BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
Pre-University Remedial Program
Geography Teaching Material

Compiled by
Ayalneh Yedem (MSc.)

July 2024
Bahir Dar Ethiopia
Contents
UNIT ONE ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. The Science of Geography ............................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 16
2. MAP READING AND INTERPRETATIONS ........................................................................ 16
2.1 Definition and concepts ...................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Uses of maps ....................................................................................................................... 22
2.3 Classification of maps ......................................................................................................... 23
2.4 Marginal Information of Maps............................................................................................ 26
2.5 Conventional Signs and Symbols ....................................................................................... 27
2.6 Map Scale............................................................................................................................ 29
2.7. Measurement on Maps ....................................................................................................... 35
2.7.1 Distance Measurement ................................................................................................. 35
2.7.2 Measurement of areas on maps ............................................................................... 38
2.7.3 Direction of Places on a Map .................................................................................. 39
2.7.4 Locating Places on a Map ............................................................................................ 43
2.8 Relief representation on maps ............................................................................................. 49
2.8.1 Methods of Showing Relief on a Map ......................................................................... 49
2.8.2 Slopes and Gradients.................................................................................................... 64
2.9 Map projection .................................................................................................................... 87
UNIT THREE
3. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE EARTH ........................................................... 91
3.1. Physical Environment of the World ................................................................................... 91
3.1.1 The Earth in the Universe ............................................................................................ 91
3.1.2 Forces that Change the Surface of the Earth ................................................................ 93
3.1.3. Weather and Climate................................................................................................. 105
3.1.4. Natural Regions of the Earth..................................................................................... 127
3.1.5 Ecosystem .................................................................................................................. 133
3.2 Physical Environment of Africa........................................................................................ 135
3.2.1 Position, Size, and Shape of Africa ........................................................................... 135

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 3.2.2 Geological and Relief Structure of Africa ................................................................. 140
3.2.3. Climate of Africa ...................................................................................................... 146
3.2.4 Drainage in Africa...................................................................................................... 154
3.2.5 Natural Vegetation and Wild Animals of Africa ....................................................... 162
3.2.6. Soils of Africa ........................................................................................................... 170
3.3. Physical Environment of Ethiopia ................................................................................... 175
3.31. Location, Size and Shape of Ethiopia ........................................................................ 175
3.3.2. Geological Structure and Relief of the Horn of Africa ............................................. 178
3.3.3. Climate of Ethiopia ................................................................................................... 190
3.3.4. Natural Vegetation and Wild Animals of Ethiopia ................................................... 199
3.3.5. Soils of Ethiopia........................................................................................................ 206
UNIT FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 212
4. HUMAN POPULATION ....................................................................................................... 212
4.1 Concept and Facts about Human Population .................................................................... 212
4.1.1. Sources of Population Data....................................................................................... 212
4.1.2. Components of Population Change .......................................................................... 216
4.1.3. Spatial Distribution of Human Population ................................................................ 224
4.1.4 Population Structures ................................................................................................. 225
4.1.5. Population Theories .................................................................................................. 225
4.2 Human Population of the World ....................................................................................... 232
4.2.1 Size and Trend of World Population Growth ............................................................ 232
4.2.2 Spatial Distribution of World Population .................................................................. 234
4.3 Population of Africa .......................................................................................................... 237
4.3.1 Aspects of Population, Economy and Natural Resources of Africa .......................... 237
4.4 Population of Ethiopia ...................................................................................................... 250
4.4.1 Population Size and Growth Rate .............................................................................. 250
4.4.2. Spatial Distribution of Population ........................................................................ 251
4.4.3. Components of Population Change in Ethiopia ........................................................ 254
4.4.4. Population Structure of Ethiopia ............................................................................... 258
4.4.5 Impacts of Rapid Population Growth ........................................................................ 263
4.4.6. Population Policy of Ethiopia ................................................................................... 264

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 4.4.7. Urbanization .............................................................................................................. 267
UNIT FIVE ................................................................................................................................. 271
5. ECONOMIC GROWTH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ..................................... 271
5.1 Economic Activities .......................................................................................................... 271
5.2 Classification of Economic Activities ........................................................................... 271
5.2.1. Primary Economic Activities .................................................................................... 272
5.2.2 Secondary Economic activities .................................................................................. 276
5.2.3. Tertiary Economic Activities .................................................................................... 278
5.3 Natural Resources ............................................................................................................. 285
5.3.1. Importance of Natural Resources.............................................................................. 286
5.3.2 Classification of Natural Resources ........................................................................... 288
5.3.3 Natural Resources of Africa and its Politics .............................................................. 290
5.4 Economic Systems ............................................................................................................ 295
5.4.1 Traditional Economy .................................................................................................. 295
5.4.2. Market Economy....................................................................................................... 295
5.4.3. Command Economy.................................................................................................. 296
5.4.4. Mixed Economy ........................................................................................................ 297
5.5 Concept and Indicators of Economic Development ......................................................... 298
5.6 Sustainable Economic Development ................................................................................ 300
5.6 Economic Organizations of the World and Globalization ................................................ 302
5.7 Economic Growth and Development in Ethiopia ............................................................. 303
5.7.1 An Overview of Economic Growth and Development Trends in Ethiopia ............... 303
5.7.2 Major Features of Ethiopian Economy ...................................................................... 304
5.7.3 Challenges and Prospects of Socio-economic Development in Ethiopia .................. 307

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 UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. The Science of Geography

1.1.1 Definitions and Concepts

What is geography? Do you think that geography has a single universally accepted definition?
Why? What is science? What makes geography a science?

Before we define what geography is, it is important to define what science is and to decide
whether geography is a science or not. Science is a system of acquiring knowledge through
scientific methods. These methods involve observation, identification, description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. Geography investigates facts and
relationships related to physical and social phenomena, and examines their distribution across the
world and changes over time. The main tools geography uses to gather and analyze information
are observation, systematic description, systematic recording and mapping. As you can see from
its subject matter and methodologies, geography is a subject that bridges the natural and social
sciences.

From the ancient Greeks to modern-day geographers, geography has been defined differently.
However, the various definitions share some common ideas. Here are some of the most
important definitions that geographers have proposed:
Eratosthenes (276-196 BC)– Geography is the description of the earth.
Concise Oxford Dictionary (1964) – Geography is the science of the earth’s surfaces.
Geography is: “a synthesizing discipline to connect the general with the particular
through measurement, mapping, and a regional emphasis.” (Alexander von Humboldt,
1845)
“Nothing less than an understanding of the vast interacting system between human
beings and their environment on the earth’s surface.” (E.A Acreman, 1953)

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 «A science that is meant to provide accurate, orderly, and rational description and
interpretation of the variable character of the earth’s surface. » (Richard Hartshorne,
1959)
“A science concerned with the rational development and testing of theories that explain
and predict the spatial distribution and location of various characteristics on the surface
of the earth.” (M. Yeates, 1968)
“Concerned with the locational or spatial variation in both physical and human
phenomena at the earth’s surface”. (Martin Kenzer, 1989)
“the study of the patterns and processes of human- built and environmental (natural)
landscapes, where the landscapes comprise real (objective) and perceived (subjective)
space.” (Gregg Wassmansdorf, 1995)
“The study of the environment of the earth’s surface and the relationship of humans to
this environment, which includes both physical and cultural geographic features.”
(Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008)

As can be seen from the above definitions, geography does not have a single definition that is
universally accepted. Nonetheless, most of the above definitions emphasize the fact that
geography is a spatial science. Thus, it is possible to synthesize the given definitions and come
up with a commonly acceptable definition. Accordingly, geography can be defined as “the study
of the spatial distribution of both physical and human-made things and phenomena on the earth’s
surface and the two-way interactions and interdependences between natural and human
environments.”
Therefore, geography is the study of: The physical world, its inhabitants, and the interaction
between the two; The resultant patterns and systems of geographical phenomena; Patterns and
processes associated with causes; Relationships between humans and their environment, with
emphasis on spatial perspectives at varying scales.

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In its modern context, spatial perspective is concerned with “where” and “why there” questions
investigating the forces behind the causes and the patterns manifested as a result.
What makes geography a science?
Science is a system of acquiring knowledge through scientific methods. These methods involve:
observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical
explanation of phenomena. Geography investigates facts and relationship related to physical
and social phenomena, and examines their distribution across the world and changes over time.
The main tools geography uses to gather and analyze information are observation, systematic
description, systematic recording and mapping. These facts make geography a spatial science
While making spatial investigations, geographers ask five pertinent questions about the
phenomena they study. These are:
 “WHERE are things located?”
 “WHY are they located where they are?”
 “WHEN did the things form?”
 “WHAT things are found where?” and
 “HOW are they arranged?”
Activity: In a small group, discuss what the “where”, “why there” and “how are they
arranged” questions deal with. Present your results to the class.
The answers to these basic questions are both descriptive and analytical. Answers to the “where”
questions are primarily descriptive in nature as they try to describe the places where things and
phenomena are found. Similarly, answers to the “why there” question try to provide logical
explanations as to what factors determine the location of the phenomena in the places where they
are found. On the other hand, the “How are they arranged” question is primarily analytical. The
answer provides visual explanations of how the studied phenomena are spatially distributed.
Geography tries to provide explanations about our world and the ways in which we live, work,
and carry on socio-economic, political, and cultural activities. In short, geography is a science
that investigates our cultural and natural environments, how we affect them, and how they affect
us. Consequently, it becomes important to note that geography is not only a study of place
names, lengths of rivers, heights of mountains, areas of lakes, capital cities of countries and the
like. It is much more than this.

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1.1.2 Branches of Geography
What are the two branches of geography? Can you list some of the fields of geography that fall
into each of the two branches?
The two main branches of geography are;
i. Physical Geography: This branch of geography studies the distribution of the natural features
of the world, such as climate, landforms, soil, vegetation, and drainage systems. Physical
geography also considers causes, effects and interactions of these features. Physical geography
includes the following specialized fields of study:
Climatology: studies factors that create climate and examines the variation and distribution of
climate and related causes and effects.
Geomorphology: studies the distribution of landforms (such as mountains and plains) and the
forces that change them.
Soil geography: studies the distribution of soils and their characteristics.
Biogeography: studies the distribution of plants and animals in relation to the environments that
they inhabit.
Oceanography: studies the location, causes and effects of ocean currents, waves and tides.
What does human geography study? Do you know the sub-branches of human geography?
ii. Human Geography: This branch of geography studies the distribution and influence of
human aspects of our world, including cultures, population settlement, economic activities
and political systems.
Human geography includes these specialized fields of study:
Cultural geography: studies the distribution and interactions of cultures, including peoples’
beliefs and customs. It also examines the movement, expansion and interaction of cultures on the
surface of the earth.
Population geography: studies the distribution, growth and structure of population.
Economic geography: studies production, consumption and exchange and the spatial
distribution of goods and services and factors affecting them.
Political geography: studies the distribution of political systems and the ways people use them
to exercise power and make decisions.
Urban geography: studies the development and characteristics of towns, cities and other urban
centers.

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Historical geography: is the study of the geography of the past and how places or regions
change over time.
1.1.3 Scope/Coverage of Geography
What is scope? How wide is geography’s scope?
Scope means the range and variety of contents which are included in a subject or field of study.
Geography’s scope is very wide. As the scope is dynamic, it changes often as new discoveries
and ideas enter the field. Geography studies a great many physical and human features of the
world. Its focus includes their causes, effects, and interactions. As indicated above, the subjects
that geography examines include features in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, anthroposphere,
lithosphere and biosphere.
The earth’s surface consists of:
Hydrosphere – It includes all the bodies of water, i.e., oceans, rivers, lakes and others.
Biosphere – This refers to all living organisms in and on the earth’s surface.
Atmosphere – It includes all aspects of air composition surrounding our planet.
Lithosphere – It is the solid layer of rocks which covers the entire surface of the planet.
Anthroposphere- The earth’s cultural landscape.
Geography’s area of study is very wide and diverse in its nature. The subject deals with from the
dry land mass of the lithosphere to the extensive oceans of the hydrosphere, from the earth’s
crust (surface) high into its atmosphere (troposphere) and from the natural environment to
human-related phenomena. Understanding geography is key to understanding and acting
effectively in our world. It is a subject that enables people to understand the earth and its
environment. It also enables us to appreciate the complex balances of the human and physical
elements that bind people to this planet.
It is true that geography has a very wide scope. However, this does not mean that its scope is
limitless. The major areas that geography focuses on are:
The earth, its position in the universe and its movements;
The different physical features that constitute the earth’s surface, the forces that
cause them, their variations from place to place and their changes over time;
The different relationships between human beings and their natural environment.
Also, the interdependence and the impact that each has on the other;

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 The conditions of the lower part of the atmosphere and the subsequent weather and
climatic conditions, together with their spatial distribution and variation
The materials that make up the earth and its diverse land forms;
The major economic activities of humans and the impacts on the environment.
Therefore, it is possible to conclude that although wide in its scope, geography has
certain areas that it focuses upon.
Geography has undergone profound changes in its scope and focus:
In ancient times, geography was considered to be the mother of many other sciences,
including philosophy and the earth sciences.
In the 16thcentury, geography began to emphasize location, focusing on questions of
where, why and what.
In the mid-18th century, European geographers, especially Germans, considered the
relationship between geography with philosophy. This approach caused geography to
focus on the relationship between human and the natural environment. Alexander Von
Humboldt and Carl Ritter were among the major contributors to this approach.
In the 19thcentury, geographical societies and research groups formed. They enhanced
the role of geography as a discipline.
In the late 20thcentury, geography became a spatial science.
1.1.4 Themes and approaches of Geography
Geography has five basic themes namely location, place, human-environment interaction,
movement, and region.
1. Location
Location is defined as a particular place or position. Most studies of geography begin with the
mention of this theme of geography. Location can be of two types: absolute location and relative
location. In the former case, the location of a place is defined by its latitude and longitude or its
exact address.
2. Place
Place refers to the physical and human aspects of a location. This theme of geography is
associated with toponym (the name of a place), site (the description of the features of the place),
and situation (the environmental conditions of the place). Each place in the world has its unique

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characteristics expressed in terms of landforms, hydrology, biogeography, pedology,
characteristics and size of its human population, and the distinct human cultures. The concept of
“place” aids geographers to compare and contrast two places on Earth.
3. Human-Environment Interaction
Humans have always been on ceaseless interaction with their natural environment. No other
species that has lived on our planet has a profound effect on the environment as humans.
Humans have adapted to the environment in ways that have allowed them to dominate all other
species on Earth. Thus, human-environment interaction involves three distinct aspects:
dependency, adaptation, and modification. Dependency refers to the ways in which humans are
dependent on nature for a living. Adaptation relates to how humans modify themselves, their
lifestyles and their behavior to live in a new environment with new challenges. Modification
allowed humans to “conquer” the world for their comfortable living.
4. Movement
Movement entails to the translocation of human beings, their goods, and their ideas from one end
of the planet to another. The physical movement of people allowed the human race to inhabit all
the continents and islands of the world. Another aspect of movement is the transport of goods
from one place on the Earth to another. The third dimension of movement is the flow of ideas
that allows the unification of the human civilization and promotes its growth and prosperity.
5. Region
A region is a geographic area having distinctive characteristics that distinguishes itself from
adjacent unit(s) of space. It could be a formal region that is characterized by homogeneity in
terms of a certain phenomenon (soil, temperature, rainfall, or other cultural elements like
language, religion, and economy). It can also be a functional or nodal region characterized by
functional interrelationships in a spatial system defined by the linkages binding particular
phenomena.
Approaches of Geography
1. How do geographers study geography and geographic phenomena?
2. What are the methods and approaches that they employ? Discuss these questions with
your friends.

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Geographers, like other social scientists, have their own approaches to their subject. The most
frequently adopted approaches are:
A. Regional approach
B. Topical or systematic approach
What are the differences between the regional and systematic approaches? What are the
weaknesses and strengths of each? Discuss these issue, with your desk mate.
A. Topical or Systematic Approach
Unlike the regional approach, the topical or systematic approach applies a specific geographical
element or phenomenon over a defined geographical unit. For example, it takes a phenomenon
such as climate, land forms or culture, and treats the distribution of the selected element over a
country, continent or the world at large. In short, the topical approach seeks to establish general
or common concepts of the phenomena studied, but only in terms of their relationships to
distribution in an area.
Example:
 The geography of hunger
 The geography of climate
 The geography of agriculture
 The geography of population
B. Regional Approach
A geographic study that uses the regional approach focuses on a region – a defined geographic
unit or locality. Within the region, the study examines a variety of geographic features. The
region studied could be a subcontinent, continent or a number of countries that share a common
geographic factor.
Example:
 The geography of Africa, Asia, or Oceania, etc
 The geography of sub-Sahara.
 The geography of the Middle East.
 The geography of the Balkans.
NOTE
A region is an area or spatial unit consisting of similar or homogeneous geographical features

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The similarity could be either physical (i.e., climate, landscapes, etc) or culturalanthropogenic
(i.e., religion, language, economic activity, etc.). Regions vary in area. The size of a region is a
function of the study’s purpose. Regions called micro are relatively small, and those called
macro are relatively large. Dividing the world into regions is a difficult task. However, we may
construct a region on the basis of any one element or interrelated elements.
1.1.5 Major School of Thoughts in Geography
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
compare and contrast the concept of determinism with possibilism;
show appreciation for the significance of quantitative studies;
Verify the importance of applied geography in solving social and environmental
problems.
Geography has gone through a series of changes and developments. The 1930’s, witnessed major
radical changes in the discipline, and were turning points in the history of geography. The most
prominent of these scholars were Alexander Von Humboldt and Karl Ritter. Various schools of
thought have emerged with different views regarding the relationship between humans and their
environment as well as the interpretation of social problems by human. Different schools of
thoughts developed. The main schools are determinism and possibilism. Since the mid-18th C,
we have been observing these two dominant schools of thought that explain relationships
between humans and their environment.

