SCIENCE,

TECHNOLOGY,
AND SOCIETY
(STS)
GE3

KEN MIRASOL, LPT, MAED

Instructor
Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to:

§ discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and

Freud contributed to the spark of scientific revolution; and

§ analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the

world like in Latin America, East Asia, Middle East, and Africa.
INTRO
The lesson will give light to the development of science and
scientific ideas in the heart of the society. It is the goal of this lesson
to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and
technology.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Science is as old as the world itself.
No individual can exactly identify when and where science began.
From the genesis of time, science has existed.
It is always interwoven with the society.
HOW CAN SCIENCE BE DEFINED?

Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or discipline, a

field of study, or a body of knowledge that deals with the process of
learning about the natural and physical world. This is what we refer
to as school science.

Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic

and practical study of the natural and physical world. This process of
study involves systematic observation and experimentation.
HOW CAN SCIENCE BE DEFINED?

Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available

systematic explanations and observations about the natural and
physical world.

Science as a personal and social activity. It encompasses a

systematic and practical study of the natural and physical world. This
process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation.
EUROPE
The idea of scientific
revolution is claimed to
have started in the early
16th century up to the
18th century in Europe.

Why?
The probable answer is the invention of the printing machine and the
blooming intellectual activities done in various places of learning, and
the growing number of scholars in various fields of human interests.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
It is the period of enlightenment when the developments in
the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and
chemistry transformed the views of the society about nature.

1
It explained the emergence of birth of modern science as a result
of these developments from the disciplined mentioned.

2 reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life.
The ideas generated during this period enabled people to

3 It ignited vast human interests to rethink how they do science and

view scientific processes.
 GOLDEN AGE
The scientific revolution was the golden age for people
committed to scholarly life in science.

DEEPLY TRYING MOMENT

The scientific revolution was a deeply trying moment to some
scientific individuals that led to their painful death or
condemnation from religious institutions who tried to
preserve their faith, religion, and theological views. Some
rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early
works of scientists.
Scientific revolution Scientific revolution
led to the creation transformed the
of new research natural world and
fields in science. the world of ideas.

Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution

 SOME INTELECTUALS AND
THEIR REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS
It is important to examine the different individuals to further
understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution.

Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical

thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and the natural world.

Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to
discover.
CREATIVITY
SCIENTISTS SCIENCE IDEAS

Passion to know SCIENCE

CURIOSITY DISCOVERIES
Passion to
discover TECHNOLOGY
CRITICAL
THINKING

Figure 2. Variables that Influence the Development of Science

Ideas, Science Discoveries, and Technology
NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
He is renowned for his heliocentric
model of the solar system, which
proposed that the Sun, not the Earth,
was at the center of the universe. His
work laid the foundation of modern
astronomy and our understanding of
the solar system.

Knowledge about the nature of universe had been

essentially unchanged since the great days of
Ancient Greece, some 1500 years before
Copernicus came on the scene which continued 1473 – 1543
up to the Renaissance period. 70 years old
By the time Copernicus finished his doctorate degree, he was
appointed as Canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland.
Despite of his duty as Canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his
interest in astronomy.
He was strongly influenced by
a book entitled Epitome by
German author Johannes
Muller which was published
in 1496. It contains Muller’s
observations of the heavens
and some commentary on
earlier works especially that of
Ptolemy.
1510
Copernicus's idea and model of the universe was essentially
complete. Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas
to his few close friends in a manuscript called Commentarilos (Little
Commentary).
***There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of
persecution by the Church if he published his ideas formally.

1543
The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
(On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as the
start of the scientific revolution.
In his book …
1 He wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved
around a single center at unvarying rates.

2 He placed the sun to be the centerpiece of the universe.

3 The earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the
sun each year.

4 The moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the earth.

Copernicus’ Model of the earth orbiting around the sun automatically positioned the
planets into a logical sequence. In his model, he outlined two kinds of planetary
motions.
 The orbits of Venus and The orbits of Mars, Saturn, and
1 Mercury lay inside the
orbit of the Earth.
Jupiter lay outside Earth’s orbit.
Thus, farther from the sun.
2

From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for
each planet to orbit once around the sun. The result would form a
sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year.
The problem: The position of the star. The stars cannot be placed
in a fixed position like crystals in a distance spheres.

v Copernican model was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an

unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics.

v The Catholic Church banned the Copernican model and was

ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th Century.

1510 1543 16th Century

Circulated Published De revolutionibus
Commentarilos orbium coelestium
(Little Commentary) (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres)
Think about these questions
1. What is the contribution of Copernicus in the
philosophy of science?
2. Do you think thought experiment is still useful in
science in the present time?
3. Do you think the Church should intervene in
scientific activities?
CHARLES DARWIN
He was a British naturalist and biologist
who is known for his groundbreaking
work on the Theory of Evolution by
natural selection. Darwin’s ideas
revolutionized our understanding of the
diversity of life on Earth and its origins.

