Name: Mohamed Naleer Abdul Gaffor Email: [email protected] IP: 184.162.144.

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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1.3 The dimensions of a steel (300M) I-beam are b = 50 mm, t = 5 mm, and h = 200
mm (Fig. 1.17). Assume that t and h are to be fixed for an aluminum(7075-T6)
I-beam. Find the width b for the aluminum beam so that its bending stiffness EI
is equal to that of the steel beam. Compare the weights-per-unit length of these
two beams. Which is more efficient weightwise?

Figure 1.17 Dimensions of the cross-section of an I-beam

Solution:
(1) The expression of area moment of inertia I for an I-beam is:
t b h
I= (h − t ) 3 + [ t 3 + (bt )( ) 2 ] × 2 , by applying Parallel Axis Theorem.
12 12 2
(2) First obtaining the area moment of inertia of the steel (300M) I-beam with given b,
t, and h.
5 50 200 2
I Steel = (200 − 5) 3 + [ ⋅ 5 3 + (50 ⋅ 5)( ) ] × 2 = 8090573mm 4
12 12 2
(3) For the given condition ( EI ) Alu min um = ( EI ) Steel
E St 200
we have I Al = I St = × 8090573 = 22790000mm 4
E Al 71
which allows to calculate the width b for the aluminum beam with the following
result:
5 b 200 2
I Al = ( 200 − 5 )3 + [ ⋅ 5 3 + ( b ⋅ 5 )( ) ]×2
12 12 2
= 3089531.3 + 100020.8b = 22790000

and b = 197 mm
---- ANS
(4) Then we compare the weights-per-unit length of these two beams.

1.3.1

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The weights-per-unit length is defined as

w = ρ ⋅ A , where ρ = density , and A = cross-sectional area
(i) For the Steel beam

ρ St = 7.8( g / cm 3 ) = 7.8 × 10 −3 ( g / mm 3 )

ASt = (200 − 5) × 5 + 2 × 50 × 5 = 1475( mm 2 )

wSt = ρ St ⋅ ASt = 7.8 × 10 −3 × 1475 = 11.5( g / mm )

(ii) For the Aluminum beam

ρ Al = 2.78( g / cm 3 ) = 2.78 × 10 −3 ( g / mm 3 )

AAl = ( 200 − 5 ) × 5 + 2 × 196.97 × 5 = 2945( mm 2 )

w Al = ρ Al ⋅ AAl = 2.78 × 10 −3 × 2944.7 = 8.2( g / mm )

For a unit length of both materials, the aluminum beam is much lighter than the
steel beam. It means that the ALUMINUM BEAM IS MORE EFFICIENT!
--- ANS

1.3.2

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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1.7 Compare the load-carrying capabilities of two beams having the respective
cross-sections shown in Fig. 1.19. Use bending rigidity as the criterion for
comparison. It is given that a = 4 cm, t = 0.2 cm, and the two cross-sections
have the same area.

Figure 1.19 Cross-sections of two beams

Solution:
When using the bending rigidity ( EI ) as a criterion for comparison, Young’s modulus
E and the area moment of inertia I should be estimated.
(1) Young’s modulus E :
Assume the Young’s modulus of the beam having the left-hand-side

cross-section and the right-hand-side cross-section are El and Er ,

respectively.
(2) Moment of inertia I :
(i) Left cross-section:
1 4 1
Il = a = × 4 4 = 21.33cm 4
12 12
(ii) Right cross-section:
b b−t 3
Ir = ( a + 2b) 3 − a --- (a)
12 12
t 3 1 a b
or { I r = a + [ b4 + b2 ⋅ ( + )2 ]× 2 }
12 12 2 2
where b remains unknown. There is another condition, two cross-section
have the same area, which will help to solve b.

Al = a 2 = 4 2 = 16cm 2 , Ar = 2 ⋅ b 2 + a ⋅ t = 2 ⋅ b 2 + 4 ⋅ 0.2

1.7.1

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let Al=Ar => b = 2.7568cm , then we have

Ir =
2.7568
(4 + 2 × 2.7568 )3 − (2.7568 − 0.2 ) ⋅ 4 3 = 184 cm 4
12 12
0 .2 3 1 4 2.7568 2
or { I r = 4 + [ 2.7568 4 + 2.7568 2 ⋅ ( + ) ] × 2 = 184 cm 4 }
12 12 2 2
(3) Performance:
The ratio of the moments of inertia of the two cross-sections can be expressed as
( EI )l EI 21.33 El El E
= l l = = = 0.12 l
( EI )r Er I r 184.18 Er 8.635 Er Er
The cross-section to the right is much better if the same material is used for
both beams.