A. School of Determinism
What is the basis of the philosophy of environmental determinism? It was the dominant idea up
to World War I. It advocated that the physical environment directs or is the master in
determining the day-to-day activity of people. Environmental Determinism is a philosophy that
bases its view on the idea that the natural environment is an influencing factor on humans’ mode
of living. It believes that human activities are controlled by the environment. It is based on the
belief that the physical qualities of geographical conditions are the causes not only for people’s
physical differences but also for differences from place to place in people’s economic activities,
cultural practices and social structure. Environmental determinists thus tend to focus on the

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impact of the physical environment on people, rather than the reverse the influence of people on
the environment. This view had strong influences on the geographic writings of the 19th century
and its influence penetrated well into the 20th century. The idea of environmental determinism
was laid down by Greek and Roman scholars. They claimed that the elements of the physical
environment such as climate, relief, soil and the like determine peoples mode of life. Many
scientists agree that the publication of “The Origin of species” by Charles Darwin in 1859 laid
the foundation for the concept of the influence of the environment on people and other
organisms. In the same way, Demolins (1901 and 1903) postulated that “the flourishment of
society is based on the environment.” Furthermore, determinists consider human beings as
passive agents where the physical factors determine their attitude and process of decision
making. However, this outlook was strongly criticized by geographers who favored a new school
of thought known as environmental possibilism. The prominent scholars who supported the
school of determinism were: Charles Darwin, Demolins, F. Rutzel, etc.
Activity
1. Do you agree with the idea of environment conservation? Why or why not?
2. With your friends, discuss why the philosophy of environmental determinism was severely
criticized by the proponents of environmental possibilism.
B. Environmental Possibilism
What do you think about environmental possibilism? How is it different from environmental
determinism? The school of possibilism was postulated by Febvre. His supporters argue that
human beings are masters of the environment and they can judge their benefits. They argued that
there are no necessities but only possibilities. Proponents of this view emphasize that two-way
relationships exist between humans and the environment. They state that people can influence
the environment to enhance their way of life. These geographers agree that the environment can
potentially affect people’s activities, but they believe that we can use our knowledge and skills to
regulate these effects. According to possibilists, it is impossible to explain the difference
between human society and the history of that society without referring to the influence of the
environment. Nowadays, the school of possibilism is becoming widely accepted since it
recognizes human’s ability to change its environment using the latest or better technologies.

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Activity
In a small group, discuss what humans have done so far to modify environments in ways that
enhance their ways of life.
Example: Human beings have been using irrigation to turn barren lands of the deserts into
agriculturally productive areas.
C. The Quantitative Revolution
What was quantitative revolution? How did it affect the significance of geography?
The quantitative revolution was one of the four major changes in the history of geography. The
other three were regional geography, environmental determinism and critical geography. For
centuries, geography had been primarily a descriptive science that tried to describe how things
are distributed on the earth’s surface. The subject focused mainly on the “where” of geographic
features. In the early 1950s, however, socioeconomic, physical, and political features and
processes are spatially organized and ecologically related. The outcomes created by them are
evidenced for a given time and place. As a result, a more abstract, theoretical approach to
geographical research has emerged, and the analytical method of inquiry evolved this new
approach. Used rigorous mathematical formulae, borrowing from the physical sciences. This
movement in geography is called the “Quantitative Revolution”, It began to affect geographers
and major geography departments in universities. What are the contributions of the quantitative
revolution to the development of geography? The revolution was founded by geographers and
statisticians in Europe and the United States. With the purpose of bringing ‘scientific thinking’ to
geography, the quantitative revolution led to an increased use of statistical techniques. In
particular, it emphasized multivariable analysis and the use of computers in geographical
research. The methods adopted included various mathematical techniques that were more precise
than the descriptive methods of regional geography. The quantitative revolution was a response
to the crisis in the 1950’s. The crisis was the result of the challenges that geography faced during
late 1940’s and early 1950’s. Some of the major challenges were:
 The shutting down of many geography departments and courses. for example, the
geography program at Harvard University was abolished in 1948.
 The division between Human and Physical geography was continued demanding the
autonomous subject hood of Human geography.

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  Geography was seen as solely descriptive and unscientific. As some argued, there was no
explanation of why processes or phenomena occur in geography.
 Geography was not useful for solving problems. Hence, it was seen as exclusively
educational
 Questions regarding the nature of geography persisted, for example, it was unclear to
some people whether geography was a science, an art, a humanities subject or a social
science.
The revolution introduced a rapid change in the methodologies used in geographical research.
This change led to a shift from descriptive geography to empirical law-making geography. As a
result, disagreement between scholars of different schools such as those who supported
quantitative methods and those who favored the descriptive approach arose.

Some of the techniques that became central to geography during the quantitative revolution
were:
 Descriptive statistics
 Inferential statistics
 Basic mathematical equations and models, such as gravity models
 Deterministic models e.g., Von Thünen’s and Weber’s location models
 Statistical models, using concepts of probability
The analytical method of inquiry led to the development of logically acceptable generalizations
about the spatial aspects of closely defined events under different natural and cultural conditions.
Generalizations may take the form of tested hypotheses, models, or theories. Adoption of the
analytical approach helped geography to become a more lawgiving science, and the conception
of the discipline as an idiographic field of study became less acceptable. This process began in
the 1980s.

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 D. The Emergence of Applied Geography
What is Applied Geography? When did it appear as a school of thought? Geography has been
used since human beings appeared on earth. Primitive human and his successors had a good
knowledge of the geography of the things that they needed for survival. However, geographic
knowledge had little chance of being used to solve geographic problems. Another major
development occurred in the latter part of the 20th Century in geography. This development was
the development of applied geography; geography became a science that we can use to solve
socio-economic and political problems. Applied geography had its roots in the quantitative
revolution. The emergence of applied geography increased the applicability of geographic
knowledge. Today, many geographers work as urban planners, GIS analysts, environmentalists,
cartographers, location analysts, transportation planners, developing-nations specialists, public-
transportation planners, highway planners, university-facility planners, transportation
logisticians, demographic analysts, etc

1.1.6 Relationship between Geography and other disciplines

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

Relate elements of geographical study with other fields of studies;

Explain the role of geography in connecting various fields of study.

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Geography is an interdisciplinary subject. It has strong relationships with various disciplines in
both the natural and the social sciences. For instance, human geography is highly linked with
social sciences, while physical geography is related to the natural sciences. Knowledge and
information in geography and the other sciences are interchangeable and interdependent.

As you might have noted, many academic disciplines are linked with geography. Among them
are: biology, meteorology, geology, astronomy, economics, political science, history,
demography, sociology, chemistry, and mathematics.

Can you describe how each of the above disciplines relates to geography? How does each
connect to geography’s specialized fields of study?-------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

As indicated earlier, geography is closely linked to the social and natural sciences. Geography
shares facts with them and explains certain aspects of those sciences. Observe how geography
relates to these other sciences:

Biology: is a science that deals with all forms of life, including their classification, physiology,
chemistry, and interactions. As biogeography is the study of plant and animal distribution, it is
linked with biology.

Meteorology: is the scientific study of the earth’s atmosphere, especially its patterns of climate
and weather. Hence, it is related to the sub field of geography called climatology.

Geology: is the study of the internal composition of the earth. It examines the forces that change
the earth’s structure. It also investigates the history of those changes. Geology is linked with
such branches of geography as Geomorphology and soil geography.

Astronomy: is the scientific study of the universe, especially of the motions, positions, sizes,
composition, and behavior of astronomical objects. Topics about the universe, in particular the
solar system, that are taught in geography are borrowed from astronomy.

Economics: is the study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
As economic geography is concerned with economic activities, it is strongly related to this field.
Political Science: is the study of political organizations and institutions, especially governments.
This discipline has strong connections with political geography.

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History: is a systematic and organized study of the past socio-economic and political processes
of human society. History helps us anticipate the future. As it is concerned with the past, it is
strongly linked with historical geography.

Demography: is the study of human populations, including their size, growth, density, and
distribution, and statistics regarding birth, marriage, disease, and death. The body of knowledge
that we learn in population geography is somehow linked with the subject matter of demography.
Physics: is the study of matter and energy and the effects they have on each other.

Sociology: is the study of the origin, development, and structure of human societies and the
behavior of individual people and groups in society. It connects to cultural geography.
Mathematics: is the study of the relationships among numbers, shapes, and quantities. It uses
signs, symbols, and proofs and includes arithmetic, algebra, calculus, geometry, and
trigonometry. Mathematical geography is linked with this academic discipline.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. MAP READING AND INTERPRETATIONS
2.1 Definition and concepts
o What is a map?
Although there are many kinds of maps, it is possible to adopt one definition. Map is a reduced,
selective, symbolized representation of an area on a flat piece of paper or similar material as if
that area is viewed vertically from above. What do you mean when we say a map is reduced
representations of an area? We mean that any given map is definitely smaller than the area it
represents. For example, the map of Bahir Dar and its surroundings is not as large as Bahir Dar
and its surroundings. All maps are therefore reduced representations of geographical realities
since a map is never equal in size to the reality it represents. It is very important to define or
indicate the relationship in size between the map and the corresponding geographical reality it
represents. These are the dimensional relationships between the map and the reality it represents.
As you know, the scale attached to every map expresses this dimensional relationship.
The definition also says that a map is selective. As described above a map is smaller than the
corresponding area it represents. Hence, there is no sufficient space to accommodate all the
features that exist on the corresponding map. As a result, the cartographer has to select the
feature or features to be portrayed on the map. Large scale maps have more space on the map
than small scale maps. Consequently, large scale maps show many features than small scale
maps. For example, the topographical maps of Ethiopia with a scale of 1: 50 000 represents more
features than a map of Ethiopia with a scale of 1: 8 000 000. Any way whether maps are of large
or small scale, both of them show selected features than the corresponding area they represent.
That is why maps are called selective.
Why do we say a map is symbolized representation? A feature on the surface of the earth is
represented by a symbol on a map. A symbol is a sign or mark, which represents a feature on the
map. The legend or key of the map helps us to read what feature is represented by what symbol.
There are commonly agreed symbols to represent features. For example, green color represents
natural vegetation, and blue color represents water bodies. Your instructor is expected to show
you topographical map of Ethiopia so that you can have visual impression of symbols or you can
refer to atlases for the same purpose.

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A map provides orthogonal (view from vertically above). What does this mean? All maps
represent features on the map as if you are looking them from vertically above. For example,
when you see one classroom from above, you can see the view of the length and width of the
classroom. Thus, vertical view from above only enables us to see the two dimensions-length and
width. All maps, except contours maps, show two dimensions of objects as if you are looking
from vertically above.
Map is a representation of the three-dimensional features of the Earth on the two-dimensional
flat map. That means, even though features on the earth have length, width and height, most
maps (except contour map) represent only the two dimensions (length and width). However,
globes, which are also maps, have three dimensions like the earth; also represent features with
two dimensions.
What are the differences between a globe and a map, and between an aerial photograph
and a map? The globe represents the whole Earth with its accurate shape. Distances, areas,
directions and shapes on the surface of the Earth are relatively truly represented on the map. The
map, however, is plane surface which is easier to use but with some unavoidable distortions,
either in shape, area, distance or direction. An aerial photograph shows all visible details of the
area that is photographed whether they are relevant to the purpose of taking photograph or not.
The photographer has no control over the selection of the geographical settings that lie within the
focal range of the camera. Therefore, a photograph, no matter from which level it is taken, shows
details in their visible shapes and sizes. In addition, a photograph shows only those elements,
which are physically present. A map, however, gives only those details, which the mapmaker
wants to portray. Instead of showing the details in their true or visible shape and size, it uses
symbols, which may or may not have similarities with the things represented. A map may also
show invisible patterns. For example, it may show wind patterns, and air mass movements.
These are unique advantages of a map, which one does not normally find in aerial photographs.
So, maps are:
• A two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional features. How? It is symbolized
• A selective representation. Why? (Only things relevant to the purpose of a map are selected
and represented on the map)
• A generalized representation. Why? (Mapmakers select a limited number of features from the
environment to display on the map, and then display these features in a simplified manner)

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• Cartographic abstraction: production of a map requires:

 Selection of the few features in the real world to include.

 Classification of selected features into groups (i.e., Bridges, churches, railways)
 Simplification of jagged lines like coastlines.
 Exaggeration of features to be included that are too small to show at the scale of
the map
 Symbolization to represent the different classes of features chosen

What is globe?
Globe is the 3D representation of the Earth
Properties of a Globe
What are the particular properties of a globe?
 Globes are the most appropriate models for representing the surface of the earth because they
are spherical.
 The scale on the surface of a globe is identical over all of its surface.
 All meridians and parallels on a globe intersect at right angles.
 All meridians converge at the poles.
 All parallels are parallel to the equator and to each other.
 Parallels decrease in length as they approach the poles.
Advantages of a Map Over a Globe
 What are the advantages of a map over a globe? Maps are used more frequently than globes,
particularly in the classroom and in fieldwork. If a globe is a more accurate representation
of the earth than a map, why do we often prefer maps to globes? The answer is that:
 Globes are expensive to reproduce and update, but maps are not.
 Globes are not easy to fold and handle, but maps are.
 Globes must be rotated to show the entire surface of the earth, and they are not convenient
for showing locations and distributions over very large areas. With a map, you can
immediately see the whole of any area shown on it.
 Most globes are less than one meter in diameter and therefore are too small to provide
detailed information
 Globes are not visually convenient, but maps are.

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 Therefore, maps are usually preferred over globes in geography.

Now we consider the case of transferring information from a spherical surface to a flat one – in
other words we treat the manner how we can create a map, which is two dimensional, from the
surface of the earth, which is spherical. We use a remedial device, map projection.
What are the main features of Map?
Main features of maps:
 A map represents all or part of the earth’s surface.
For example, a map might show a city such as Addis Ababa, the entire world, or a section of a
garden.
 A map is a two-dimensional (plane) representation.
For example, a map might be printed on a piece of paper.
 Maps show the earth’s surface as if it were seen from directly above.
This view is called a bird’s-eye view.
 All maps are smaller than the area they represent.
Maps are drawn to scale. In other words, the features shown on a map have the same relative
proportions as they do in reality.
 For example, if one mountain’s diameter is twice as large as that of another mountain, the first
mountain would be shown on a map as twice as large as the second.
 Maps are simplified representations.
Most maps use generally accepted symbols to represent natural, artificial or cultural features of the
area they represent.
 They also use conventional notations to provide background information such as the map’s title,
date and scale.

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What is map reading?
Map reading is the act of interpreting or understanding the geographic information portrayed on
a map. By map reading, the reader should be able to develop a mental map of the real-world
information by processing the symbolized information shown on the map. Map reading is the
ability to recognize the conventional signs and symbols as used on maps and their descriptions in
words of the area mapped with the aid of signs and symbols. In map analysis (interpretation), we
can use the information displayed on the map to make some logical inferences or conclusions
about some other facts not expressly shown on the map. In this sense, therefore, we can infer
that map analysis ranges from an understanding of the fundamental nature of mapped data
through a series of procedures used in deriving, analyzing, and applying spatial information.
Historical development of maps
Describe the historical development of maps. How do traditional and modern map making differ
from each other?
o Maps are among our oldest tools. People created maps even in primitive times. For
instance, men and women sketched their routes to hunting, fishing and gathering grounds.
o Today, we also prepare maps, for many purposes. However, map making has passed
through many stages of development since its beginning. The two main stages of the
historical development of map making are:
A. Traditional Map Making
B. Modern Map Making
Traditional Map Making
 What are the major features of traditional map making?
 How did people represent the environment on maps in the past?
o The art of traditional map making is as old as the human race. Traditional maps have been
made in many ways. For example, early map materials included sticks, shells, clay tablets,
parchment, paper and solid plates of silver.
o Many traditional maps were locational. For example, they have shown the locations of
water holes and hunting grounds and have included paths that led to these places.
o Another main difference between traditional and modern maps is that a traditional map
might include drawings of three-dimensional objects. As a result, a traditional map might
be somewhat pictographic (or physiographic) rather than strictly diagrammatic. Most

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 traditional maps are sketch maps. For example, look at this ancient world map that
Eratosthenes drew.

Modern Map Making

 When did modern map making start?
 What features characterize modern map making?
 What is the role of GIS in modern map making?
The modern science of map making has its basis in the 17th century. The various developments
that took place during the Renaissance gave way to accurate map making (cartography).
Furthermore, advancements in science and technology resulted in the invention of better
cameras and airplanes specially designed to take aerial photographs. Today, map makers
have diverse opportunities to acquire spatial information. In addition to aerial photography,
satellite imagery provides a wealth of information.
Nowadays, computers have come to be “close friends” of map makers. This is because they
have become invaluable in making maps. In the last three decades of the 20th century computers
have been seen as integral part at almost every stage of the cartographic process. They play roles
in the collection, storage, analysis, and presentation of data, and even in the mapping and
reproduction of maps. This makes the Geographic Information System (GIS) indispensable to
modern map making.
A GIS needs a geographic database, for example, a digital record of geographic information. The
first step in developing a GIS is to create the geographic database from such sources as maps,
field surveys, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and so forth.
Generally, modern map making is fast and uses modern ways and means of collecting
information, such as specially designed airplanes, remote sensors and the Global Positioning
System (GPS).

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 2.2 Uses of maps
 Why are maps very important in geography?
 What are the major uses of maps?
As you know, the map is geography’s most important tool. It is also one of the most flexible
tools in terms of the information it presents and the uses we can make of it. For example, it can
present very simple information or highly detailed results from a complicated geographical
investigation. Maps are basically used for identifying locations, distance, area, and direction.
o Location: With the help of a map it is possible to locate a place in reference to another
place. For example, Ethiopia’s location can be expressed in terms of its neighboring
countries, external land masses and water bodies.
It is also possible to locate a place using astronomical grid references – parallels and
meridians. For example, the absolute location of Ethiopia is 3o N-15o N latitude and 33o E-
48o E longitude.
o Distance: It is possible to calculate the distance between two or more places on a map.
This is done by using the scale of the map.
 For example, the air distance between Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa can be calculated by
using a map of Ethiopia.
o Area: The area of a place, a country, a region, a continent, a sub-continent or the whole
world can be calculated from a map. This is done by measuring the length and the width
of the given place on the map and by converting them to ground distances with the help of
the scale of the map.
o Direction: A map can enable us to identify the direction and bearing of any place on the
map. This is accomplished by referring to another place. For example, a map of Ethiopia
can help us to find the direction and bearing of Mekele by referring to Addis Ababa.

In addition to these, maps can be used to:

 Show the distribution of physical and human phenomena on the earth’s surface:
distribution maps show the locations of phenomena on the earth’s surface. For example, we
use distribution maps for Ethiopia to show the presence of human and animal populations,
minerals, and vegetation. Similarly, we use distribution maps to show patterns of settlement,
temperature, and health conditions.

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 Show surface configuration: topographic maps give information about variations in height
on the earth’s surface. For example, they show heights and depths of valleys, plains and
mountains.
 Offer visual comparisons: because the earth’s surface is vast, it is difficult to compare places
by direct observation. For example, it would be difficult to compare the distribution of
landforms in Ethiopia and Kenya, even from an airplane. However, by offering us relatively
small but accurate representations of the two countries, maps solve this problem completely.
 Support development planning: Maps can provide planners with vital information to plan
for the future. For example, maps can show current conditions and ongoing trends, and they
can help us predict a nation’s socioeconomic conditions. Such information is invaluable to the
country’s planners as they analyze possibilities and livelihoods and then prepare for the
future.