Darwin changed our concept of the world’s

creation and its evolution.

1809 – 1882
73 years old
v Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who came from a
line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family.
v He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a
student at Shrewbury School.
v He would also spend time taking long walks to observe his
surroundings while collecting specimens and he pored over books
in his father’s library (Gribbin, 2003).

v According to Johnson (2012), Darwin went to the best schools but

was observed to be a mediocre student. He struggled in his study
in medicine and ministry, which his father imposed to him.
Darwin’s life soon changed when one of
his professors recommended him to join
a five-year voyage through the HMS
Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.

Darwin published his book The Origin

of Species in 1589. His book presented
evidence of how species evolved over
time and presented traits and adaptation
that differentiate species.

Like many other scholars, Darwin accumulated

many pertinent materials and data that he could
ever possibly need to substantiate his theory.
His book The Descent of Man was so
impressive yet very controversial. He
introduced the idea of all organic life,
including human beings, under the realm
of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the
dominant views of a religious or biblical
design that places human beings in a
priveledged position of having been
created by God. Darwin’s theory of
evolution significantly questioned this view.
Darwin’s accomplishment were so diverse that it is
useful to distinguish two fields to which he made
major contributions:
1. Evolutionary biology
2. 2. Philosophy of science
Think about these questions
1. What is Darwin’s contribution to modern science?
2. How can Darwin’s evolutionary theory influence
the following fields in modern times:
a. Economy
b. Agriculture
c. Political science
d. Religion
 ECONOMY AGRICULTURE
Understanding how species Selective breeding, based on the
adapt to changing environments principles of variation and
can provide insights into how inheritance, can lead to the
businesses and industries must development of more productive
adapt to remain competitive. and resilient agricultural species.

POLITICAL SCIENCE RELIGION

Concepts like competition for It has challenged some traditional
resources and the evolution of religious beliefs about the creation of
political systems have been life. However, many religious individuals
and groups have reconciled their faith
explored.
with evolutionary theory, seeing it as a
way that God's design operates.
SIGMUND FREUD
An Austrian neurologist and the founder
of psychoanalysis, a field of psychology
that focuses on the study of the
unconscious mind and the role of
unconscious desires and conflicts in
human behavior.

For Freud, psychoanalysis is a scientific way to

study the human mind neurotic illness. It is no
doubt that amidst all questions on his work that led
to some sort of academic controversy, his method
of psychoanalysis had great impact on the
1856 – 1939
scientific way of understanding human nature. 83 years old
v According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis was
proven to be effective in understanding some neurological
conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time.

v His method was unorthodox – focusing on human sexuality and the

evil nature of man.
This posed immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time.
To some, they found his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human
sexuality.

v Freud was born in much later period from the scientific revolution
but his contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of
the human scene, including art, literature, philosophy, politics, and
psychotherapy.
Think about these questions
1. By looking for other sources and literatures, what
are the controversies or questions on Freud’s
Theory?
2. How can you describe Freudian ideas as a
scientist?
3. If Freud is still alive today, what do you think are
the major changes he would make to his theory?
 By looking for other sources and literatures, what are the
1 controversies or questions on Freud’s Theory?

Lack of empirical evidence. Freud's theories often lack empirical

support, and some critics argue that they are not scientifically
testable.
Overemphasis on sexuality. Some have criticized Freud for placing
excessive emphasis on sexual development as a primary driver of
human behavior, potentially neglecting other factors.

Gender and cultural biases. Critics have noted that Freud's theories,
particularly his ideas about female psychology, are seen as culturally
and gender biased.
2 How can you describe Freudian ideas as a scientist?

Describing Freudian ideas as a scientist involves recognizing their

historical significance and influence on psychology while also
acknowledging their limitations. From a scientific perspective,
Freud's work laid the groundwork for the study of the unconscious
mind and the importance of early experiences in shaping personality.
However, many of his ideas lack empirical validation and have been
largely superseded by more evidence-based approaches in
contemporary psychology.
 If Freud is still alive today, what do you think are the major
3 changes he would make to his theory?

Incorporating more empirical research. He might seek to validate his

concepts with modern research methods to provide empirical support for
his theories.

Addressing cultural and gender biases. Revising his ideas about gender
and culture to make them more inclusive and culturally sensitive.

Integrating neuroscience. Incorporating neuroscientific findings into his

theory to better understand the biological basis of human behavior.
 If Freud is still alive today, what do you think are the major
3 changes he would make to his theory?

Updating terminology. Freud's terminology and terminology in

psychoanalysis could be revised to align with modern psychological and
scientific terminology.