(i) If Er < 0.12 El

The left cross-section outperforms the right one.
(ii) If Er = 0.12 El
They are equivalent.
(iii) If Er > 0.12 El
The right cross-section outperforms the left one.
--- ANS

1.7.2

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2.1 Consider a unit cube of a solid occupying the region

0 ≤ x ≤ 1 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1
After loads are applied, the displacements are given by
u = αx
v = βy
w=0
(a) Sketch the deformed shape for α = 0.03 , β = −0.01 .
(b) Calculate the six strain components.
(c) Find the volume change ΔV [ ΔV = V (the volume after deformation) – V0

(the original volume) ] for this unit cube. Show that ε xx + ε yy + ε zz ≈ ΔV .

Solution:
(a) Since w = 0 , there is no deformation in the z-direction and the deformation can
be represented in the x-y plane.
The new position of point B after deformation is given by

x ' = 1 + u | x =1, y = 0 = 1 + 0.03 ⋅ 1 = 1.03

y ' = 0 + v | x =1, y =0 = 0 + ( −0.01) ⋅ 0 = 0

New coordinates of B’ = ( 1.03 , 0 )

Similarly, new positions of A, C, D can be obtained as follows:
A’ = ( 0 , 0 )
C’ = ( 1.03, 0.99 )
D’ = ( 0 , 0.99 )
y

A=(0,0) A’=(0,0)
D, 1 C B=(1,0) B’=(1.03,0)
C’
D’ C=(1,1) C’=(1.03,0.99)
0.99 D=(0,1) D’=(0,0.99)

x
A, A’ B B’
1 1.03
--- ANS

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(b) Strain components are:

Normal strain components,
∂u
ε xx = = α = 0.03
∂x
∂v
ε yy = = β = −0.01
∂y
∂w
ε zz = =0
∂z
Shear strain components,
∂u ∂v
γ xy = γ yx = + =0
∂y ∂x
∂u ∂w
γ xz = γ zx = + =0
∂z ∂x
∂v ∂w
γ yz = γ zy = + =0
∂z ∂y
--- ANS
(c) The volume change is defined by
ΔV = V − V0 = x' ⋅ y' ⋅z' −1 = 1.03 × 0.99 × 1 − 1 × 1 × 1 = 0.0197

Also, ε xx + ε yy + ε zz = 0.03 + ( −0.01) + 0 = 0.02 ≈ ΔV = 0.0197

--- ANS
It can also be verified by:
ΔV = V − V0 = ( 1 + ε xx ) ⋅ 1 ⋅ ( 1 + ε yy ) ⋅ 1 ⋅ ( 1 + ε zz ) ⋅ 1 − 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1
= V0 ( 1 + ε xx + ε yy + ε zz + ε xxε yy + ε xxε zz + ε yyε zz + ε xxε yyε zz − 1 )
= V0 ( ε xx + ε yy + ε zz + ε xxε yy + ε xxε zz + ε yyε zz + ε xxε yyε zz )

Since the deformation is very small, we have ε << 1 => higher order terms can
be dropped. Therefore we have

ΔV ≈ V0 (ε xx + ε yy + ε zz ) = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz , since V0 = 1

2.1.2

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2.3 Consider the displacement field in a body:

u = 0.02x + 0.02y – 0.01z cm
v= + 0.01y – 0.02z cm
w = -0.01x + 0.01z cm
Find the locations of the two points (0,0,0) and (5,0,0) after deformation. What
is the change of distance between these two points after deformation? Calculate
the strain components corresponding to the given displacement field. Use the
definition of ε xx to estimate the change of distance between the two points.
Compare the two results.

Solution:
(a) Consider the point (0,0,0), after deformation :

x' = x + u | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0

y ' = y + v | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0

z ' = z + w | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0

So the corresponding location after deformation is (0,0,0)

(b) Consider the point (5,0,0), after deformation :

x' = x + u | x =5, y = 0, z = 0 = 5 + 0.02 × 5 = 5.1

y ' = y + v | x = 5, y = 0 , z = 0 = 0

z ' = z + w | x =5, y = 0, z = 0 = 0 − 0.01 × 5 = −0.05

(c) The change of distance between these two points after deformation.
(1) before deformation:

distance between (0,0,0) and (5,0,0), Dbefore = 5

(2) after deformation:

distance between (0,0,0) and ( 5.1 , 0 , -0.05 ),

Dafter = (5.1 − 0)2 + (0 − 0)2 + (− 0.05 − 0)2 = 5.100245

(3) change of distance δD :

δD = Dafter − Dbefore = 5.100245 − 5 = 0.100245

(d) Calculate the strain components

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∂u ∂u ∂v
ε xx = = 0.02 , γ xy = + = 0.02 + 0 = 0.02 ,
∂x ∂y ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂w
ε yy = = 0.01 , γ yz = + = −0.02 + 0 = −0.02 ,
∂y ∂z ∂y
∂w ∂u ∂w
ε zz = = 0.01 γ xz = + = −0.01 − 0.01 = −0.02
∂z ∂z ∂x
∂u
(e) The normal strain in the x-direction is ε xx = = 0 ,02 . The change of distance
∂x
between the two points can be estimated by
=> ΔD x = ε xx ⋅ ( x 2 − x1 ) = 0.02 ⋅ (5 − 0) = 0.1
(f) Compare the two results
From the displacement field calculation, we have δD = 0.100245 ,
And directly from the strain calculation, we have ΔD = 0.1
They are basically the same when the strain components are small.