2.3 Classification of maps

 How many types of maps do you know?
 Do you think that all maps are one and the same? Why?
Many maps are in use today. In order to make your understanding easy, and save time it is
essential to classify them. This is possible based on certain criteria. Thus, we can classify them
based on scale, function, and subject matter. Although most maps have similar characteristics,
they can differ from one another in many ways. This topic teaches you how to classify maps in
terms of the following features:
 Focus and level of detail (purpose) – the amount of information they present about their
subjects, especially their ability to show small details.
 Scale – the size of the area for which they give information and, therefore, the scope of
the information that they give about these areas.
 Subject matter

1. Classification Based on Purpose:

Maps can be classified as:
o General purpose
o Specific purpose

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A. General-Purpose Maps
 What are general purpose maps?
 What are they used for?
A general purpose map is a map that shows the features of a place in a relatively general way.
It provides a wide range of information about the place it represents. General purpose maps are
not topical. Instead, they tend to contain a little of many kinds of information at a relatively
low level of detail. A topographic map is a good example of this. It can illustrate both physical
and human-made features of the earth.

B. Specific Purpose Maps

 What kind of map is a specific purpose map?
 How does it differ from a general-purpose map?
A thematic map is a map that focuses on a specific theme or subject area such as physical
phenomena like temperature variation, rainfall distribution and population density in an area.
They are maps designed to demonstrate the distribution of a single feature, or the relationship
among several features. They are typified by maps of precipitation, temperature, population,
atmospheric pressure, and average annual income. A 'thematic map' is a map that focuses on a
specific theme or subject area. Thematic maps emphasize spatial variation of one or a small
number of geographic distributions. All thematic maps are composed of two important elements:
a base map and statistical data. Specific purpose maps are often called thematic maps or topical
maps. We use these terms because specific purpose maps emphasize on a single topic. These
maps show detailed information about their subjects. Thematic maps can show almost any kind
of information that varies from place to place, such as population distribution, rainfall and
temperature patterns, and the distribution of types of soil or vegetation.

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2. Classification by Scale
Scale is a ratio that shows the degree to which the area that is mapped has been reduced. Based
on scale differences, maps can be classified into:
 Large scale maps > 1: 50,000
 Medium scale maps 1: 50,000 to 1: 250,000
 Small scale Maps < 1: 250,000
What are large scale maps?
 Large scale maps present small areas in detail with great accuracy.
 Large scales are greater than or equal to 1: 50,000.
 A large scale map, such as the map of Addis Ababa, shows the city in considerable detail.
Large scale maps present a relatively small area and show its features in considerable detail. For
example, at a scale of 1: 5,000, a map of a city can include many features – such as buildings.
The map can also include many details, such as the bends in highways.
What are medium scale maps?
These are maps that are prepared with scales that range between 1:50,000 and 1:250,000.
Medium scale maps cover wider areas than large scale maps, but cover smaller areas than small
scale maps. They are also able to present more detailed information than small scale maps but
are less detailed than large scale ones.
What are small scale maps?
Small scale maps are those which are prepared with scales less than or equal to 1:250,000. These
small scale maps cover wider areas than large and medium scale maps.

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It is also useful to group maps on the basis of the subject matter they portray. But there is no
limit to the number of classes of maps that can be created by grouping them according to their
dominant subject matter. Thus, there are soil maps, geological maps, climatic maps, population
maps, economic maps, statistical maps, cadastral maps, plans, and so on.
1. Cadastral map- Cadastral maps are probably among the earliest maps. Cadastral maps are
drawings or maps that show the official list of property owners and their land holdings.
Geologic Maps- different types of rocks that are on the surface of the Earth. determine the
relationships between different rock formations which can then be used to find mineral
resources, oil, and gravel deposits

2. Environmental Maps- These types of maps include maps that look at human's activity in
urban and metropolitan areas and the environment in which we all live.

3. Resource Map- A resource map, which is also called an economic map, shows and
represents the natural resources and the economic activity of different regions of an area.

4. Climate Maps- The climate maps give information about the climate of an area or a region.

5. Physical Map- A physical map is a map that represents the physical features of an area such
as: vegetation, mountains, rivers, sea and lakes.

6. Political Maps- Political maps are simple basic maps, which tell about the national
boundaries, capital, states, and other administrative units of a country.

7. Atlases. These are collections of maps of regions, countries, continents, or the world.
2.4 Marginal Information of Maps
 What is marginal information?
 Marginal information is the peripheral information on the edge of the map that
provides useful information about the map to the map user.
 What are the most common types of information that are found in the margin of a map?
Maps are used to convey information. To read maps effectively, map users need information
about the map. Such information is presented in the map’s margins and is known as marginal
information.

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Marginal information includes:
 Title of the map: Gives the map’s name. For example, “Soil Map” explains that the map
presents information about soil.
 Year of publication: identifies the year in which the map was published. Because this
information tells you how old the map is, you might be able to judge whether the map’s
contents are current or might be out of date.
 Author: identifies the copyright owner of the map and indicates who (or what organization)
has prepared the map.
 Place of publication and publisher: tells where the map was published and identifies the
organization that published the map.
 Scale: This information indicates the extent to which the area that is represented in the map
has been reduced.
 Legend/Key: explains the meaning of the signs and symbols used in the map.
 Type of projection: tells the kind of projection used in making the map.
 Direction or orientation (North) arrow: Shows the north direction on the map.
 The magnetic declination (variation): is the difference between Magnetic North and True
North.
2.5 Conventional Signs and Symbols
 How do maps show different features of the earth?
 What do map makers use to represent the different physical and human features on maps?

Geographers have developed a standard set of symbols and other graphic conventional signs
to represent features shown on maps. Conventional signs and symbols are those signs and
symbols that are used on maps through the agreement of all map makers of the world. They are
used to represent the same detail on a map in all the countries of the world. Signs and symbols
help the map reader to understand maps. Therefore, the map reader has to look first at the key or
legend of the map.
Symbolization is the process of devising a set of marks of appropriate size, color, shape, and
pattern, and assigning them to map features to convey their characteristics at a given map scale.
In other words, symbols are the graphic language of maps that have evolved through generations
of cartographers. Early cartographers recognized that common usages and conventions would
minimize confusion and to some extent simplify compilation. Efforts in this direction were made

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over the years, but cartographers, being artists of a sort, preferred to vary their styles, and
effective standardization was not achieved until comparatively recent times. When you create a
map, the symbols you select should satisfy the following requirements:
 They should be uniform throughout the map.
 They should be easy to read and understand.
 The space occupation, orientation and size of the symbols should be constant.
Here are some of the symbols and conventional signs that are widely used and understood
worldwide:
 Cities and towns are indicated by dots or patches of shading;
 Streams and bodies of water are often printed in blue; and
 Political boundaries are shown by dot lines/solid lines.
Colors
 Black - Indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and roads, surveyed spot
elevations, and all labels.
 Red-Brown - The colors red and brown are combined to identify cultural features, all
relief features, non-surveyed spot elevations, and elevation, such as contour lines on red-
light readable maps.
 Blue - Identifies hydrography or water features such as lakes, swamps, rivers, and
drainage.
 Green - Identifies vegetation with military significance, such as woods, orchards, and
vineyards.
 Brown - Identifies all relief features and elevation, such as contours on older edition
maps, and cultivated land on red-light readable maps.
 Red - Classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and boundaries, on
older maps.
 Other - Occasionally other colors may be used to show special information. These are
indicated in the marginal information as a rule.
As indicated above, because cartographic symbols have not been standardized, the great many
varieties of symbols used in the numerous maps create confusions. However, some order may be
created by classifying them in a manner of distinct groups according to certain criteria. Because
symbols are used either singly or in combination and one kind of mark may be used to represent

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different phenomena such classification will ease the process of choosing appropriate symbols
for varieties of spatial data.
Commonly used cartographic symbols
 Point symbols: These are also called 0-dimensional symbols. Like the other two, point
symbols can convey categorical or numerical information. Point Symbols are used to represent
geographic features or data at specific locations. Dots, circles, squares and crosses are
examples of point dots.
 Line Symbols: Lines are used to show linear features such as roads, rivers, railways,
boundaries and other features which have continuity. Line symbols can have many forms; they
may vary in thickness, be constructed of a series of dots or dashes, or be a combination of lines
and shapes.
In cases where line features cross one another, it is common for one of the line symbols to be
broken, for clarity. A river, for example, may be broken where a road crosses it.
 Area Symbols: When something on a map is not a specific point, but rather a whole area, a
cartographer uses an area symbol. Area symbols are, thus, used to represent features that cover
too much of the map to be symbolized by a point symbol. The boundaries of area features may
or may not be depicted by line features. Nevertheless, the enclosed areas are usually in filled
with distinctive patterns of colors to separate the different areas mapped.
2.6 Map Scale
Maps, to be useful, are necessarily smaller than the areas they represent. All geographical maps
are reductions. Consequently, every map must state the ratio or proportion between
measurements on the map to those on the Earth. The ratio between distance on the map, and the
corresponding distance on the ground is called map scale. The map scale should be the first thing
the map user notices. The scale to which a map is drawn represents the ratio of the distance
between two points on the Earth and the distance between the two corresponding points on the
map. On maps, scale is represented in three ways: as a ratio or fraction, such as 1:50,000 or
1/50,000, which means that 1 unit of measurement on the map equals 50,000 of the same units
on the Earth's surface; as a graphic scale, usually a straight line on which distances (most often
in kilometers or miles) have been marked off; and as a phrase in words and figures, such as “1
cm represents 100 km” (that is, 1 cm on the map represents 100 km on the Earth's surface). The
larger the scale of a map, the closer it approaches the actual size of features on the Earth's

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surface. Small-scale maps generally show larger portions of the Earth's surface and have less
detail than large-scale maps. Because maps are flat and the Earth’s surface is curved, scale may
vary within a single map; the scale expressed in the legend is generally accurate near the center
of the map, but less so towards the edges.
Map scale can be symbolically expressed as:
MD
S
GD
Where S stands for scale
MD stands for map distance
GD stands for ground distance
The unit of distance in both numerator and denominator of the fraction must be the same.
For example:
8cm 1
S 
400,000cm 50000
This means one unit map distance is 50,000 units times larger on the ground. How can we select
map scale for a map to be drawn? Scale selection has important consequences for the map’s
appearance and its potential as a communication device. Scale varies along a continuum from
large to small scale. Large-scale maps show small portions of the earth’s surface, and it is
possible to show detailed information. Small-scale maps show large areas, so only limited detail
can be carried on the map. Which final scale is selected for a given map will depend on the
map’s purpose and physical size. The amount of geographical detail necessary to satisfy the
purpose of the map will also act as a factor in scale selection. Generally, the scale selection will
be a compromise between these two controlling factors.
The type of scale selected has important influence on symbolization. In changing from large-
scale to small-scale, map objects must increasingly be represented with symbols that are no
longer true to scale and thus are more generalized. At large scales, the outline and area of a city
may be shown in proportion to its actual size. That means it occupies areas on the map
proportional to the city’s area. At smaller scales, whole cities may be represented by a single dot
having no size relations to the city’s real size. The selection of scale is perhaps the most
important decision of a cartographer.

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Ways of Representing Scale on Maps
There are three customary ways of expressing scale on a map. They are representative fraction,
graphic and verbal scale.
i. Representative fraction (RF) is a ratio expressing the relationship of the number of units on
the map to the number of the same units on the real earth. It can be shown either as 1: 50 000 or
1/50 000. The ratio is more preferred than the fraction. In this scale, it means that one unit length
on the map represents 50 000 units of length on the earth’s surface. The unit of distance in both
the numerator and denominator of the fraction must be the same. For example, you can read the
scale mentioned above as one millimeter on the map represents 50 000 millimeters on the earth’s
surface. It is also possible to read it as one centimeter on the map represents 50 000 centimeters
on the earth’s surface. The RF usually refers to the scale of a standard line and in fact changes
over the map, depending on the selected projection.
ii. Verbal (Statement) scale is expression of map distance in relation to the same earth distance
in words. For example, one centimeter to one kilometer or one centimeter represents one
kilometer is an example of a verbal scale. You cannot say, one centimeter equals one kilometer.
This is incorrect and logically inconsistent. Because one centimeter is not equal to one kilometer.
Can you transform (convert) the scale one centimeter to two kilometers into RF? You can write
the scale in RF as follows.
MD 2cm
S 
GD 1km
Then, make the numerator and denominator in the same unit of length, you multiply the
denominator by 100 000 to change it into centimeters.
2cm. 2cm
S 
1x100,000cm 100,00cm
The numerator should be one unit length. To do this, you divide the numerator and denominator
2cm  2 1cm
by 2. S 
100,000cm  2 50,000cm
You cancel the unit of length (i.e., cm), and write the scale in fraction or ratio.
1
1 : 50 000or
50 000

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iii. Graphic or Bar Scale is a line or a bar subdivided to show map distance, and the same
distance on the earth’s surface. The left end of the bar is sub-divided into smaller units to provide
more precise estimation of ground distances. The distance between any two divisions can be
measured with a ruler, and you can read the map distance. This distance on the map has the
ground distance as labeled on the line or bar. This form of scale is very useful when the map is to
be reduced during reproduction because it changes in correct proportion to the amount of
reduction.
Can you draw a graphic scale for 1: 50 000? The scale 1: 50 000 can be read as one centimeter
on the map to 50 000 centimeters on the earth’s surface. You can divide 50 000 centimeters by
100 000 and change it to 0.5 kilometer. Now the scale becomes one centimeter to 0.5 kilometer.
It is not common to write decimal number on graphic scale.

The Relationship between Linear and Areal Scale

 What is linear scale?
 What about areal scale?
 Is it possible to convert one into the other? How?
o Map scale can be linear or areal.
Linear scale expresses the ratio of map distance to ground distance. It is the most common
scale type.
o Areal scale shows the relationship between map area and ground area.
o Areal scale is the square of linear scale. For example, if a map has a linear scale of 1 cm to
6 km, then the areal scale of the map is (1 cm)2 to (6 km)2, which means 1 cm2 to 36 km2

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Find the Scale of a Map
Is it possible to calculate the scale of a map when it is not given? How?
 In principle, every map should show the scale to which it has been drawn. If the scale is not
shown, we can calculate it. There are two ways of finding a map scale, if it is not given:
A. By using the known distance between two points on the map
B. By using latitudes
By using the known distance between two points on the map
o This method is used if the ground distance between two points or places shown on the
map is given. Then use the following procedure to obtain the scale:
i. Measure the distance between the two points on the map in centimeters.
ii. Divide the obtained distance on the map by the ground distance to obtain the ratio
between the two. This gives you the scale of the map.
o To understand this better see the following example. Let us say, if the straight line
distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele is 555 km, using Figure 1.11, calculate the
scale of the map.

o Using the distance between Addis

Ababa and Mekele:
1. Measure the distance between
Addis Ababa and Mekele by
using a
ruler approximately 3 cm.
 The given air distance between
the two places is 555 km.
2. Find the ratio between the
distance on map and the actual
distance.
This is the scale.
 3 cm to 555 km = 1 cm to
185km = 1:18,500,000.

By using latitudes
o In this method, the scale of the map can be obtained by using the values of latitudes.
o For example, let us calculate the scale of Figure 1.11 by using the 5o and 10o N latitude
lines:
 The degree difference between the two latitudes is 5o (10o – 5o).

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  The distance that 5o represents is 555 km (111 km × 5).
 The distance between the two latitudes on the map is approximately 3 cm.

Map enlargement and reduction

Why do we enlarge a map?
We enlarge and reduce maps for different reasons.
Enlargement: We enlarge a map when we need to show more details (features) about the area it
shows. Often, enlarged maps are produced in order to support detailed study of the area that the
map presents.
We enlarge a map by enlarging its scale. The size of the paper on which the new map is printed
increases in proportion to the new scale.
Example:
 City maps are often enlarged maps.
 An enlarged map would be quite helpful for demonstrating the required area for a class
room.
Why do we reduce a map?
Reduction: We reduce maps when we need to be selective and to generalize the information that
the map presents.
When the scale of the map decreases, the size of the map also decreases accordingly.
When you enlarge or reduce a map, consider these principles: if a map is to be enlarged x times,
the new map will be x times the scale of the old map. If you reduce a map by 1/x, the scale of the
new map will be 1/x times the scale of the old map.

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The amount of increase or reduction of scale can be obtained by applying the following:

Example: A map at 1:200,000 is to be enlarged to a map at 1:100,000. By how many times is the
scale increased? …. Answer: 2 times

Example: A map with a scale of 1:50,000 is reduced to 1:1,000,000. How many times is the
scale reduced? … Answer: ½0 times
2.7. Measurement on Maps
2.7.1 Distance Measurement
Before starting any measurements on maps, it is advisable to consider the following three points.
 If distance between two places is asked, it is always the real distance on the surface of the
earth. It is not the distance between two places on a map. Thus, we should change the
distance between the two places on the map into distance between two places on the ground
with the help of the scale of a map.
 Distance on a map is measured in mm or cm whereas distance on the ground is measured in
meters or km.
 All distances measured through measurement on the map and the uses of scale are only map
distances. Map distance doesn’t consider the ups and downs of the surface of the earth which
constitute the actual filed distance.
There are three different types s distance. They are distance along straight line, distance along a
curved line, and field distance. Let us see each of them in detail
A) Distance along straight line is the map distance between two places. You can get this by
using your ruler and the scale of the map. For example, what is the distance between A and B in
Figure 66?
 First, you measure the distance between A and B with the help of a ruler. It is 8.6cm.
 Second, convert the graphic scale into statement scale. It is 1cm to 0.5km.

 Map distance= 8.6 cm  0.5km1cm = 4.3km

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B) Distance along curved line is the distance along bending line like roads or rivers. Distances
along a winding road or river must be broken down into a series of short straight-line
measurement, from bend to bend. Distances measured in this method are roads, railways, rivers
and boundaries of any countries. Very common instruments used are a piece of strong cotton or
thread. More commonly a straight edge of a piece of paper could be used and practically more
applicable.
For example, what is the distance along the road from A to B in Figure? How can we measure
the curved line with the straight edge of a ruler? You can use one of the following methods.
 Divide the curved line into small straight lines as indicated in Figure above.
 After that, you can use one of the following two ways to know the distance on the map:
 Carefully measure each of these sections with dividers and read the distance in cm using a
ruler.
 You can transfer each of the small straight lines on straight edge of a piece of paper.
 Finally, using the scale of the map calculate the ground distance as shown below.
Distance between A and B on the map= 9.2cm, Scale = 1:50 000 or 1cm to 0.5km Map
9.2cm  0.5km
Distance = = 4.6km
1cm
C) Field distance takes the ups and downs of the surface of the earth into account. The field
distance between two points cannot be obtained through simple measurement alone but through a
combination of measurement and some calculations. As discussed before, field distances account
for the ups and downs of the earth’s surface. Field distance like that of straight-line distance
cannot be obtained with this simple measurement but it needs some combined calculation. Dear
learners! What are the necessary conditions for the calculation of field distance?