Recognizing the complexity of human behavior. He might acknowledge

that human behavior is influenced by a multitude of factors beyond
sexuality and early childhood experiences
 CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE
Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the

entire area of Central America
from Southern Mexico up to
the border of South America.

There is no doubt that the

Mesoamerican region is rich in
culture and knowledge prior to
the arrivals of its European
colonizers.
THE MAYA CIVILIZATION
The Maya Civilization is one
of the famous civilizations
that lasted for approximately
2000 years.

These people are known for

their works in Astronomy.
They incorporated their
advanced understanding of
astronomy into their temples
and other religious
structures. Pyramid at Chichen Itza, Mexico
The pyramid is situated at the location of the sun during the spring and fall
equinoxes.
v The Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies
was advanced for their time, as evidence by their knowledge of
predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and
harvesting.

v Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated
calendar systems. These calendars were very useful for their life
especially in planning their activities and in observing their
religious rituals and cultural celebrations.
 Tzolk’in was the sacred 260-day calendar
Tzolk’in.
also known as the “Divine Calendar” or
“Count of Days”. It was composed of 20 day
signs (glyphs) combined with a numbered
series from 1 to 13. It was used for various
ceremonial and divinatory purposes and had
significant religious and cultural importance.

Haab’ was the solar calendar, consisting

Tzolk’in.
of 18 months, each with 20 days, plus an
additional 5-day period at the end known as
“Wayeb.” In total, it had 365 days, similar to
Gregorian calendar. It was primarily used for
agricultural and civil purposes, such as planting and harvesting crops and planning
daily life.
v The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different
crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and
tools.
v They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to
supply water to different communities.

v They used various tools and

adapt themselves to
innovations especially in the
field of arts.

They built looms for weaving cloth and

devised a rainbow of glittery paints made
from a mineral called mica.
The mineral mica
v The Mayans are also believed to be one of the first people to
produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received
its patent in 1844.
v The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically
advanced societies in Mesoamerica.

v They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use
a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics.

v They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number

system based on the numeral 20.

v They independently developed the concept of zero and positional

value, even before the Romans did.
THE INCA CIVILIZATION

The Inca civilization is also

famous in Mesoamerica. The
Incas made advanced
scientific ideas considering
their limitations as an old
civilization.

Inca Civilization
The following were scientific ideas and tools that
Incas developed to help them in everyday life:
v roads paved with stones;

v stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;

v irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to
grow in all types of land;

v calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and

prepare them for planting seasons;
The following were scientific ideas and tools that
Incas developed to help them in everyday life:
v the first suspension bridge;

v Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only

experts can interpret; and

v Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic
achievements.
THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION
Following the Inca, the
Aztec civilization has also
made substantial
contributions to science
and technology and to the
society as a whole.

Aztec Civilization
Some of the contributions of Aztec are the
following:
MANDATORY EDUCATION 1
The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are
mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or
age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education.

CHOCOLATES 2
The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. Aztec
valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to
their gods.

*In the Mayan culture, they use it as a currency.

Some of the contributions of Aztec are the
following:
ANTISPASMODIC MEDICATION 3
They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent
muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.

CHINAMPA 4
It is a form of Aztec technology for agriculture farming in which the
land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
Some of the contributions of Aztec are the
following:
AZTEC CALENDAR 5
This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting
season.

INVENTION OF THE CANOE 6

A light narrow boat used for travelling in water systems.
 CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE
Development of Science in Asia
Asia is the biggest continent in the
world and the home of many ancient
civilizations. It is a host to many cultural,
economic, scientific, and political
activities of all ages.

In the field of science, technology, and

mathematics, great civilizations stood
out: India, China, and the Middle East
civilizations. These civilizations were
incomparable in terms of their
contributions to the development of
knowledge during their time.
INDIA
India is a huge peninsula
surrounded by vast bodies
of water and fortified by
huge mountains in its
northern boarders. The
Indians creatively
developed various ideas
and technologies useful in
their everyday lives. They
are known for
manufacturing iron and in
metallurgical works. Indian Civilization
v Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high
regard in the whole Roman Empire.

v India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a

system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India
before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative
medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants
that led them to develop medicine to cure various illness. Some
ancient texts like Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical
and other medical procedures famous in Ancient India.
v Ancient India is also notable in the field of
astronomy. They developed theories on the
configuration of the universe, the spherical
self-supporting earth, and the year of 360
days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.

Sama (2008) noted that their interest in

astronomy was also evident in the first 12
chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written
in the 12th century.
v According to Sama (2008), this ancient text
covered topics such as: mean longitudes of
the planets; true longitudes of the planets;
the three problems of diurnal rotation;
syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses;
latitude of the planets; risings and settings;
the moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the
planets with each other; conjunctions of the
planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of
the sun and moon.
v Ancient India is also known for their mathematics.

Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest traces of mathematical

knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the Indus Valley
Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982),
tried to standardized measurement of length to a high degree of
accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjo-daro ruler.
ARYABHATA
He is an Indian astronomer and
mathematician. In his Aryabhatiya, he
introduced a number of trigonometric
functions, tables, and techniques, as well
as algorithms of algebra.
v Introduced the alphabetical counting system.
v The first to do calculations on the square and
cubic roots.
v Gave solutions to equations by = ax + c and
by = ax – c
v The first to provide approximation of 𝜋 and the
one who said that it is an irrational number.
v He formulated the tables of sines.
476-550
v The first to sum the first n integers. 80 years old
BRAHMAGUPTA
He is often considered one of the most
significant mathematicians of ancient India
and made important contributions to
various fields, including mathematics and
astronomy.

Brahmagupta's most famous work is the

"Brahmasphutasiddhanta," which can be
translated as "The Correctly Established Doctrine
of Brahma." Believe to have been born around
598 CE and died around 668 CE
70 years old
v Gravity. He suggested that gravity was a force of attraction.
v Introduction of Zero. He introduced the concept of zero as a
numerical digit in its own right. He recognized its importance in place
value notation and arithmetic operations, which had a profound
impact on mathematics worldwide.
v Negative Numbers. He developed rules for dealing with negative
numbers and defined operations involving positive and negative
integers.
v Algebra. He contributed in solving indeterminate equations of the
second degree and quadratic equations.
v Geometry. He worked on the understanding of plane figures, such as
quadrilaterals, and their properties.
v Numeral System. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used
universally throughout the world.
MADHAVA OF
SANGAMAGRAMA
He was an Indian mathematician and
astronomer who lived in the 14th century.
He was a significant figure in the Kerala
School of Mathematics and made
pioneering contributions to the fields of
calculus and mathematical analysis.

1340 BC – 1425 BC
85 years old
v Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered as the founder of
mathematical analysis.
v In trigonometry, He has discovered power series expansions
of arctangent, sine, and cosine function.
v He has derived the π infinite series summation formulae.
v He was the one who has taken the initiative in the
development of calculus.
v Madhava improved the works of great mathematicians like the
works of Bhāskara II.
v By iteration and continued fractions, He also discovered the
solutions of transcendental equations.
v He polynomial expansion methods.
v He also found an infinite series of tests of convergence.
v He explained the infinite continued fractions.
v He created the sin table in trigonometry.
v He also worked on to derive the value of mathematical
constant 𝜋.
v He evaluated the value of number series to n terms.
v He has done a significant development in mathematics in
Kerala.
CHINA
China is one of the ancient
civilizations with substantial
contributions in many areas of
life like medicine, astronomy,
science, mathematics, arts,
philosophy and music among
others. Chinese civilizations
have greatly influenced many of
its neighbor countries like
Korea, Japan. Philippines,
Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia,
Myanmar, and other countries
that belong the old Silk road. Chinese Civilization
Traditional medicine. The Chinese are known for traditional
medicine, a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of
the Chinese people. They discovered various medical properties
and uses of different plants and animals to cure illness. An example
of acupuncture.

Technology. The Chinese are known to develop many tools.

Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese
civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing
tools that became in the West only by the end of Middle Ages.
They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and
propeller, among others. They developed a design of different
models of bridges, invented the first seismological detector, and
developed a dry dock facility.
Astronomy. The Chinese made significant records on supernovas,
lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which where carefully
recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies
and their effects to the world.

Seismology. The Chinese are also known in seismology. This

made them more prepared in times of natural calamities.

China made substantial contributions in various fields. These were made

along with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine.
However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from
developing into modern science. According to Needham (1986), it may
have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese
intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of
nature.
MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES
The middle east countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the
spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship,
or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century.

Muslim scientists placed greater value on science

experiments rather than plan-thought experiments.
This led to the development of the scientific method in
the Muslim world.

Ibn a-Haytham is regarded as Father of Optics, especially for his 965 CE – 1040 CE
empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. 75 years old
 1

In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn

Musa Al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of
algorithm while the term algebra is derived from
al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his
publications.

What is now known as the Arabic Numeral System originally

came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make
several refinements to the number system such as the
introduction of the decimal point system.

Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi 780 CE – 850 CE

70 years old
 1

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an

important role in the foundation of modern chemistry.

In particular, some scholars consider Jabir ibn Hayyan

to be the “Father of Chemistry.”

Jabir ibn Hayyan 780 CE – 850 CE

70 years old
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our life today with the
advancement in science and
technology.
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