2.3.2

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2.4 Consider the problem of simple shear in Example 2.1 and Fig. 2.5. From the
deformed shape, find the normal strain for material along the line CB by
comparing the deformed length C ' B' and undeformed length CB .
Set up new coordinates (x’,y’) so that the x’-axis coincides with CB , and y’ is
perpendicular to the x’-axis. The relation between (x,y) and (x’,y’) is given by
x' = x cos θ + y sin θ
y ' = − x sin θ + y cos θ
where θ = 45 o is the angle between x’ and the x-axis.
Write the displacements u’ and v’ in the x’ and y’ directions, respectively, in
terms of the new coordinates x’ and y’. The relation between (u’,v’) and (u,v) is
the same as between (x’,y’) and (x,y). Then calculate the strains using u’ and v’,
i.e.,
∂u '
ε ' xx =
∂x'
∂v'
ε ' yy =
∂y '
∂u ' ∂v'
γ ' xy = +
∂y ' ∂x'

Compare ε ' xx with the normal strain (along CB ) obtained earlier.

Solution:
(a) The result of example 2.1 gives the new positions of A, B, C, D, which are
A’(0.01,0), B’(1.01,1.015), C’(0,0), D’(1,0.015).
From which we obtain

CB = (1 − 0)2 + (1 − 0)2 = 2 = 1.414214

C ' B' = (1.01 − 0)2 + (1.015 − 0)2 = 1.431896

and the normal strain along the line CB is

C ' B ' − CB 1.431896 − 1.414214
ε= = = 0.0125
CB 1.414214
--- ANS
(b) The relation between (x,y) and (x’,y’) is given by
x' = x cos θ + y sin θ
y ' = − x sin θ + y cos θ
which can be written in matrix form as

2.4.1

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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⎧ x '⎫ ⎧x⎫
⎨ ⎬ = [β ]⎨ ⎬ --- (1)
⎩ y '⎭ ⎩ y⎭
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤
where the transformation matrix is [β ] = ⎢ ⎥ , and θ = 45 o
⎣− sin θ cos θ ⎦
From this equation we can get the equivalent form:
⎧x⎫ −1 ⎧ x ' ⎫ T ⎧ x'⎫
⎨ ⎬ = [β ] ⎨ ⎬ = [β ] ⎨ ⎬ --- (2)
⎩ y⎭ ⎩ y '⎭ ⎩ y '⎭
⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤
Here it is easy to prove that [β ] = [β ] = ⎢
−1 T
⎥
⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎦
Since displacements transform like coordinates, we can write
⎧u '⎫ ⎧u ⎫
⎨ ⎬ = [β ]⎨ ⎬ --- (3)
⎩v'⎭ ⎩v ⎭
From example 2.1 we have the displacement field : u = 0.01 y , v = 0.015x ,
where we can also write in matrix form,
⎧u ⎫ ⎡ 0 0.01⎤ ⎧ x ⎫
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬ --- (4)
⎩v ⎭ ⎣0.015 0 ⎦ ⎩ y ⎭
So the displacements u’ and v’ can be derived, from equation (3) and (4), and by
applying (2), set θ = 45 o , as follows:
⎧u '⎫ ⎧u ⎫ ⎡ 0 0.01⎤ ⎧ x ⎫ ⎡ 0 0.01⎤ T ⎧ x'⎫
⎨ ⎬ = [β ]⎨ ⎬ = [β ]⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬ = [β ]⎢ ⎥[β ] ⎨ y '⎬
⎩v'⎭ ⎩v ⎭ ⎣0.015 0 ⎦ ⎩ y ⎭ ⎣0.015 0 ⎦ ⎩ ⎭
⎡ 0.025 sin θ cos θ 0.01 cos 2 θ − 0.015 sin 2 θ ⎤ ⎧ x'⎫
=⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬
⎣0.015 cos θ − 0.01sin θ − 0.025 sin θ cos θ
2 2
⎦ ⎩ y '⎭
⎡0.0125 − 0.0025⎤ ⎧ x'⎫
=⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬
⎣0.0025 − 0.0125⎦ ⎩ y '⎭
--- ANS
(c) Strains in the new transformed coordinate and displacements are:
∂u '
ε ' xx = = 0.0125
∂x '
∂v'
ε ' yy = = −0.0125
∂y '
∂u ' ∂v'
γ ' xy = + = −0.0025 + 0.0025 = 0
∂y ' ∂x'
--- ANS

Note that ε ' xx is the same as the strain measured along CB .

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