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 Necessary conditions for the calculation of field distances are
a) The map distance /measurement distance/ between two points concerned (MD)
b) The difference in altitude between the two points (AD) altitude difference can be obtained with
the help of contour maps. Of course, it is not the right place to define contours, but to give some
hint …. Contour is an imaginary line joining all points which have the same altitude with fixed
height interval above sea level. In this regard you will learn more about contour in detail in the next
unit. For the time being remember only that a contour line helps us to get the altitude of a place.
Try to use any of the maps present in this material to find the altitude of points with the help of
contour lines.
According to Pythagoras theorem field distance is equal to
FD2 = MD2 + AD2
Example: Calculate the field distance between A and B

Steps View on the contour Illustration how to calculate

mapCalculate the horizontal distance (MD)
1. the field distance between A
and B
2. Find the difference in altitude before A and B.
3. Use the formula and calculate the field distance between two points
Solution
Paper distance  Scale
MD 
100,000
6.5  50,000
MD   3.5 km
100,000
Altitude Difference (AD) = 2900 – 2500 = 400 m or 0.4 km (the unit is meter, because most of
the time contour is given in meter).
Therefore, FD2 = MD2 + AD2 = 3.252 + 0.42= 10.7225

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 Field Distance (FD) = 3.27 km
2.7.2 Measurement of areas on maps
Area is the direct function of distance. A map reader may be asked to find the area of two
different types of pieces of land: Areas with regular shapes and areas with irregular shapes. To
put in another way, if one wants to wish to calculate the area of land or sea, or perhaps lake
shown on the map simple graphic methods can be employed. The procedures of how to get the
area of irregular and regular shaped figures are different.

i. Regular shaped figures

These include squares, rectangles, triangles, circles, etc. From geometry you should know the
formulae for calculating the area of these figures when you know the necessary facts about them
(Sides, base, height, etc.). These facts are obtained through measurements on the map.

ii. Areas of irregular shape

Most areas to be measured from maps are irregular in shape. To find the area of irregular shapes,
the first thing to do is to divide the irregular shape into regular shapes that you can recognize
such as triangles, rectangles, circles, squares and so forth. An instrument known as planimeter
will help you to measure the area of irregular shape figures on the map. You can also use the
following methods to find the areas of irregular shapes without using sophisticated instruments.
 The geometrical figures method -In the first case what should be done is drawing
regular shaped figures approximately covers the area wanted. Not that the regular shaped
figures can be drawn in such a way (by approximation) that the parts of the figure that are
outside to the drawn figure are equal to the areas inside the drawn figure that are not part
of the figure. This means that we can draw geometrical figures by balancing areas left
outside and areas included out of the boundary of irregular shapes you want to find as
shown in
 The strip method -By now it is possible to cover the area of irregular shape with strips
of known width. In other way round, use strips of equal width instead of squares in the
succeeding example. The give-and take principle is applied in the same way to both ends
of each strip but it is easier to apply, because the broken areas are so much smaller. To
obtain the total area, add together the lengths of all the strips and multiply by the width of
one strip.

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  Counting the square method- The area of an irregular shape can be found by
transferring the area on the millimeter or centimeter or by covering the area with squares
of a known size.
Necessary conditions
1. Cover the area with small squares of known size
2. Scale must be given
3. Count full squares, half squares, quarter squares
4. Then change in to cm2 based on the area of a single square
2.7.3 Direction of Places on a Map
Directions on the earth are entirely arbitrary, since a spherical surface has no edges, beginning or
end. The directions determined by the orientation of the graticule are called geographic or true
directions as distinguished from the two other direction – magnetic and grid. Usually direction is
measured in a clockwise direction from geographic (true) north. The measurement of direction
can be given either in compass points or angular bearings. The directions determined by the
orientation of the graticule are called geographic or true directions as distinguished from the two
other direction – magnetic and grid.
Magnetic North: The needle of a magnetic compass aligns itself with the earth’s field of
magnetic force which in most places is not aligned parallel with the local meridian. The reason is
that the magnetic field poles do not coincide with the poles of the earth’s rotation (900 N and S).
The magnetic pole slowly changes position over time. Consequently, there is usually a difference
between true and magnetic north. This difference is called compass variation on nautical charts
and magnetic declination on topographic maps.

Cartographers usually show the angular differences between true and magnetic north, along with
grid north, by drawing a declination diagram. Furthermore, the slow but predictable changes in
the earth’s magnetic field make the declination value correct only for the date the map was

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issued. Often a statement of the amount of annual change in declination is included with the
diagrams on the topographical maps of Ethiopia. The third kind of direction is the grid north. It is
the direction in which grid lines point towards the top of the map. These grid lines running north
to south are easting.
The measurement of direction can be given either in compass points or angular bearings.
Compass points are directions indicated by North, South, East and West, their subsidiaries such
as NE, SE, SW, and NW, and subdivisions such as NNE, etc. Angular bearings are directions
indicated exactly in degrees. The direction is given as part of a full circle of 360 0. The reading
starts from north and counts in a clockwise direction. Let us see how direction is measured on a
flat map.

In the field, the direction of features is often determined by a magnetic compass which measures
angles relative to Magnetic North. Using the declination diagram found on a map, individuals
can convert their field measures of magnetic direction into directions that are relative to either
Grid or True North. Compass directions can be described by using either the azimuth system or
the bearing system. The azimuth system calculates direction in degrees of a full circle. A full
circle has 360 degrees (Figure 21). In the azimuth system, north has a direction of either the 0 or
360°. East and west have an azimuth of 90° and 270°, respectively. Due south has an azimuth of
180°.
 How do we measure direction and bearing?
In order to determine directions from one place to another out in the field or on a map, we must
first select or identify one direction from which we can identify and measure other directions.
This basic direction we call the cardinal direction.
The cardinal direction could be anyone but at present, internationally, we use North as the
cardinal direction and measure all other bearings from this one.

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When printing a map, we usually arrange the cardinal direction so that it points to the top of the
map. Before doing any measurements of directions, make sure that you know where true north is.
Directions from one point to another or the bearing of one point from another can be given using
two different sets of units. The traditional system uses the cardinal compass points north, east,
south, west and subdivisions of them. A modern, and more accurate, method gives the directions
in degrees and fractions of degrees clockwise from north.

What is the direction of A from N?

First of all, draw a line joining A and N. Then draw another line parallel to north direction on
point N. Using a protractor, measure the bearing in a clockwise direction. The direction of A
from N is 3150 or NW.
The procedure involves the following steps.
Example:
To find the direction from point A to point B on the map
1. Draw a line with a pencil joining points A and B on the map.
2. Through the point from which the bearing is required draw a pencil line parallel to true north
as indicated by the meridians or the arrow indicating true north.
3. Using these two lines, set your protractor so that its center is in point A and measure the angle
between the true north line and the line A – B reading clock wise from north = 0o.
4. State the bearing either in compass directions or degrees clockwise from north.

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The direction of a line from one point to another can be given in terms of compass
direction B lies north-east of A, and conversely A lies south-west of B.

We may also describe wind direction in terms of compass direction. B lies northeast of A.
Therefore, a wind blowing from B to A is called a north-east wind. Note carefully that wind
direction is named after the direction from which the wind blows.

A direction indicated in degrees is called a bearing. The bearing of an

object refers to its direction and a clockwise measurement in degrees
from the zero line (0° or N), which is the north direction.

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In the bearing of B from A is 60°, which is angle NAB. The bearing of C from A is 300°, which
is reflex angle NAC. Note that the bearing of C from A is not the smaller acute angle NAC, since
bearings are always measured clockwise from north. The directions of A from B and from C,
respectively, are called back bearings. A back bearing is obtained by adding or subtracting 180°
to or from a forward bearing.
2.7.4 Locating Places on a Map
Coordinate system is a set of numbers that designate location in a given reference system.
Coordinate pairs represent a location on the earth's surface relative to other locations. It is a
reference system (features represented by X, Y coordinate. In order to express absolute or
relative positions of points, either on a map or on the terrain, one or more different systems of
coordinates may be selected. Each system has its appropriate use. Geographic grid and grids are
commonly used.

1 Geographic coordinates
One of the oldest systematic methods of location is based upon the geographic coordinate system
a system of latitude and longitude lines projected on a map represents the geographic or spherical
grid covering the earth. The base position (or origin) is the intersection of the meridian of
Greenwich, known as the prime meridian, with the Equator.
What is latitude and longitude? Parallels and Meridians?

 Latitude
Latitude is an angle subtended at the center of the earth between a radius to any point on the
earth’s surface, and the equatorial plane. The latitude system for locating our north-south
position depends on the regular curvature of the earth’s surface. The equator, the line on the earth
formed by points halfway between the two poles, is the starting place for latitude. It ranges from
00 (equator) to 900 N or S. Latitude measures the position of a given point in terms of its
angular distance from the equator. That is, latitude is an indicator of how far north or south of
the equator a given point is situated. All points north of the equator are designated as north
latitude (northern hemisphere), all points south of the equator are designated as south latitude
(southern hemisphere).
List the properties of parallels on globe.

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  Longitude
Longitude measures the position of a given point in terms of its angular distance East and West.
The prime meridian (Greenwich, England) is the starting point or zero point for angular
measurements. Longitude is then measured east 180 degrees of the prime meridian, until it
reaches the International Date Line (Greenwich). Likewise, it can be measured west of the prime
meridian up to 180 degrees, again until it reaches the International Date Line.

Parallel: an imaginary line joining all points with the same latitude.
Meridian: An imaginary line joining all points with the same longitude.
Note that the first set of terms (latitude and longitude) deal with angles the second set (Parallel
and Meridians) with lines.

 List the properties of meridians on globe.

The distance of a point north or south of the equator is known as its latitude. The rings around
the earth parallel to the equator are called parallels of latitude or simply parallels. Lines of
latitude run east-west but north-south distances are measured between them. A second set of
rings around the globe at right angles to lines of latitude and passing through the poles is known
as meridians of longitude or simply meridians. One meridian is designated as the prime
meridian. The prime meridian of the system we use runs through Greenwich, England and is
known as the Greenwich meridian. The distance east or west of a prime meridian to a point is
known as its longitude. Lines of longitude (meridians) run north-south but east-west distances
are measured between them The line directly opposite the prime meridian, 180° , may be referred
to as either east or west longitude.
 Distance on Geographic coordinates are expressed in angular measurement.

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 Each circle is divided into 360 degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60
seconds.
 The degree is symbolized by ° , the minute by ′, and the second by ″
 The values of geographic coordinates, being in units of angular measure, will mean more if
they are compared with units of measure with which we are more familiar.
 At any point on the earth, the ground distance covered by one degree of latitude is about 111
kilometers (69 miles); one minute = 1850m; one second is equal to about 30.8 meters (100
feet).
 The ground distance covered by one degree of longitude at the equator is also about 111
kilometers, but decreases as one moves north or south, until it becomes zero at the poles. For
example, One degree of longitude at 60° latitude = 55.802 km
 At a specific lat. The distance b/n long= 111km * cos Latitude
How to identify location? The location of any point on the surface of the earth is defined in
terms of the parallel of latitude and the meridian of longitude which intersect at the point, thus,
latitude 38°32'20" N., longitude 77°34'30" W. Geographic coordinates appear on all standard
military maps; on some they may be the only method of locating and referencing a specific
point. The four lines that enclose the body of the map (neat lines) are latitude and longitude
lines. Their values are given in degrees and minutes at each of the four corners. After the
parallels and meridians have been drawn, the geographic interval (angular distance between two
adjacent lines) must be determined.

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 Geographic grid reference system

2. National Gird Reference System

The rectangular or plane coordinate system (also known as the grid reference system) is made up
of square grids that are numbered to provide a standardized system of rectangular coordinates
which are easy to read. The grid lines help us to pinpoint an exact location anywhere on the map
by giving a unique number known as a grid reference. To assist the user when giving grid
references, grid lines are further defined as follows:
 Eastings (X-value)– The vertical grid lines, which run from bottom to top and divide
the: map from west to east, are known as EASTINGS. They are numbered from west to
east. The distance of any point grid east of the origin is called the X-coordinate.
 Northings (Y-value) – The horizontal grid lines, which run from left to right and
divide the: map from south to north, are known as NORTHINGS. They are numbered
from south to north. The distance of any point north of the origin is called the Y-
coordinate. Drown on kilometer depending the grid interval ranging from 100km to 1km
Types of grid coordinate system
 National grid coordinate system (origin is the SW corner of every country)
 Global/UTM grid coordinate system (origin is equator and the zone central meridian)
 Methods of position identification using national grid reference system
There are three methods which are used to identify positions on a gridded map using the grid
reference system. The method used depends on the degree of accuracy required by the user
and, to a large extent, the scale of the map being used.

 Four Figure Grid Reference

 Six Figure Grid Reference
 Eight Figure Grid Reference
 Four Figure Grid Reference: This method indicates the position of one grid: Square
only or it is a square grid (easting and northing interval is equal) and is therefore useful
when identifying major features and localities. To indicate a particular grid square, first
select the Easting which forms the left, or west boundary of that square. Next, select the
Northing which forms the bottom, or south boundary of the square. The two figures for
the Easting and the two figures for the Northing combined gives the four-figure reference

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 required. A four-figure grid reference represents an area of 1 km x 1 km on the ground if
the grid interval is 1km
 Six Figure Grid Reference: This method is much more accurate than the four
This method is much more accurate than the four-figure method explained above and is
used to indicate an object within a grid square. In a grid reference, the eastings are
always quoted first. A six-figure grid reference is derived as follows:
 Read the two-figure grid value at the north or south margin nearest to the left of
the point and then estimate in tenths the distance from that grid line to the next
one. This provides the first three figures (eastings) of the six-figure grid reference.
 Read the two-figure grid value appearing in the left and right margins of the grid
line closest below the point, and then estimate in tenths its distance from that grid
line to the one immediately above it. This provides the last three figures
(northings) of the six-figure grid reference.
Note: A six figure grid reference represents an area of 100 m x 100 m on the ground if the
grids divided by 1km interval bold to find the grid reference number of a place first use the
eastings to go along the corridor until you come to the bottom left-hand corner of the square you
want.
 Eight Figure Grid Reference: This method is most used on maps with a scale of 1:50 000
or larger. The method is similar to the six-figure method explained above except that each
small square is again divided into 100 still smaller squares. The result is that the Eastings are
then calculated to four figures and the Northings to four, the combination being an eight-
figure grid reference. This method has limited practical use and therefore is rarely
required. An eight-figure grid reference includes an area of 10 m x 10 m on the ground.
The procedures to establish a plane rectangular coordinate system are:

1. A map is made by transforming the spherical surface to a plane. In the topographical map of
Ethiopia with a scale of 1:50 000, the transverse Mercator projection is used for this
purpose.

2. A rectangular plane coordinate grid is placed over the map. The origin of the coordinate
system is usually located in the south-western most corner of the country. For Ethiopia, 00
latitudes and 340 30' E crossing-point is the grid origin.

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 The Origin of the Ethiopia’s Coordinate System (Source: Roselius, 1980)
Each country has its own grid origin. That is why it is called national coordinate system.
Sometimes, the grid coordinate system of a country could be a part of a regional coordinate
system. The grid origin used on Ethiopian topographical maps is located outside Ethiopia. It is
part of the regional coordinate system. When we place the origin at the south-west of a country,
only the upper right-hand quadrant of a plan coordinate system is employed. This helps to make
the values positive.

3. Distance is measured in kilometers starting from the grid origin (in this case, from 0 0
latitudes and 340 30' E longitude origin) in kilometers. The distance between two vertical
lines of this coordinate system could be 100km, 10km or 1km. This depends on the scale of
the map. On the topographical map Ethiopia with the scale of 1:50 000, the distance between
the vertical lines is 1km. These lines running from north to south to measure distance east of
the grid origin are called Eastings. On the other hands, horizontal lines running from west to
east to measure distance in km from the grid origin are referred as Northings.
Can you now give the six-digit reference location of B in Figure below?
Procedures for Reading Eastings and Northings
Letter Eastings Northings
Designation (Vertical) (Horizontal)
1 First read the big letters AU
2 Write the large number of the Easting 84
value to the left of B
3 Measure the tenths of the side of the 5
square from the Easting line to point
4 Write the large number of the Northing 24
value below the point
5 Measure the tenths from Northing line to 5
point B
Six-digits reference location of point B AU 845 245

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When using grid reference, you always read the big letters of the easting value and then the
northing value on the topographic map.

As shown on the topographical maps of Ethiopia, each square is 1km2. The six-digit reference
will give the location to one decimal point. However, decimals are avoided. Moreover, the six-
digit reference will give the location of a point within 100-meter square. This system is only used
to give only the location of points. It is not used to locate areas.
2.8 Relief representation on maps
What do you understand by the term relief?
What kinds of landforms are found in your locality?
Relief refers to the difference in altitude between the highest and lowest points in an area or
surface structure of any part of the earth. It relates to land features like plains, hills, plateaus,
valleys, ridges, etc. These relief features have three dimensions (length, breadth and height), but
a map on which they are represented has only two dimensions, (length and breadth).
2.8.1 Methods of Showing Relief on a Map
How can we represent relief on maps?
In order to read relief features from maps, you should first know how map makers represent the
uneven surface of the earth on a plane sheet of paper, i.e., on a map. There are different ways of
showing relief on maps. There are two commonly used methods:
A. Traditional methods
B. Modern methods
A. Traditional methods
These include:
 Physiographic diagrams
 Hachures

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  Layer coloring
 Hill shading
 Form lines
i. Physiographic Diagrams
What is a physiographic diagram?
Early map makers used to represent relief features by diagrammatic pictures known as
physiographic diagrams. They show three-dimensional pictures of landscapes as viewed from the
side or oblique direction. This method of showing relief is simple and easy to understand.
However, it has the following disadvantages:
 It shows the side and oblique view of the landscape, unlike the modern relief map that gives
you an overhead view of an area.
 Some geographic details of an area would be hidden from view behind the “backs” of the
pictures of hills or mountains.
 Exact heights and slopes of the land forms are not indicated.
 It lacks accuracy because it is drawn without scale.

ii. Hachures
What are hachures?
Hachures are short disconnected lines that represent slopes. They are drawn in the direction in
which water flows. Originally they were used to represent mountains and valleys on simple
sketch maps. Basically, hachures show the steepness of slopes. When slopes are steep, hachures
are put close together. For gentle slopes, the hachures are spaced wide apart. In addition,
hachures representing steep slopes are shorter than those representing gentle slopes.

