump in a pond or lake. It is often much easier to
install than a standard submersible, jet-pump, or turbine and is much more energy efficient than
an end-suction centrifugal. Floating fountains and pond aerators are another utilization of
floating pump technology.

Priming

Most centrifugal pumps are not self-priming. In other words, the pump casing must be filled with
liquid before the pump is started, or the pump will not be able to function. If the pump casing
becomes filled with vapors or gases, the pump impeller becomes gas-bound and incapable of
pumping. To ensure that a centrifugal pump remains primed and does not become gas-bound,
most centrifugal pumps are located below the level of the source from which the pump is to take
its suction. The same effect can be gained by supplying liquid to the pump suction under
pressure supplied by another pump placed in the suction line.

DETERMINATION OF THE IRRIGATION SCHEDULE FOR CROPS

Plant Observation Method

 The plant observation method determines "when" the plants have to be irrigated and is based on
observing changes in the plant characteristics, such as changes in colour of the plants, curling of
the leaves and ultimately plant wilting. The changes can often only be detected by looking at the
crop as a whole rather than at the individual plants. When the crop comes under water stress the
appearance changes from vigorous growth (many young leaves which are light green) to slow or
even no growth (fewer young leaves, darker in colour, and sometimes greyish and dull).

The disadvantage of the plant observation method is that by the time the symptoms are evident,
the irrigation water has already been withheld too long for most crops and yield losses are
already inevitable. It is important to note that it is not advisable to wait for the symptoms.
Especially in the early stages of crop growth (the initial and crop development stages), irrigation
water has to be applied before the symptoms are evident.

Leaf temperature
Another indicator of water availability is the leaf temperature. If the leaves are cool during the
hot part of the day (Figure 11), the plants do not suffer from water stress. However, if the leaves
are warm, irrigation is needed. Special devices (infra-red thermometers) have been developed to
measure the leaf temperature in relation to the air temperature. However, they must be calibrated
for specific conditions before being used to determine the irrigation schedule.

soil moisture measurements

Another method used to determine the irrigation schedule involves soil moisture measurements in
the field. When the soil moisture content has dropped to a certain critical level, irrigation water is
applied. Instruments to measure the soil moisture include gypsum blocks, tensiometers and neutron
probes. Their use, however, is beyond the scope of this manual.

Estimation Method

Estimating the Irrigation Schedule

In this section, a table is provided to estimate the irrigation schedule for the major field crops
during the period of peak water demand; the schedules are given for three different soil types and
three different climates. The table is based on calculated crop water needs and an estimated root
depth for each of the crops under consideration. The table assumes that with the irrigation method
used the maximum possible net application depth is 70 mm. With respect to soil types, a
distinction has been made between sand, loam, and clay, which have, respectively, a low, a
medium and a high available water content. With respect to climate, a distinction is made
between three different climates.
 DRAINAGE
It is the removal of excess water from the farm e.g. water logged areas.

Drainage system
It is the means by which excess water in the field is collected and disposed.

Various drainage system layout alternatives.

The goal of drainage system layout and design is to provide adequate and uniform drainage of a field
or area.

Drainage outlets are typically located three to five feet below the soil surface. Sometimes pumping is
required to create an adequate outlet. The bottom of an outlet pipe should be located above the
normal water level in a receiving ditch or waterway. It is expected that floods or high water levels
may submerge the outlet briefly. Drainage outlets must be kept clean of weeds, trash, and rodents.
Outlets must also be protected from erosion, damage from machinery and cattle, and ice in flowing
water.

Drain sizing
The maximum amount of water a drainage pipe can carry (its capacity) depends on the pipe's inside
diameter, the grade or slope at which it's installed, and what the pipe is made of (e.g., smoother pipe
 has a greater flow capacity, all else being equal). Typically, full-flow pipe capacities for specific
grades, pipe sizes, and pipe materials can be obtained from a number of sources.

Sources of excess water in the farm

1. When there is excess rainfall. This is the water which is above crop water requirements e.g.
surface run off.
2. Canal seepage-This happens to soil which has high permeability.
3. Artesian condition-This happens when the areas we are irrigating is below the surrounding water
table.
4. Flooding-This is sudden excess foreign water.
5. Seepage under earth structures (earth dam). This is water that comes out of the earth dams in form of
springs.
6. Over irrigation-This is applying more water than required in the field.