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This approach has significant limitations, such as:
 Flat areas are un-shaded. Therefore, plateaus and plains can be confused.
 Hachures do not indicate height and exact gradients. They give only qualitative information.
 Hachures are laborious to draw and can be difficult to read and interpret.
Nowadays, hachures are not used alone. Instead, they are used in combination with contour lines
to show landforms like escarpments, depressions and craters. (Contour lines are described in a
later section of this unit).
iii. Hill shading
 What is hill shading?
 What are some of the limitations of hill shading?
Hill shading is also known as oblique illumination. It is a method of showing relief on a map,
assuming an oblique light that illuminates the landscape from the northwest corner of the map.
Hence the northwest-facing slopes are shaded lighter than are the east-facing and south-facing
slopes. The steeper the slope is, the darker it is shaded.
Hill shading offers a quick general impression of the land configuration that it represents. But
still it has some limitations such as:
 It does not give absolute altitude.
 It fails to indicate clearly whether the ground is sloping upward or downward.
 It fails to indicate whether the un-shaded areas are low or high-level areas. Hence, plateaus
and plains can be confused.
 Detailed map information can be obscured by shading.
In general, hill shading is now used in combination with spot heights and contours to overcome
some of its drawbacks.

iv. Layer Coloring (Layer Tinting)

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  What is layer coloring?
It is a method of showing relief by using colors. The series of colors for showing different
altitudes starts from sea level.

Layer coloring has the following disadvantages:

 Color shading does not indicate gradual changes in slopes.
 The edges of the areas of different colors can suggest nonexistent physical boundaries.
 Dark colors can obscure details in the areas that they overlie.
 Some colors can create false impressions in the map reader’s mind. For example, green might
suggest vegetation or a fertile area.
v. Formlines
 What are formlines?
A formline is imaginary pecked or broken line joining points with the same approximate height
on a map. Usually they are drawn on topographic maps to show where survey work is
incomplete or poorly accomplished. Also, these lines are useful for showing sea depths.
What are the limitations of formlines?
Formlines have the following limitations:
 They are not drawn on a map at a fixed interval of altitude.
 Although they represent the relief of an area, they provide little or no reference to sea level.
 In many cases they are unnumbered.
 They are usually drawn with broken lines.

B. Modern Methods/
i. Contour Lines or Isohypses

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  What are contour lines?
 How do contour lines differ from traditional methods of showing relief on maps?
Contour lines, also known as isohypses, are imaginary lines shown on a map that connect places
of equal altitude above mean sea level. They provide the most accurate way of showing relief on
maps. Contours are used to show the different landforms of the earth on two-dimensional maps.
They help cartographers to easily show the depressions, valleys, hills, mountains, plains and
plateaus by using contours with varying shapes and distances between consecutive contours. For
instance, the shapes of the contour lines provide an accurate representation of the shapes of hills
and depressions, and the lines themselves show the actual elevations. In addition, while closely
spaced contour lines indicate steep slopes, the widely spaced ones indicate gentle slopes.
Contour lines are the most common and accurate way of showing relief on modern maps. A
shoreline is a good example of a contour line.

The different topographic features that characterize landscapes are shown on topographic maps
by using contours with various characteristics. The patterns that the contours are drawn with,
their spacing and shape indicate the characteristics of the relief of the place. As a result, valleys,
spurs, shoulders, plains, plateaus, mountain tops, different types of slope, cliffs, overhanging
cliffs, mountain ranges, and depressions are represented by contours of different shapes on
topographic maps. For instance,
 Evenly spaced contours represent a uniform slope;
 Contours that are widely spaced indicate a gentle slope;
 Contours that are close together near the top of a hill and widely spaced at the bottom
indicate a concave slope;
 Contours that are widely spaced at the top of a hill and close together at the bottom indicate a
convex slope;
 Overlapping contours, i.e., contours that merge at a point, indicate a cliff;
 Crossing contours indicate an overhanging cliff;
 Closed contours with more or less circular shapes, with values increasing towards the center
and with the top indicated by a spot height represent mountains or hills;
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 Closed contours with more or less circular shapes, with values decreasing towards the center
represent depressions;
 Closed contours with elongated shapes, with values increasing towards the center with no
specific tips indicate mountain ranges;
 Closed contours with more or less rectangular shapes, with values increasing towards the
center with the top being a very wide closed contour represent plateaus;
 Contours with “V” shapes, with downward bending and values increasing upward represent
spurs; and
 Contours with “V” shapes, with upward bending and values increasing upward represent
valleys.
The relief of a place represents the varying heights of hills and mountains, and the depths of
valleys and gorges as they appear on a topographic map. Unless the relief is adequately shown,
the map does not give a clear picture of the mapped area. In the earliest maps, relief was often
indicated pictorially by small drawings of mountains and valleys known as pictorials. However,
this method is extremely inaccurate and has been generally replaced by a system of contour lines.
The contour lines represent points in the mapped area that are of equal elevations. They are
drawn with a contour interval that may be any unit, depending on the amount of relief and the
scale of the map, such as 50 or 100 m, and in drawing the map the cartographer joins together all
points that are at a height of 50 or 100 m above sea level, all points at a height of 100 or 200 m,
all points at a height of 150 or 300 m, and so on. Being drawn in such a way, the shapes of the
contour lines provide an accurate representation of the shapes of hills and depressions, and the
lines themselves show the actual elevations. The spacing between contour lines also indicates the
nature of the slopes.
How are contour lines drawn?
The drawing of contour lines is illustrated in the diagram below. Study it carefully.

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As indicated in Figure, a contour line joins all points on the hill that are at the same height. For
example, contour line 150 m passes through points A and B, while contour line 250 m runs
through points C and D. All of the points on contour line 150 m are 150 m high and those on the
250 m line are all 250 m high.
To give clearer impressions of the relief on contour maps, contour lines are sometimes used in
combination with hachures, hill-shading, layer-coloring and spot heights.
Properties of Contour Lines
What are the main properties of contour lines?
Why are contour lines more accurate than the traditional methods of showing relief on maps?
General properties of contour lines
Here are some important points about contour lines:
 Contour lines are imaginary lines used on a map to represent relief. Unlike the lines that
represent rivers, boundaries or coast lines, contours do not really exist on the earth’s surface.
The only contour line that exists both on the map and in the field is the sea level.

 A set of contour lines is drawn at a fixed height interval. For example, in the figure above,
contour lines are drawn at 50-meter intervals. The difference in altitude between two
successive contour lines is known as vertical interval (V. I.) or contour interval (C. I.). The V.
I. helps us to find out the heights of unnumbered contour lines.
 Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on maps except at vertical cliffs, waterfalls
or over hanging cliffs. For example, two or more contour lines run together and then separate
to represent the cliff shown in the figure below.

The cliff in the preceding diagram is a vertical mountain wall. It rises from 100 meters to 150
meters.
The crossing of contours occurs only in the case of an overhanging cliff. Usually contours
representing a cave under an overhanging cliff are shown with pecked lines.

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 Contour lines never branch. If you see branching lines on a map, they represent features such
as rivers, roads, boundaries, etc.
 A contour line joins all points of the same altitude. For example, an altitude of 250 m will be
on the 250 m contour line. The altitude of any point outside this line will be either greater or
less than 250 meters.

What are the heights of points P, Q and M on the above figure?

 Contour lines are always numbered in the direction towards which altitude increases. These
numbers can be shown with or without breaking contour lines.

 Contour lines indicate the nature of slopes. When contour lines are far apart, they show gentle
slopes. But when contour lines are close together, they show steep slopes (See Figure 2.33).

 Contour lines can be printed with different thicknesses on a map. This is especially helpful in
mountainous areas where altitudes may vary considerably from summits to valley floors. In
order to make the reading of contour maps easier, every fifth or tenth contour line is printed

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 thicker than the rest. Such contour lines are called index contour lines, while the rest are called
regular contour lines.

 Contour lines can show different types of landforms, such as mountains, hills, plateaus,
depressions, valleys, spurs, ridges, gorges, passes, plains, etc. Many of these relief features are
readily recognized from the shapes of their contour lines. Figure below gives pairs of
representations of various land forms. Each pair has a diagrammatic view and a contour view.
Study it carefully.

The three types of contour lines used on a standard topographic map are the following.
i. Index Contour: Starting from zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth contour line is a
heavier/darker than the other contour lines. These heavier contour lines are called index
contour lines. Commonly, each index contour line is numbered at some point. This number
indicates the elevation of that line.
ii. Intermediate Contour: The contour lines falling between the index contour lines are called
intermediate contour lines. These lines are finer/thinner than the index contours. They do not
have their elevations given. In most cases, there are four intermediate contour lines between
index contour lines. Their value is decided by dividing the difference in altitude between two
consecutive index contours by five, if there are four intermediate contours.

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iii. Supplementary Contour: These contour lines resemble dashed or broken lines. They show
changes in elevation of at least one-half the contour interval. These lines are normally found
where there is very little change in elevation, such as on fairly level terrain.
ii. Different Methods of Showing Altitudes on Contour Maps
What are the shortcomings of contour lines?
How do you indicate the specific heights of hilltops, roads, railways, and towns?
Contour lines show altitude and relief on modern maps. However, they do not show the specific
heights of individual features such as mountain peaks, hilltops, valley floors, towers, towns,
roads or railways. Such heights are indicated on maps, using the following methods:
 Spot heights: They are marked on the map with a dot followed by an altitude number:
Example:
1940 meter.
 They provide accurate altitudes for individual points, such as those along a road, on a
mountain top, or between contour lines.
 Unlike contour lines, spot heights do not give a good visual impression of the general relief.
 They exist only on maps.
 Trigonometrical points
 They exist both on maps and in the field.
 They mostly mark features such as hilltops and mountain peaks.
 On the ground, the relevant feature is permanently marked with a pillar (concrete).
 On maps, they are shown with a small triangle enclosing a dot, followed by the exact
altitude in meters.

Example: The top of Mt. Ras Dashen can be shown as 4620 meters on a topographic map.

Mt. Gunna is 4165 meters (see Figure 2.36).

iii. Benchmarks
 They indicate precise heights along highways or railways.
 They are shown on stones, bricks or bronze plates on walls of buildings and other
convenient places
 They are useful for road construction engineers and others who wish to know the precise
altitude of a main transport network.

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Example: BM 1850 (where the point is marked on the ground, the height above mean sea
level is 1850 meters).
Calculating Altitude: When the altitude of a point on a contour map is not shown by any of the
above methods, it can be obtained by measurement and calculation, using the interpolation
method. This can be done only if the given point is located between two contour lines. In order to
find the altitude of point A in Figure below, follow the procedures given below.
 Draw the shortest possible straight line that passes through point (A) and join the two contour
lines adjacent to it.
 Measure the length of this line: = 11 mm.
 Measure the distance on the map between the lower and upper contours up to point (A). They
are 6 mm and 5 mm respectively.
 Find the vertical interval between the two contour lines: = 100 m.
 Then determine the altitude of the point using the following formula:

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Drawing Contour Lines from Spot Heights
Contours are drawn on maps based on the spatial data that is gathered through different
techniques. This is to mean that before preparing the contour map of an area, surveying the area
to obtain spatial data about the relief of the place is important. The collection of spatial
information that is vital for contour mapping can be done through ground survey, aerial
photography or satellite imagery.
When the surveying is done by using aircraft and satellites (through aerial
photography/imagery), the aerial photograph of the landscape has to be mapped through aerial
photogrammetry, which uses an instrument called a stereoscope. Photogrammetry is the science
of taking measurements from aerial photographs or satellite images to make maps, including
topographic maps. Photogrammetrists use photographs taken by a special camera on an airplane
or by spacecraft satellites. To minimize distortions, the pictures are corrected using a
stereoscopic device called a stereoplotter, which creates a three-dimensional image by combining
overlapping pictures of the same terrain taken from two different angles. Contours, roads, and
other features are then traced from the three-dimensional image to form a map base.
The photographs with horizontal and vertical information of the area will then be reconstructed
into stereo models for drafting true-scale maps. In this method, precise cameras and precision-
mapping equipment are required to show true elevations for all points in the mapped area.
Elevations on topographic maps are shown chiefly by use of superimposed contour lines
connecting points of equal elevation, to give a readable picture of the terrain.
A stereoscope is an optical instrument through which one may view photographs of objects not
merely as plane representations, but with an appearance of solidity, and in relief. The stereoscope
is an instrument in which two photographs of the same object, taken from slightly different
angles, are simultaneously presented, one to each eye. Each picture is focused by a separate lens,

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and the two lenses are inclined so as to shift the images toward each other and thus ensure the
visual combination of the two images into one three-dimensional image. Stereoscopic aerial
photography permits three-dimensional representations, which can be used in the preparation of
contour maps.
On the other hand, when spatial information is gathered through ground surveys, surveyors must
physically be present in the area being mapped and take measurements of the relief and keep
records of their measurements of height.
Then, the gathered data will be recorded on paper or stored in a computer by using spot heights,
with each spot height representing the measured altitude of the specific point. Then, the
cartographers/map-makers will connect all points of equal altitude to draw the contours with the
contour interval that they choose based on the nature of the landscape and the scale of the map.
Drawing contours from spot heights is tiresome and time-consuming. However, it is important
for producing contour maps in situations where advanced technologies of contour mapping are
not adequately available. Contours are drawn from spot heights by using the method called
interpolation to determine the height of places between successive spot heights. Spot heights
represent individual heights of places at varying points as obtained through ground surveys by
using clinometers, which are hand held surveying instruments for measuring angles of slopes,
and altimeters, instruments to measure the elevations of places.
Interpolation can be done in any one of the following ways.
 Estimation method: This technique is used to locate contour lines by rough estimation. It
should be applied in areas where the ground is quite regular and when very simple and small-
scale work is done. It does not necessarily need great accuracy.
 Calculation method: This is the most accurate method of interpolation, whereby the exact
altitude of the contour will be determined by measurement and subsequent calculations.
Despite its accuracy, the calculation method is time-consuming and laborious.
 Graphical method: This is the quickest and the most accurate method of interpolation of
contours. In the graphic method, a graph is prepared on tracing paper.
Contour lines can generated from spot heights. A spot height is a statistical point that
represents the specific altitude of a place at that particular point. Drawing contours from spot
heights is not hard or difficult. However, it needs a lot of practice and patience, as well as a lot of
time, to make a good-looking contour map.

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Contouring is started by plotting the spot heights with their specific altitudes on the paper on
which you want to draw the contour map. The elevations of the spot heights can be obtained by
ground survey and associated measurement of altitude of points on the surveyed area.

As you can see from Figure, the altitudes of a number of places have been collected through
ground survey and the altitude of each point is presented by using mathematical calculation.
As shown in the Figure, the contour interval is 100 m. This means that contours are drawn for
every 100 m altitude. The lowest point indicated by the spot heights in the figure is 300 m above
sea level. Hence, the contour line with the lowest value is the 300 m contour. By starting from
that line, contours have to be drawn for every additional 100 m altitude. Accordingly, you are
expected to draw contours for 400 m, 500 m, 600 m, and the like up to the highest point
indicated, which is 1070 m. In this case, the last contour line should have a value of 1000 m as
the contour interval given is 100 m.
The second step in drawing contours from spot heights is determining the approximate points
through which the contour lines with every 100 m value pass. This can be done by using the
method called interpolation. Interpolation is a method of estimating the values of points lying
between two points that have defined values. By using this method, we can scientifically guess
the approximate altitude through which each contour line with an additional 100 m altitude
passes. Interpolation involves some kind of mathematical measurement.
To determine the points at which the contour is to be drawn and pass through, we have to
connect points between which the contour lines of every 100 m additional value pass by using
straight lines. Then, the length of the straight line is measured by using a ruler to obtain the
distance on the map between the points. Once the distance on the map between the points is
acquired, we have to apply a cross- multiplication system to get the point at which the required
contour with a 100 m contour interval should pass. We apply similar procedures to plot all the
points for each specific contour line.
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To better understand the procedures that we apply while interpolating points, you can study the
following figure and the associated description. The figure shows you the procedures that we
need to follow while determining the points at which the 400 m contour line passes. To do so,
follow this procedure.
i. Identify all the points between which the 400 m contour line passes. In this case, they are all
the points that lie between the following spot heights.

ii. Connect all the points identified above by using straight lines as shown in Figure 2.4. The
lines are drawn connecting those spot heights between which the 400 m contour line is
expected to pass. To draw the whole map, you should connect all the spot heights between
which a contour line with a 100 m contour interval would pass.

iii. Measure the length of each line connecting two spot heights to determine the distance on the
map between the two points and see the height it represents (the difference in altitude
between the two spot heights). For example, the distance on the map between the 320 m and
420 m spot heights is measured and is found to be 1.5 cm. This means that the 100 m
altitudinal difference between the 320 m and 420 m spot heights is represented by a 1.5 cm
straight line.
iv. Determine the point at which the 400 m contour line passes. This can be done by using the
cross-multiplication method. For example, if the 1.5 cm represents 100 m between the 320 m

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 and 420 m spot heights, then the length of line that represents 80 m from the lowest spot
height, i.e., 320 m, would be 1.2 cm.
v. Put a point at a distance of 1.2 cm from the 320 m spot height along the line that connects the
320 m and 420 m spot heights to identify the point along which the 400 m contour line
passes.
N.B: Apply the procedures above to determine the points at which each contour line with a 100
m contour interval passes between two spot heights.
vi. Connect all the identified points of a certain contour line with the given contour interval by
using curved lines to draw the contours. While doing so, please consider the shapes and
patterns that different features such as rivers have when they are represented on contour
maps. This will help you to better represent the features on your map.
vii. Label the map and add all the required information. For example, write the values of the
contour lines to indicate the contour interval and add a title to the map.
When you finish drawing all the contour lines, you will have the following contour map.

2.8.2 Slopes and Gradients

What is slope?
 How can we determine the steepness of slopes on contour maps?
 What kind of relations exist between vertical interval (V.I) and slope?
Slope is the upward or downward inclination of a natural or artificial surface. It is a deviation of
the surface from the horizontal.
On a map, steepness of a slope depends on:
 The distance between the contours drawn on the map. The closer the contours are, the steeper
is the slope representation and vice versa.
 The vertical interval (V.I.) between two successive contours. The bigger the V.I, the steeper is
the slope representation and vice versa.
1. Types of Slopes
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How many types of slope do you know? Mention some of them and describe how you can
identify them from contour maps. There are different types of slopes, which include:
i. Even slope: An even slope has a constant gradient from the bottom to the top. Gradient is the
degree or rate of a slope. You will learn more about gradient later in this unit.
On a map of an even slope, the contour lines are evenly spaced throughout. For example, study
the slope represented in Figure below.

ii. Concave Slope: In a concave slope; the contour lines are widely spaced at the base and are
close together at the top. In other words, a concave slope has a steep gradient at the top. The
gradient becomes gentler towards the bottom .

iii. Convex Slope- In a convex slope, the contour lines are close together at the base and widely
spaced at the top. The slope has a steep gradient at the bottom that becomes gentler towards
the top. .

iv.
v. Terraced or Stepped Slope: In a terraced or stepped slope, the contour lines are alternatively
close together and far apart in a regular pattern. This means the gradient changes several times
between the bottom and the top of the slope.

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vi. Escarpment: An escarpment is the steep slope of a plateau, especially one where the plateau
ends and the lowland starts. You can also identify other two more slopes on either side of a
mountain ridge. One slope is steep and the other is gentle. The steep slope is called the scarp
slope. The gentler slope is called the dip slope.

2. Gradient on Contour Maps

 What is gradient?
 What are the three common ways of expressing gradient?
 How do you determine the rate of change of slope between two points?
Gradient (GR) is the degree or rate of change of slope or elevation between two points.
It is calculated using altitude difference (vertical distance) and map distance (horizontal distance)
between two points. Both AD and MD must be in the same unit of measurement.
It can be expressed in any of these three different ways:
i. As a simple ratio: GR = AD/MD
ii. As a percent: GR = AD/MD*100
iii. In degrees: GR = AD/MD*60o
Where: GR = gradient, AD = altitude difference, MD = map distance.
Usually we express gradient as a percentage. This expression is the simplest to use, and it is
relatively easy to calculate.
Here are some examples of the three methods:

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a. Ratio: This expression of gradient gives a relationship between the vertical and horizontal
dimensions of the slope.
Example: The gradient ratio 1:20 means there is 1 unit of rise of altitude for every 20 units of
horizontal distance.
b. Percent: We use the ratio expression of gradient to obtain the expression as a percent.
Multiply the ratio by 100.
Example: 1 /20 × 100 = 5%. In other words, on average, there is a vertical rise of 5 units for
every 100 units of horizontal distance.
c. Degree: We also use the ratio expression to obtain the expression as a degree. Multiply the
ratio by 60o.
Example: 1/20 × 60o = 3o. In other words, on average, the slope between the two points is
roughly 3o.
Use the following Table to see how individual gradients are given by the three different
expressions:

Example: Find the gradient between A and F on the figure below.

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Drawing Relief Cross-Section (Profile)
As we have seen so far, contouring is the standard method of representing relief on topographic
maps. For a given contour map the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines – the contour
interval – is fixed. Examining the horizontal distance between succeeding contour lines helps the
reader to visually estimate the difference in slope of parts of the terrain. Thus, the way the
contours are arranged, their shapes and spacing shows the diverse relief features of the area
mapped. While closely spaced contour lines represent steep slopes, widely spaced contours show
gentle slopes.
However, a more precise method of determining the variation in slope is to construct a profile or
cross-section through the topography. This is done by marking off the horizontal distance
between contour lines along a base line and then plotting the elevation or altitude of these points.
By doing so, a profile can be drawn showing the gradient of slope and shape of the topography
along the line of section.
Cross-section drawing is one of the simplest ways of acquiring skills in reading contour maps. A
cross-section helps us to acquire a better view of the nature of the slope and other relief features
drawn on the contour map. When we draw the cross-section of a map, we can have a better
understanding of the nature of the landscape and can tell whether two points are intervisible or
not.
In order to draw a cross-section from a given contour map, we need to have a vertical scale in
addition to the horizontal scale of the map. Horizontal scale is the normal scale of any given
map. On the other hand, vertical scale is the scale which is used to show the nature and type of

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relief on the contour map. It shows the degree of exaggeration made while the cross-section of a
relief feature is prepared from its contour map.
The vertical exaggeration/vertical scale of the cross-section is determined by considering the
scale of the map and the nature of the terrain. Although the decision concerning the extent to
which a cross-section should be exaggerated is in the hands of the one who prepares the cross-
section, the widely accepted approach to use is defined by these guidelines:
 higher vertical exaggeration for flat terrain; and
 small or no vertical exaggeration for rugged (rough) terrain.

i. Draw a cross-section line across the above contour map between the two points along which
you choose to draw the cross-section.

ii. Place the edge of a strip of straight-edged paper along the cross-section line which you have
drawn along points A and B.
iii. Mark the places where the contour lines disappear under the straight edge and note their
heights.

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iv. Draw a cross-section outline with vertical scale

v. Place the strip of paper along the top and mark the height points on the outline.

vi. Join the points with a curving line.

vii. Shade the bottom of the diagram.
viii. Add labels and titles

The first part of Figure above shows the topography of the mapped area in a contour-line map.
The contours are labeled with numbers indicating how high above sea level the contours are. The
second part of the figure is a cross-section of the contour map along the line A-B. The x-axis (the
horizontal axis) of the cross-section corresponds to the line from A to B on the topographical
map. The y-axis (the vertical axis) of the cross-section is used with the x-axis to plot the height
of each contour where it crosses the A-B line. In this way, a series of dots has been created and
they have been connected to each other to create the cross- section of the landscape.

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From the above cross-section, one can easily understand that the area represented by the contour
map is a pass between two rising landforms/hills. It is also possible to see the nature of the slope
along the sides of the hills. For instance, the hills are steeper along the left side, while they are
gentler along the right. Note that the steeper slopes are represented by closely drawn contours,
while the gentler slopes are represented by contours that are widely spaced.

In almost all cross-sections, the horizontal scale is smaller than the vertical scale. This forms a
simple relationship between the contour interval and the vertical distance between the horizontal
lines on the graph paper. For instance, a section from the 1 cm thus plotted on 1 /10 cm would
have a horizontal scale of 1/100,000 cm and a vertical scale of 1/10,000(1cm to 10,000cm). The
vertical exaggeration would be approximately 10 times.

While drawing the cross-section of an area, using a vertical scale may be required. This becomes
a must if the map is drawn in such a way that may result in inconvenient cross-sections. Using a
vertical scale greater than the horizontal scale in a cross-section is called vertical exaggeration.
Cartographers exaggerate the vertical scale in order to clearly visualize the terrain of an area.
Some times less exaggeration is used in areas where the relief elevation is high. When the relief
represented is a relatively flat area or an area of low altitude, more exaggeration is needed.
The degree to which we exaggerate the vertical scale (V.E.) depends on:
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 the scale of the map from which the profile is drawn
 the relief configuration of the area that we are dealing with.
Vertical exaggeration is both advantageous and disadvantageous. Some of the advantages and
limitations of vertical exaggeration are listed below.

Intervisibility
Intervisibility is simply defined as the visibility of places to each other. If an observer standing at
a certain point can see another observer standing at another point, then the two places are said to
be intervisible. Any land that is not visible from a certain point or place is known as “dead
ground” relative to that area.
Contour maps are important tools to determine whether two places are intervisible or not. An
important feature of contour maps is that they allow us to know whether one place can be seen
from another and vice versa.
Studying intervisibility is important for many reasons, for example
 Intervisibility is important for planning military operations;
 It is also important for understanding the distribution of dead and visible ground with respect
to proposed plans of infrastructure;
 Intervisibility provides information for the evaluation of proposed sites for forest-fire
lookouts;
 Intervisibility plays a significant role in the planning of logging; and
 It is important for selecting appropriate sites for the development of recreation and
refreshment centers.
The intervisibility of places can be affected by several factors, amongst which the most
important ones are the following.
i. The type of slope between the two points;
ii. The general relief between the two points; and
iii. The amount of vegetation that covers the area.
When we study intervisibility from contour maps, we have to consider the characteristics of
contour lines. This is so because contour lines with varying shapes and patterns represent varied
relief features. As we know, the nature of the landscape is the most important determining factor
regarding intervisibility. Accordingly, we can say that under normal conditions,

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 Two points separated by an even slope are said to be intervisible. However, in such a case, the
vegetation cover should be taken into consideration before we make our decision. If the slope
is covered with forest, the two points may not be intervisible;
 Two points having unequal heights but separated by ground lower than the lower ground of
the two points are intervisible;
 Two points of equal altitude may or may not be intervisible, depending on other factors. For
example, the two become intervisible if there is no higher ground or thick vegetation cover
between the two points;
 Two points separated by a concave slope are said to be intervisible if no other factor exists
that hinders intervisibility;
 Two points separated by a convex slope are not intervisible to each other because there is out
bulging land between the points;
 Two points that are located at the opposite sides of high ground are not intervisible because
the higher ground between the two obscures their intervisibility.
For example, in the following contour map (Figure 2.60), the intervisibility of points A and B
and C and D can be determined by observing the nature of the contour lines and the direction at
which elevation increases. Accordingly, we can conclude that:
a. Points A and B are not intervisible. As a result, the men standing at the two points cannot see
each other. This is due to the presence of higher ground between the two points. As you can
see from the map, the persons stand at the opposite sides of the hill. Point A lies at 60 m
altitude, while point B is at 70 m altitude, but there is ground higher than 80 m in altitude
between the two. This obscures their intervisibility.
b. Points C and D are intervisible and therefore the men standing at the two points can see each
other. In this case, the two persons are standing on the same side of the hill but at different
altitudes. As shown on the map, point C lies at an altitude of 90 m, while point D is located at
an altitude of 60 m. As there is no higher ground between the two points, and as the slope is
gentle, the two places are intervisible.
 due to the type of the slope = concave

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The intervisibility of places can easily be determined when the places shown on the contour map
are presented in cross-section. The most important purpose of drawing cross-sections is to
determine the intervisibility of places. For instance, the intervisibility of the points shown on the
above contour map can be easily decided by observing the nature of the landscape between the
labeled points in the following cross-section diagram of the contour map presented above.

While determining the intervisibility of points or places labelled on a contour map, knowing the
following facts simplifies your work. However, do not forget that these conditions are functional
only under normal condition. This is to mean that there should not be any other factors, such as
thick vegetation, that may hinder the intervisibility of the points.
i. Points located at different altitudes (for example, one at the top and the other at the bottom of
a hill) with contours that are drawn close to each other at the top and farther apart at the
bottom (i.e., concave slopes) are intervisible.

ii. Two points, one located at the top and the other at the bottom of a hill, with contours that are
drawn far apart at the top and close to each other at the bottom (i.e., convex slopes) are not
intervisible.

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iii. Two points, one being located at the top of a hill and the other at its bottom, with contours
that are evenly spaced (i.e., gentle slopes) are intervisible.

iv. Two points, one being located on top of a cliff or an overhanging cliff and the other at the
bottom of it (a relief feature that is represented by contours that merge at the points where the
landscape becomes a cliff) are not intervisible.

v. Points that are located at the same altitude are intervisible if there is no higher ground
between the points. Otherwise, they are not intervisible.

vi. Two points that are located at the opposite sides of a hill or a mountain (represented by
nearly circular closed contours with their values increasing towards the smaller (innermost)

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 closed contour) are not intervisible to each other because the higher ground between the two
points prevents intervisibility.

vii. Two points, one located inside a depression on top of a mountain and the other on the side of
the mountain outside the depression (shown by nearly circular closed contours with their
values increasing towards the top of the mountain up to the beginning of the depression and
then closed contours with their values decreasing towards the most interior point) are not
intervisible.

The intervisibility of two points can also be determined by using a skeleton diagram that shows
only the altitude of the points for which intervisibility is to be investigated. Figure below gives
you some idea about how to determine intervisibility between points by using this technique.
Such a method is especially important for determining intervisibility between points when, for
some reason, it is difficult to determine intervisibility by using contour maps.

In the above section, we find that the line of vision drawn from A to B is obscured by the height
of D (960 m), and therefore the two points A and B are not intervisible. This can also be decided

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by the very position of D and B. If spot height D had been closer to C, or if point B had been
farther away from D, points
A, B, and D would have been intervisible. Therefore, the intervisibility of points on such
landforms cannot be decided with the help of the contour map unless we use a skeleton section
like the above one.

Land Forms on Contour Maps

 What sort of merit does contour lines have for showing land features on maps?
 How do we identify different land features with the help of contour lines?
 How do you identify different slopes on contour maps?
Contour maps show different relief features by using contour lines with different shapes and
spacing. Their patterns help map readers to easily identify the kind of terrain feature represented.
For instance, mountains and plateaus are shown by contour lines with different shapes. The same
thing is true when valleys and depressions are represented. As a result, various terrains on
contour maps appear with their own distinct shape and pattern. Map makers exploit this
advantage of contour lines to depict the nature of the landforms they show on their maps.
The following discussion gives you some ideas about how different terrains are represented on
topographic maps.
i. Hill: A hill is an area of high ground but is lower than a mountain in elevation. From the top
of the hill the ground slopes down in all directions.
On a topographic map, a hill is shown by contour lines forming concentric circles. The inside of
the smallest closed circle indicates the hilltop. The following figure shows you how a hill is
represented on a contour map.

 Col is a relatively lower and deeper than saddle often found between two streams.
 Pass is a deeper, more pronounced depression than a col between two hills or mountains.
ii. Saddle: A saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher ground.

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The feature is like the seat on a riding horse. It is not necessarily the lower ground between two
hilltops. It can rather be a simple dip or break along a level ridge crest. A saddle has high ground
in two opposite directions. A saddle is normally represented as an hourglass.

iii. Valley: A valley is a long low-lying area of land, often with a river or stream running through
it, that is surrounded by higher ground. It is a stretched- out channel in the land, usually
formed by streams or rivers.
A valley begins with high ground on three sides, and usually has a course of running water
through it. In a valley, three directions offer high ground, while the fourth direction offers low
ground. Contour lines forming a valley are either U-shaped or V-shaped. While U-shaped
contours represent valleys with steep slopes and flat bottoms, V-shaped contours show valleys
with relatively gently descending slopes with V-shaped bottoms. To determine the direction
water is flowing, look at the contour lines. The closed end of the contour line (U or V) always
points upstream or toward high ground.

iv. Ridge: A ridge is a sloping line of high ground. It is a long narrow hill top or a range of hills.
A ridge normally has low ground in three directions and high ground in one direction with
varying degrees of slope. Crossing a ridge at right angles results in climbing steeply to the top
and then descending steeply to the bottom. Contour lines representing a ridge tend to be U-
shaped or V shaped. The closed end of the contour line points toward lower ground.

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v. Depression: A depression is an area of land that is lower in altitude than the areas
surrounding it. It is a low point on the ground or a sinkhole. It could also be described as an
area of low ground surrounded by higher ground in all directions, or simply as a hole in the
ground. Usually only depressions that are equal to or greater than the contour interval will be
shown. On maps, depressions are represented by closed contour lines that have tick marks
pointing downward to lower ground.

 What is a re-intrant?
 What is the difference between a re-intrant and a spur?
vi. Re-intrant: A re intrant is a less-developed stream course that is smaller than a valley. It has
no level ground and, therefore, little or no movement room within its limits.
In a re-intrant, the ground slopes upward in three directions and downward in the other direction.
A re-intrant could be considered as the initial stage in the formation of a valley. Like those
representing a valley, the contour lines representing a draw are U-shaped or V-shaped, pointing
toward higher ground.

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What is a spur? What makes it different from a valley?
vii. Spur: A spur is a short and continuously sloping line of higher ground that normally
extends out from the side of a ridge.
Usually, a spur is formed by two roughly parallel streams that cut draws along the side of a ridge.
A spur has three of its sides sloping downwards and upward sloping on the other direction. Spurs
are shown on a contour map by using contours that point towards the lower ground with “U” or
“V” shapes.

What is a cliff? How it is shown in a contour map?

viii. Cliff: A cliff is a vertical or nearly vertical relief feature with a sudden change vertical
distance (elevation) with almost no change in its horizontal distance.
Cliffs are shown on topographic maps by using contour lines that are very close together (when
there is a little change in horizontal distance and rapid increase in vertical distance) and, in some
cases, by contours that overlap (merge) when there is no change in horizontal distance at all.

Supplementary Terrain Features

a. Cut: A cut is a human-made feature that results from the cutting of higher ground, usually to
form a level bed for a road or railway track.
Cuts are shown on a map when they are at least 10 m high. They are usually drawn with a
contour line along the cut line. The contour line extends the length of the cut and has tick marks
that extend from the cut line to the road bed, if the map scale permits this level of detail.

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b. Fill: is a human made feature resulting from filling a low area usually to form a level bed for
a road or rail road track. Fills are shown on a map when they are at least 3 m.

Drainage on map
What is drainage?
The drainage of an area consists of the different water resources that drain it.
The drainage includes the rivers that flow over the region and the other water resources,
including lakes and swamps. How rivers drain a certain area can be depicted by using contour
maps. It is also possible to show the catchment areas and drainage basins of rivers as well as
their general characteristics on contour maps. Hence, map readers and map users can acquire
adequate information about the drainage of a certain place from contour maps.

Watershed and Catchment Area:

The rivers that drain a certain geographical area flow over the region and form a certain pattern
that is termed drainage pattern. A drainage pattern refers to the general arrangement of a river
and its tributaries within their drainage basin/ catchment area. A drainage basin/catchment area
refers to the entire geographical space that is drained by the major river and its tributaries. For
example, the whole area that is drained by the Abay River and all its tributaries forms the Abay
River
Basin in Ethiopia. A number of river basins together form the drainage system of a certain place.
A drainage system is a system that is made up of all the river basins that flow in the same
direction. For instance, all the rivers that flow in the western direction from the central highlands
of Ethiopian form the Western Ethiopia Drainage System, which is also called the Mediterranean
Sea Drainage System, based on their destination. Adjacent drainage basins are separated from
one another by watersheds. A watershed/divide is higher ground which serves as a source region
for streams and rivers that flow in different directions within their own distinct basins. Along the
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sides of a watershed, rivers flow into different drainage basins. That is why we say that a
watershed is a dividing line between neighboring drainage basins. The patterns of most drainage
basins evolve over a long period of time and usually become adjusted to the structure of the
basin. Figure 2.37 shows you what the features that we have been discussing above look
like in a certain geographical region.