Reasons or aims of drainage

1) To improve farm mechanization i.e. facilitate the use of machine in the land.
2) Reduce crop failure due to water logging

3) Improve soil structure

4) Increase the size of land for cultivation

5) Increase crop yields

6) To facilitate the removal of toxic substances from the soil e.g. soluble salts

7) To reduce water erosion

8) To reduce water volume on the land surface

9) To reduce leaching of plant nutrients

Solution to excess water

1) It can be removed by laying drains, sub surface drainage e.g. use of perforated pipes.
2) Through deep cultivation-This allows much water to be taken by soil
3) It can e done by use of open channels i.e. whether lined or not-surface drainage
4) Pumping of the water beneath the soil
METHODS OF DRAINAGE
Types of drainage systems
Drainage systems may be divided into two categories, surface and subsurface.
Each has several components with similar functions but different names. At the lower, or disposal, end
of either system is an outlet. In order of decreasing size,
Components of a surface system
i. main collection ditch
ii. field ditch
iii. field drain

Components of subsurface system

i. main
ii. submain
iii. lateral conduits from the submain.

The outlet is the point of disposal of water from the system;

The main carries water to the outlet;
the submain or field ditch collects water from a number of smaller units and carries it to the main;
the lateral or field drain, the smallest unit of the system, removes the water from the soil.

The outlet for a drainage system may be a natural stream or river or a large constructed ditch.

Surface drainage
This deals with storm run off or collection of surface water e.g. urban drainage. The
design of surface run off structures include;-
1) Estimate the expected discharge of run off using the cooks range formulae
Q= CIA
360
Location of the drainage e.g. the layout of the drainage system should be
economical and it is based on the geographical of the land e.g. topography
2) Determine the direction of the drainage based on the manning formulae
V= R2/3 S1/2
n

Surface drains operate mainly by gravity flow. The drains are always below the ground
surface level unlike irrigation canal which are often above ground surface.

Methods of surface drainage

 1. Random ditches: These are depressions dug on the field randomly. The ditches can be
connected to lead water out through the outlets. A survey has to be conducted in the situation
of the ditches so that water can flow from ditch to ditch.
The survey includes leveling and contouring
a) -The outlet can be a natural water way or artificially constructed.
b) -The channel slope or gradient should be in such a way that it is non
erosion

2. Bedding/chambered beds: These are open channels which are constructed to collect and take
away excess water. They are constructed by use of a plough (ridgers). This method
of drainage is slow.
3. Parallel field drains (Herringbone): These are constructed by excurating channels
which are parallel. They can be constructed manually by use of machines

4. Land grading: This is providing a flat plane smooth land surface. The land surface can be
flattened through cut and fill method in order to attain a level or flat land. The method includes
soil erosion control measures.
 5. Sub surface drainage
Subsurface drainage method operates below the ground level and it is used to;-
a) Improve internal drainage of the soils with low permeability and thus improve the movement of
air and water within the soil
b) Lower the high water table
c) To control the water table which could otherwise rise to the ground surface
Methods of sub surface drainage
a) Tube or pipe drains-This involves the use of perforated pipes laid underground for collecting water
from above surface. The pipe collects and drains away the water.

b) Mole drains-These are special holes which are dug by a special machine and implements
beneath the soil surface. Mole drains are made or a special soil particularly clay soils. Moles are
made or reinforced by the expander which enlarge and compact the lining of the mole
c) French drains-They are normally made through excavating the channel and filling it with
stones and at the top fine aggregates are placed so that water can sink. The stones create voids or
spaces hence the soils should not be compacted.
d) Tile drains-It involves the use of porous pipes that are laid underground the pipes may be
concrete pipes that allows water into the empty parts since the external pressure is greater hence
water sieves into the pipe at high velocity.
 6. Pumped wells-A water pump is used to pump out water from a low level area
surrounded by high ground

N/B The commonest system of drainage is the use of field ditches because it is cheaper

Each of the above system can be compared and adopted relatively to one another in terms
of;-
a) Amount of land they take
b) Hindrance to movement
c) The cost of installation
d) Machinery requirement
e) Maintenance cost e.g. prevent the drainage system from siltation,
clogging and weeds
Drainage Water disposal
Water collected can be disposed in the following ways;-
a) Into swamps
b) Into water ponds/dams
c) Into streams/rivers
d) Into natural/artificial water way
Maintenance of drainage system
a) Inspect the drainage system after every rain storm and repair if
broken.
b) The drains which may collapse can be lined by concrete
c) Remove weeds from the drainage system
d) Remove the soil siltation from the drainage system