A drainage basin and its watershed can be identified on a contour map. This can be done by
observing the patterns and shapes of the contour lines that are used to represent the topography
of the mapped area. To further simplify the process, it is good to investigate the flow direction of
the streams and rivers that originate from the higher ground. The following steps can help you
identify a drainage basin and its divide on contour maps.
 Identify the course of the main river on the map;
 Identify the tributaries of the main river on the map;
 Look at the contour lines near the origin of the tributaries and find high points and ridges;
 Look at other rivers that originate nearby and check whether they flow away from the main
river;
 Once you identify the rivers that flow away from the main river, follow the way between
those rivers that flow towards our main river and away from it. Then mark these points with
solid or broken lines to show the river basin and its watershed.
While inserting a watershed on contour maps we should be very careful. The most important
considerations follow.
i. A watershed (divide) is not drawn parallel between streams; rather the streams flow away
from the watershed in opposite directions
ii. Look at the streams’ direction of flow carefully. A watershed may wind but it never crosses
the channel of a river,
iii. A watershed usually passes through the highest points between adjacent river basins.

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iv. A watershed runs in the middle of two contour lines of different altitude. In the case of a river
capture, however, a river can cross its watershed.

Let us now try to identify the drainage basin and watershed of the river that is labeled “River A”
in the following figure. Study how we follow the procedure described above as we identify the
river’s basin and its divide. The red circle shows you where the river is located on Figure 2.80.
A river’s catchment area includes all the geographic space that is drained by a major river and
many other small streams that feed the major river with water. The major river in a river basin is
the longest of all the rivers in the basin. The other small streams that supply water to the main
rivers are called tributaries. The point at which the tributaries meet with the major river is called
confluence. The point at which the major river in a basin starts is called the source of the river.
Likewise, the point at which the river empties itself into an ocean, a sea or a lake is called the
mouth of the river. Figure 2.81 shows you the points that we have discussed above.

The labels on the map in Figure 2.39 represent the following features.
 Letter “A” represents the source of the main river;
 Letter “B” represents the tributaries of the main river;
 Letter “C” represents the confluences; and

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 Letter “D” represents the mouth of the main river.

Drainage Patterns
What is a drainage pattern? How does it differ from a drainage basin?
The rivers in each drainage basin form different patterns. A drainage pattern shows the
characteristic way tributaries that feed other larger streams and rivers branch off in different
directions. In other words, it could be understood as a pattern that is formed by the main river
and its tributaries as they flow over the surface of the earth. Drainage patterns can have many
different forms. They are based largely on the geological structure of the rocks on which they
form. As topography varies, so does the drainage pattern. In addition, the types of rocks over
which the river flows and the geological history of the region may also influence the drainage
patterns of rivers.
There are a number of drainage patterns that rivers form in their basins. However, the most
common ones are the following.
 Dendritic drainage pattern
 Trellis drainage pattern
 Radial drainage pattern
 Centripetal drainage pattern
 Rectangular drainage pattern
The features of the five drainage patterns are presented in the following descriptions and
diagrams.
i. Dendritic Drainage Pattern: The term dendritic is derived from the Greek word “dendron”
which literally means “a tree”.
This drainage pattern is characterized by a tree-like shape with branches. The smallest tributaries
are the outermost twigs, and the main river channel forms the trunk.
The lower-order streams (tributaries) join the main (higher-order) streams at acute angles (less
than 90o angles), forming Y-shaped junctions.

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Dendritic patterns are usually formed in areas of homogeneous rock which comprises horizontal
strata rock masses. In this drainage pattern, geological processes such as folding or faulting do
not create structures that would affect the development of the river system. It is the most
common drainage pattern of all the patterns.
 In sequent stream – these are tributaries that flow towards the main valley joining the main
river (consequent stream) obliquely and in turn minor tributaries join them and the points
where they flow into the main streams are accordant functions.
 Oblique tributaries – these are minor tributary streams having a sloping direction, that join
the in sequent stream obliquely.
ii. Trellis Drainage Pattern: Trellis drainage patterns develop in areas where harder and softer
rocks alternate. The pattern of this drainage pattern is greatly affected by tectonic forces
(folding and faulting). The branches of the river system usually join one another at nearly
right angles. The branches are given different names, depending on their origin and direction
of flow. These are:
a. First-order streams (obsequent): are the tributaries of the subsequent streams that flow in
the opposite direction to the consequent stream (main).
b. The consequent stream: the principal river which flows down the slope is called a
consequent river.
c. The subsequent streams: are the tributaries which cut out valleys and which do not flow
down the main slope.
d. Secondary consequent streams (resequent): are the tributaries of the subsequent streams
that flow in the same direction to the consequent stream.

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iii. Radial Drainage Pattern: Radial drainage patterns occur where rivers flow in all directions
away from a raised feature. The raised feature may be a volcano or a mass of rock that is
more resistant to erosion than the surrounding rock and therefore stands higher than its
surrounding.

iv. Centripetal Drainage Pattern: Centripetal drainage patterns are found in areas where
rivers flow from surrounding high ground toward a central basin, which is often occupied by
a lake. The rivers flow into one common center.

v. Rectangular Drainage Pattern: Rectangular drainage patterns usually form in areas that
have numerous cracks that form a grid pattern. This pattern is common over certain types of
rock, such as granite, in which cracks called joints develop to form a grid. Stream channels
tend to follow these joint systems

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Five different kinds of drainage patterns are formed by streams. These are dendritic, rectangular,
radial, centripetal and trellis. Drainage patterns result from the type of soil in the area of drainage
and the erosion of the soil by flowing water. Dendritic patterns usually form in areas of flat
sedimentary rock, while areas with high central peaks, such as volcanoes, exhibit radial drainage
patterns. Sometimes, water flows into a bowl- shaped valley by centripetal drainage and creates a
lake or erodes areas between ridges to create deep valleys, as seen in trellis drainage.

2.9 Map projection

What does map projection mean? What is its significance? Map projection is a technique that
cartographers use to transfer information from a globe to a flat surface in order to create a map.
Cartographers developed map projection as they tried to solve the problems that globes
presented. The end result of their efforts was to produce an alternative tool – the map. Depicting
various types of data on a map is the chief objective of a cartographer. This demands the
establishment of basic information (like grid references, boundaries, etc.) on the required map.
The acquiring of this basic information in turn demands map projection. In this way, map
projection becomes very significant so that data and other geographic elements will be depicted
in their appropriate place.

Properties of Map Projection

Is map projection a perfect technique of transferring all the information portrayed on a spherical
surface onto a plane surface? No type of map projection is free of distortion. Because
cartographers must make choices when they decide to pick a projection, they begin by asking
themselves questions like the ones just below: The task of representing a spherical surface on a
plane surface is complicated. There is no way to preserve accuracy. This is because there is no
way to cut up the surface of a globe that would allow it to lie flat on a piece of paper. The
spherical surface would tear if you tried to spread it out onto a perfectly flat surface. Therefore,

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transferring the graphics on the surface of a globe to a flat surface always results in distortion in
the graphics. Distortions in one or more of the following properties always occur.
 Area
 Shape
 Distance
 Direction (Angle)\
If you maintain the accuracy of one of these features, some or all of the others will be distorted.
Therefore, there is no projection type that provides an absolutely perfect representation of the
earth on a flat surface. A surface, such as that of the earth, that cannot be converted into a flat
surface without distortion is called an undevelopable surface. Here are some commonly used
types of projections. Each maintains accuracy in one of the features by sacrificing accuracy in
others.
 Homolographic projections maintain accuracy of shape.
 Equidistant projection maintains distance.
 Orthomorphic projections maintain accuracy of size.
 Azimuthal projections maintain accuracy of direction.

Geometrical Map Projection

What does the term geometrical map projection mean? Does it have relationships with the
geometrical figures? As you know, map projection is a device of representing a sphere surface on
a flat and plane surface. This involves a difficult task since the spherical surface the globe-cannot
be cut and opened into a perfectly flat surface. However, there are some geometrical surfaces
that can cover the globe partially and they can be cut open into flat surfaces. By covering a globe
of glass (that illuminates from inside) with such a surface (developable surface), the shadows of
parallels and meridians can be traced onto the paper and then be open into a plane surface. When
creating projections by casting shadows onto a developable surface, we capture the pattern of the
shadows on the surface and then flatten the surface. Here are some commonly used projections
that are based on the shape of the developable surface. Some of them have sub-categories.
 Cylindrical
 Conic (Cone)
 Planar (Plane) – also known as azimuthal

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1. Cylindrical Projections: What do you mean by cylindrical Projection? Where does the
cylinder tangent the globe? Cylindrical projections are best suited for the projection of
tropical regions since deformities increase pole wards. Have you seen balls kept in a
cylinder? The cylinder tangents the balls at both sides. A very simple example is the keeping
of table tennis balls in their cylindrical package. Cylindrical projection is obtained with the
help of a cylindrical developable surface. The cylinder, which is wrapped around the globe
tangent to the cylinder, is tall enough to parallel both sides of the equator. After the data have
been captured on its surface, the cylinder is removed from around the globe, and is cut open
and flattened to create a rectangular plane surface.

Characteristics of Cylindrical Projection

 Parallels and meridians in such a projection are straight lines intersecting at right angles.
 The lines tangent to the developable surface are true to scale.
 All parallels are equal in length to the equator.
 Distortions increase pole wards from the equator.
2. Conic Projection:
What does conic projection mean? This is obtained by covering the globe with a cone-shaped
developable surface. The cone is placed tangent to the globe along one, two or more
parallels, with the apex of the cone located above a pole.

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Characteristics of Conic Projection
In such a projection:
 Parallels make arcs of concentric circles.
 Meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole.
 The parallel tangent to the cone is true to scale. It is known as the standard parallel (sp).
 Distortions increase as parallels move away from the standard parallel.
 Conic projection cannot be used to show worldwide distributions. Maps created with
conic projections are mostly restricted to maps of mid- latitude regions so that the area
being investigated does not extend very far to the north or to the south. Hence, it can be
argued that if two standard parallels could be selected, an area that includes more of the
north-south directions could be represented.
 Linear features, such as transcontinental railways and forests, for example, coniferous
forest regions, can be depicted accurately.
3. Zenithal Projection:
It refers to overhead position, that is perpendicular. This projection is also known as Azimuthal
projection. True distances and directions in such projection are retained by placing a developable
surface at one of the poles as you see below.

Characteristics of Zenithal /Azimuthal Projections

In such projections:
 Parallels are concentric circles.
 Meridians are straight lines radiating from the poles. What is more:
 Planar projections produce circular maps.
 Planar projections are very much suited to maps of polar landmasses (high latitude
regions).

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 UNIT THREE
3. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE EARTH
3.1. Physical Environment of the World
3.1.1 The Earth in the Universe
Start-up Activity

Discuss the following questions.

What do you understand about the universe and solar system? What is the solar system? In
which galaxy is the earth located?

 Universe - Totality of space and cosmos; in which everything is found.

 All heavenly bodies, including all stars, together with the sun, comets, meteors, planets
and their satellites are found in the very vast space called the universe.
 Galaxy
 Large group of stars.
 Universe contains many galaxies.
 Milky Way is our galaxy, our solar system is found
 Solar system
 Smaller group of heavenly bodies,
 which includes the sun at the center and the nine planets and their satellites and asteroids
Origin of the Earth

 Earth's origin is related to the process of formation of the solar system.

 Scientists believe that the solar system, of which the earth is part, formed from a large
flammable of hot whirling gases.

 The flammable was loosely packed gases, largely hydrogen and helium, and dust particles
about 4.6 billion years before the present.
 The gases and dust particles gradually drew together because of gravitational pull and
formed a thin disc.
 The spinning rings at the center formed the sun, while the outer rings resulted in the
formation of the nine planets, including the earth.
 The solar system is the sun and the objects that are traveling around it.

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  Planets are objects that travel around a star in a path is called an orbit.
 The orderly nature of our solar systems leads most researchers to conclude that the earth
and the other planets formed at the same time and from the same material as the sun

Structure of the Earth

Is the Earth a solid planet? Liquid? Gas?

Human lives on the surface of a globe that has a radius of nearly 6500 km, yet no one has ever
penetrated more than a few kilometers below the solid earth. Geophysicists have inferred that
the earth is composed of a great central core and a series of surrounding layers, known
collectively as the mantle, and the crust
Earth's Crust
 It is the outermost and thinnest layer.
 Relatively cool, consists of hard strong rock.
 Crust beneath the oceans differs from that of continents.
 Oceanic crust is between 4 and 7 kilometers thick and is composed mostly of dark,
dense basalt.
 Continental crust is about 20 to 40 kilometers, although under mountain ranges it can
be as much as 70 kilometers thick & composed primarily of light-colored, less dense
granite.
 Relative to its size, Earth’s crust is about as thin as an apples skin about 0.01 percent in
volume.

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Mantle

 It lies directly below the crust.

 2900 kilometers thick and makes up 80 - 84 percent of the earth’s volume.
 Although the chemical composition is similar throughout the mantle, the earth’s
temperature and pressure increase with depth.
 These changes cause the strength of mantle rock to varying with depth, and thus they
create layering within the mantle.

Core
 It is the innermost layer of the earth.
 It is a sphere with a radius of about 3470 kilometers, and is composed largely of iron and
nickel.
 Core----
 Inner core– is molten because of the high temperature at the center of the core.
 Outer core ---solid due to extreme pressure
 Core’s temperature is about 6000oC, which is as hot as the sun’s surface.
 Pressure is more than 1 million times that of the earth’s atmosphere at sea level.
 About 15 percent of Earth’s volume is an iron - nickel core the size of Mars.

3.1.2 Forces that Change the Surface of the Earth

1. Internal processes (Endogenic)

 Is a process arising from the internal part of the earth
 Deriving by convection current, isostasy adjustment and radioactive decay

 Internal forces form the ups and downs on the earth’s crust by breaking and bending
(faulting and folding)

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  It is active land forming process that act from the inside,
 Is constructional process
 Include all the tectonic processes and volcanic activity
 Folding, Faulting, Orogenesis (mountain building), Epeirogenesis (slow rising and sinking
of the landmass) and Volcanism.
1. Folding
 It is one of the internal processes which occurs when two forces act towards each other from
opposing sides.
 Formed due to compression forces.
 Due to this force, rock layers are bent into folds.
 Large-scale folds are found mainly along destructive plate boundaries (convergent plate
boundaries).
 Folding can be explained using two important parameters
 Axial Plane
 Limbs
 Types of folding: different types of folds are created, based on the nature of the forces
applied on bedrock.
 Anticline- if the fold is upward and convex,
 Syncline- if the fold is downward.

Fold Mountains
 What are fold mountains?
 How are fold mountains formed?
 Name some of the fold mountains of the world.
 Fold mountains are formed by crust which has been uplifted, and folded by compressional
forces.

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  Formed when two plates move towards each other.
 Compressional force which is created as a result of this movement pushes sedimentary
rocks upwards into a series of folds.
 Fold mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks and are usually found along
the edges of continents.
 There are two types of Fold Mountains:
 Young fold mountains (10 to 25 million years of age, example, the Atlas, Rockies
and the Himalayas) and
 Old fold mountains (over 200 million years of age, example, the Cape Range, the
Urals in Russia and the Appalachians of the USA).
 Many ranges of mountains have been formed by folding.
 Andes- South America
 Rocky –North America
 Alps- Europe
 Himalayas - Asia
 Australian Alps- australia
 Atlas - North west Africa
 Cape Range in South Africa were formed by folding.
2. Faulting
What is faulting? Describe types of faults.
 Movements in the crust of the earth sometimes make cracks.
 These cracks are called faults.
 Faulting can be caused by either lateral or vertical forces, which can be either tensional
or compressional.
 Tension causes a normal fault, and compression causes a reverse fault.
 Normal fault- is a response to tensional stress and results in horizontal stretching
of the landscape.
 Reverse/thrust fault –is a response to compressive stress and results in shortening
of the landscape. It occurs along convergent plate boundaries

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Features associated to faulting
 Plateau formed in the up thrown side if the uplifting is to moderate
 Block mountain – formed by uplifting of block of land on one side of fracture to great
height. Sometimes the blocks in b/n the two fractures may be uplifted and form a feature
called Horst Mountain.
 Rift valley e.g. great East African rift valley
Rift valley

 It is a linear shaped lowland area between highlands or mountain ranges created by

geologic rifts or faults.
 It is a valley formed by faulting.
 Formed when two parallel faults occur on the surface of the earth, and when the land
between the two faults sinks down
 The largest rift valley in the world is the East African Rift Valley.
 It extends from Syria to Mozambique, passing through the Red Sea, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Tanzania, DR Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.
 Total length of the East African Rift Valley is about 7,200 km, of which 5,600 km is in
Africa.
Block (Horst) Mountains
What is block mountain? How do block mountains form?

 Block Mountains are formed when land between two parallel faults is pushed upward due
to pressure from inside the earth.
 If there are two parallel faults, the crustal block between them may either rise to produce a
Horst (block) mountain, or fall, to produce a rift valley.

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Examples:
 Sierra Nevada Mountains in North America.
 Harz Mountains in Germany.
 Afar block mountain in Ethiopia.
 Ruwenzori in Africa.
3. Volcanism
What is volcanic activity? What landforms are associated with volcanic activity?

 Volcanic activity is another internal force which changes the surface of the earth.
 Caused by internal movements within the earth.
 It is the process by which magma, gases, water vapor, ashes and other solid materials are
forced out to the surface.
 Inside the earth the temperature is very hot.
 High temperature changes rocks into molten magma and when this magma reaches the
surface, volcanic activity takes place.
 Magma- Molten rock inside the Earth
 Lava- when the magma emerges on to the surface, it cools and hardens.
 Magma reaches the earth’s surface through two kinds of holes.
Vents- Magma may force its way violently through a small hole called a vent.
Fissures- Magma may pour quietly through long cracks (fissures) onto the
earth’s surface.
 Types of Volcanic Activities - There are two types of activities: Intrusive& extrusive.
Intrusive Volcanism:
 Formed when magma is pushed upward into the crust but fails to reach the surface and
gets into or across layers of rock inside the crust
 It occurs because of
 Magma lacks sufficient pressure to move up, or
 Overlying rock which it tries to move through is hard and does not easily fracture.
Land features of Intrusive volcano-
batholith is a very large mass of magma which accumulates in the crust. It is the largest
structure.
laccolith is a mushroom shaped body of intrusive igneous rock. Smaller than a batholith.

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 dike is formed when magma solidifies in a vertical or near-vertical crack.
sill is formed when magma solidifies horizontally or nearly horizontally along a bedding
plane.

Extrusive volcanism:
It is a process by which magma together with associated solid, gaseous and steam materials rise
and get ejected on to the surface of the Earth as lava.
Extrusive features
• Fissures - It occur through long fracture or crack. Fissures allow and usually forming either
plateau lands, hills or, sometimes, mountains of great horizontal extent but limited height.
• Vent eruption - It erupt through circular holes.
• Crater or caldera- a basin-like structure that is usually at the summit of a volcanic cone.
• Crater lake or caldera lake- formed when Water collects in the crater or in the caldera and
forms a lake.
• We call this a In Ethiopia there are many crater lakes such as Zuquala, Wonchi and Dendi..

Types of Volcano

Importance of volcanic eruptions:

 Give us some ideas about the interior of the earth.
 Provide fertile soil.
 Provide hot springs (with medical value)

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  Generate geothermal energy.
 Help in the formation and concentration of minerals.
 Help in the creation of new land.
4. Earthquake
What is an earthquake? Why do earthquakes occur?
 Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earth’s crust.
 Caused by internal movements deep down inside the earth.
 Frequently associated with fault lines where the earth’s crust is weak.
 When occurs, vibrations from the center spread out in the form of waves in all
directions.
 Focus-the point at which an earthquake originates
 Epicenter-the point on the earth’s surface immediately above the focus

How do we determine the intensity or magnitude of an earthquake?

 The intensity of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called a seismometer, and is
recorded on a seismograph.
 It records the vibrations produced by an earthquake.
 The scale which gives the magnitude is called
the Richter scale.

 It ranges from 0 to 9.
 The strongest ever recorded earthquake was the Valdivia earthquake in Chile that occurred
On May 22, 1960 (9.5 on the Richter scale).
Richter scale values and the corresponding magnitude of earthquakes

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Effects of Earthquakes
What are the effects of earthquakes?
In addition to the destruction of life and property, an earthquake cause:
displacement of parts of the earth’s crust vertically or laterally.
landslides and deep cracks in surface rocks.
devastation of cities, fires and diseases.
rise or lowering of the sea floor.
The major earthquake and volcanic belts of the world
 About 80% of all earthquakes occur in three regions. They are
 Around the Pacific Ocean zone.
 Across Southern Europe and Southern Asia.
 The west-coast areas of North and South America.

 The two most recent earthquakes in Ethiopia measuring more than 5 on the Richter Scale
occurred:
 July 14, 1960, near Lake Shalla with a magnitude of 6 on the Richter Scale.
 June 2, 1961, in Karakore.

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2. External Forces

 External processes, also known as Exogenic Processes, refer to those group of that originate
and operate on the surface of the Earth, modifying the structural features, produced by internal
processes.
 It is the process of landform that act on the earth from outside
 Responsible force is Solar radiation and Gravity
 Includes weathering, erosion and deposition, mass wasting, glacier.
 Are passive.
 External forces can
 Lower the level of the land by washing it away, and this process is called
denudation
 Raise the level of the land by deposition. Denudation consists of weathering and
erosion.
1. Weathering
 It is the breakdown and chemical alteration of rocks at or near the Earth's surface
into products that can be picked up by agents of transport.
 First step for a number of other geomorphic and biogeochemical processes.
 Includes disintegration (physical weathering), which breaks rocks into smaller
pieces and decomposition (chemical weathering), which forms new substances.
B. Physical (Mechanical) Weathering
What is physical weathering? What are the main agents of physical weathering?
Physical weathering breaks the rocks into smaller pieces.
It is the disintegration of rocks into smaller pieces without any change in their
chemical composition
Factors for physical weathering
 Temperature changes
 exfoliation. peels off and falls to the ground.
 Frost action:
 Plant and animal action

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The effects of temperature changes: The temperature variation between day and night causes
rock to expand and to contract. This process causes cracks to develop. In time, the cracked layer
peels off and falls to the ground. This process is called exfoliation.
The effects of frost action: Due to frost action, rock breaks up into pieces and these fragments
accumulate around the lower slopes of the rock. This material is called scree. Frost action is very
common in the winter season in the temperate zone and in some high mountains all year round.
The effects of plant and animal action: Plants and animals also cause weathering. For example,
seeds may fall in cracks of rocks. If water collects there, it forms suitable conditions for the seeds
to germinate and grow. As plants develop their roots may push the rock apart. Some animals
burrow, and this also helps to break up rocks.

C. Chemical Weathering (Decomposition)

What process is important in chemical weathering? What are main agents of chemical
weathering? Chemical weathering is a process that forms new substances, and it is affected by
the minerals in the rock. Its main agents are rain action and plant and animal actions.
As rain water passes through the atmosphere, it takes in carbon dioxide (CO2) and forms a weak
carbonic acid. When this acid water comes into contact with rock, it begins to dissolve minerals
in the rock. The rate at which rock dissolves depends on the type of rock. Limestone, for
example, dissolves very quickly. This process is known as carbonation.
H2O + CO2 ⇒ carbonic acid ⇒ dissolves and erodes limestone and forms caves.
In underground rivers, seeping rain water continues to dissolve the limestone beneath the
surface, gradually forming passages and caves. These caves contain features such as
stalactites, stalagmites and pillars.
 A stalactite is a limestone column that hangs down from the ceiling of the cave
 A stalagmite is a limestone column that builds upwards from the floor of the cave.
 A pillar is formed when a stalactite and a stalagmite join together.

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 When rain water dissolves oxygen and reacts with iron in rocks, the rocks become rusty.
Pollution in towns and cities increases chemical weathering.
How do plants and animals act as agents of chemical weathering? Plants absorb minerals,
and decaying vegetation produces organic acid, which causes a further breakdown of
minerals. Bacteria in the presence of water break down certain minerals in the soil. Leaching
is a major soil-forming process. It occurs when substances are dissolved in water that
percolates through soil. Such substances include soluble chemicals that move out of
biological tissues into soil - for example, rainfall causes potassium and other ions to be lost
by foliage.

2. Erosion
What is erosion? What are the major agents of erosion? What are the major types of erosion?
What are the characteristics of the agents of erosion?
 Erosion is the transporting of weathered material by various natural forces such as moving
water, wind and moving ice.
 Erosion occurs when particles of rock or soil are:
 washed away by a river
 removed by waves of the sea
 crushed under a glacier
 blown away by the wind

Erosion by Running Water

How does running water cause erosion? What processes are included in erosion?

 Rivers are the most important of all natural agents which help in shaping the earth’s surface.
 The work of running water includes eroding, transporting and depositing eroded material.

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 There are three types of running water erosion:
 Sheet erosion: occurs when surface water moves in a wide flow.
 Rill erosion: occurs when surface water cuts relatively small channels.
 Gully erosion: occurs when floods cut deep wide gorges.
 Course of a river, from its source to its mouth, can be divided into 3 stages; upper course,
middle course and lower course

Upper Course
 In this stage the river water is usually small in volume.
 As the river flows very fast down steep-slopes, a V-shape valley, waterfalls and deep gorges
are formed.
 The fast flow of the river causes vertical erosion and destruction.
 Waterfalls are caused by sudden drops in the level of rivers.
Middle Course
 river valley becomes wider and larger.
 river may receive waters of many tributaries, which increase the volume of water.
 Wide-floored valleys with gentle slopping sides are the main features of the middle course
of the river.
 Instead of taking the most direct course possible, the river begins to meander.

Lower course
 River flows fast, meandering over wide plains, and makes widespread deposition.
 Load is so large that deposition occurs.
 Flat floodplains, big meanders, levees, ox-bow lakes and deltas are the main features
of this course.
 Floodplains are broad flat areas which border with the lower course of a river and
are sometimes flooded by the river.

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  Levees are narrow ridges of alluvial deposits found along the bank of a river.
 Ox-bow lakes are crescent-moon shaped lakes created due to meanders that have
been abandoned. They are formed when meanders are cut off from the main river
channel.
 Deltas are usually triangular areas of land which are usually formed at the mouth of
rivers.

Erosion and deposition by sea waves

 Waves are formed when wind moves over the surface of the sea.
 Causes the particles of water to move in a circular motion, which forms a wave.
 Work of the sea along the coast includes erosion, transportation and deposition.
 Some of these features formed along the shoreline are beaches, spits and lagoons.
 Beach is a strip of land along the sea coast covered with various types of
sediment.
 Spit is a narrow ridge of sand or shingle. It projects into the sea but is attached to
the land at one end.
 Lagoon is an area of saltwater separated from the sea by loose sandbanks.
Wind Erosion and Deposition
What is the most active agent of erosion in desert regions? What is the most common type of
wind deposit?
 Wind erosion is common in desert and semi-desert areas.
 Wind erosion and deposition form different landforms such as sand dunes, barchans and
loess deposits.
 Sand dune is a small hill of sand formed by the action of the wind.
 Barchan is a sand hill that has a crescent-moon shape.

3.1.3. Weather and Climate

3.1.3.1. Earth and Atmosphere

What is atmosphere? How do you explain the importance of atmosphere for human beings or for
all life forms? The air that surrounds the earth is called the atmosphere. It is an envelope of
transparent colorless, tasteless and odorless gases found above the earth’s surface. Composition
of the Atmosphere: The earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases, suspended dust particles and

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condensed moisture droplets which are collectively known as aerosols. The gases are different in
their volume.
Composition of the atmosphere
 Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases, suspended dust particles and condensed
moisture droplets which are collectively known as aerosols.
 Gases are different in their volume.
 Nitrogen – 78%
 Oxygen 21%
 Others 1%
Structure of the Atmosphere
 Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature variation.
 Troposphere,
 Stratosphere,
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere

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 3.1.3.2. Weather and Climate

What is the condition of the atmosphere today? What is weather? What is climate? How is
climate different from weather?
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time. Weather includes daily
changes in precipitation, air pressure, temperature, wind, etc. Weather refers to atmospheric
conditions in a given location. What is the weather like in your locality today?
Climate is the average of all weather conditions of an area over a long period of time. These
conditions include average temperature, air pressure, humidity, and days of sunshine for a period
of 30 years. Climate tells us what it is usually like in the place where we live.
Major Elements of Weather and Climate
The major elements of weather and climate are temperature, rainfall, winds, air pressure,
clouds, etc.
1. Temperature
What is temperature?
 Temperature is the amount of hotness or coldness of an object. The sun is the primary heat
source for the earth and its atmosphere. The sun’s energy is called insolation or solar radiation,
and this turns into heat energy at the earth’s surface.
How is energy transferred in the atmosphere?
 Not all the energy that originates from the sun reaches the earth’s surface.

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Global modification of incoming solar radiation by atmospheric and surface processes. Heat
transfer takes place in three ways. These are
 Radiation
 Conduction
 Convection
Radiation is the transfer of energy from one body to another by means of electromagnetic
waves. Energy transmitted from the sun reaches the earth’s surface through the process of
radiation. Electromagnetic waves usually travel through empty space. When these
electromagnetic waves come in contact with an object, they transfer the heat to that object. The
sun warms the earth through radiation of electromagnetic waves.

Figure 3.28 Solar by radiation energy reaches earth

Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through molecular contacts within and between bodies.
Molecules are always in motion. The process of conduction is more important in solids. Air and
water are poor conductors of heat.

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Convection is the transfer of heat due to differences in density. As gas or liquid either warms
and rises or cools and falls, it creates convection currents. Convection is the method by which
heat moves through gases or liquids. As gas or liquid is heated, it warms, expands and rises
because it becomes less dense. When the gas or liquid cools it becomes dense and falls. Heat
gained through radiation or conduction usually transfers by convection.
Measuring and Recording Air Temperature
What is the instrument that is used to measure temperatures? Explain how air temperature is
measured and recorded?

We measure temperature with thermometer. There are two types of thermometers: maximum and
minimum thermometers.

 Maximum thermometer is a mercury-in-glass thermometer that has a constriction near

the bulb end.
 The freezing point of mercury is –38.83oC, and the boiling point is 356.73 oC
 Alcohol freezes at a temperature of negative one hundred thirty degrees Celsius (–
130oC)
 Minimum thermometer has alcohol as its liquid, and it sets a metal index. When the
temperature falls, the alcohol column drags the index towards the bulb end. When the
temperature rises, the alcohol column expands and runs past the index without disturbing
it. Thus, the end of the index, moves the farthest from the bulb and gives the lowest
temperature attained in a day. Alcohol thermometers may be used to measure
temperatures from -130oC (freezing point of alcohol) to 78.5oC (boiling point of alcohol).
The standard thermometer for environmental measurements needs only to cover the
range between -30oC to 50oC.
 Maximum and minimum thermometers are kept in a box-like shelter which is known as a
Stevenson screen.
 The temperature of the air changes from time to time.
 Typically we measure the daily and annual variations.
 The changes between the highest and the lowest temperatures during 24 hours of a day is
known as the daily march of temperature or the diurnal range.

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  The changes of temperature from month to month within a year is known as the annual
march of temperature.
 To describe this temperature variation, we have to use records for a long period of time.
 We use words like average and range to indicate the variations.
 Daily average (mean) temperature: is obtained by adding the maximum and
minimum temperatures of a day and dividing the sum by two.
Example 1:
If the maximum daily temperature is 25oC, and the minimum daily temperature is 5oC,

 Daily average temperature =

 Monthly average (mean) temperature is calculated by adding all daily averages and
dividing the sum by the number of days of the month.
 Annual average is obtained by adding the average monthly temperatures and dividing the
sum by 12.
 Daily (diurnal) range is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperature
in a day.

Example 2:
If the maximum temperature is 25oC, and the minimum temperature is 5oC,
 Daily range = maximum – minimum = 25oC – 5oC = 20oC.
 The annual range is the difference between the temperatures of the hottest and coldest
months in a year.
Example 3:
 If the hottest month is 40oC, and the coldest month is – 10oC, Annual range = 40oC
−(−10oC) = 50oC.
Average annual temperature for Addis Ababa

Activity 2.12
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1 By referring to Table 2.5,
a. Calculate annual range of temperature.
b. Calculate annual average (mean) temperature.
c. Convert the data into graphs
2. Rainfall
What is rainfall?
 Rainfall is liquid precipitation.
 Any moisture that falls from the clouds towards the earth’s surface is called precipitation.
 Precipitation may occur in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet and drizzle. Precipitation is part
of the water cycle or hydrological cycle.
 The water cycle begins as water is changed from liquid to vapour by evaporation and
transpiration of water vapour. Once water vapour is formed, it expands and cools. Then,
condensation occurs, forming clouds, and the water falls as snow, sleet or rainfall.
 The whole process is powered by solar energy and is repeated continuously. This whole
process is called the hydrological cycle.
 When do the maximum and minimum temperatures of the month occur in Ethiopia? Why?
 Evaporation is the process by which liquid water is converted into gases.
 Transpiration is the transfer and change of water from plants to water vapour in the air.
 Evapotranspiration is the combined loss of water through the process of evaporation and
transpiration.
 Condensation is the process by which vapour becomes liquid.
 Sublimation is the process in which ice changes into water vapour without first
becoming a liquid, and vice versa.

Water is a unique substance, because it can exist in three states as liquid, solid and gas) in the
atmosphere. Water either absorbs or releases heat when changes from one state to another.
 Types of rainfall
What are the types of rainfall? Explain their formation.
 Rain is given three different names according to the different ways in which moisture
is forced to rise. They are:
 Convectional rainfall

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  Orographic or relief rainfall
 Cyclonic rainfall
 Convectional rainfall: When the ground surface is heated by the sun, the air above it is
warmed up. At high altitudes, the water vapour cools, condenses to form clouds and falls as
rain. This type of rainfall is common in humid areas where temperature is high throughout
the year.
 Orographic (relief) rainfall: occurs when moist air is forced to rise over mountains. As
it rises, it cools, then condenses and falls as rain. Almost all orographic rainfall falls on
the windward side of mountains.

Orographic (relief) type of rainfall

 Cyclonic or Frontal rainfall when two air masses (warm and cold) meet, they do not mix
freely with each other. They remain separated with a boundary surface between them. The
warmer and less dense air is forced to rise over the colder and heavier air. As the warmer air
rises, it cools and condenses. Then clouds form and rain falls. The place where warm air and
cold air meet is called a front. Frontal rainfall is very common in the middle and high
latitudes (60o north and south from the equator).

Measuring and Recording Rainfall

 Rainfall is measured using an instrument called rain gauge.
 A rain gauge consists of a wide-mouthed funnel placed over a cylindrical container.
Rain water passes through the funnel into the container below, the water in the
container is poured into a measuring cylinder, and then the amount of rainfall is
measured in millimeters and is recorded.
Activity 2.13
Table 3.6: Rainfall data for Debre Markos
Months J F M A M J J A S O N D
Rainfall 18.3 12.1 57. 55.1 173. 113 256. 293.8 210.8 12 91 9.4

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(mm) 5 1 5
Using the preceding rainfall data for the Debre Markos station, perform the following tasks.
1. Calculate the total annual rainfall
2. Identify the season of heaviest rainfall.
3. Draw a line graph to illustrate each monthly total rainfall.
Air Pressure
What is air pressure? Explain how to record and measure pressure?
 The air around us has weight.
 This weight exerts pressure on the surface of the earth.
 We call this atmospheric pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure is not the same all over the earth, and it is not the same even in one
place all the time.
 Pressure is measured by a mercury barometer.
 Normal pressure, at sea level, is about 760 mm/1013 mb.
 The distribution of pressure over the earth’s surface depends on (1)
 Altitude--- Pressure decreases with an increase in altitude.
 Temperature--High temperature makes air expand, so that it has a lower density and
pressure. Low temperature makes the air to contract, resulting in a higher density and
creating an area of high pressure.
 The distribution of air pressure over the globe is known as the horizontal distribution of
pressure.
 Pressure distribution can be shown on a map. Lines connecting all places that have the
same pressure are called isobars.

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  The pressure distribution over the earth’s surface is not a continuous belt.
 The position of the pressure belts and cells does not remain fixed in one position.
 They move north or south with the apparent movement of the sun.
 During the northern hemisphere’s summer, the sun is overhead north of the equator.
 The pressure belts then shift northward by a few degrees from their average position.
 During the southern hemisphere’s summer, the sun is overhead south of the equator.
 As a result, the pressure belts move southward by a few degrees from their average
position.
3. Wind
What is wind?

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  Wind is air in horizontal motion.
 Winds have speed and direction. Wind force (speed) and wind direction are affected by
 Pressure gradient
 Frictional force
 Coriolis force
 On weather maps, pressure is indicated by drawing isolines of pressure, called isobars.
 The difference in distance between Isobars is called the pressure gradient.
 If the isobars are closely spaced, we can expect the pressure gradient force to be great, and
wind speed to be high.
 In areas where the isobars are spaced widely apart the pressure gradient is low and light
winds normally exist.
 Winds are named according to the compass direction of their source.
 Wind direction is measured as the direction from where wind comes.
 For example, a southerly wind comes from the south and blows to the north.
 Direction is measured by an instrument called wind vane.
Deflection of Winds Due to the Earth’s Rotation
 Because of the earth’s rotation, the direction of wind blow may not be at right angles to
wind isobars, but rather at slanting angles to them.
 This deflection is caused by friction.
 The speed of wind also affects the amount of deflection.
 The force which affects the direction of movements of winds is called the “Coriolis
force.’’
 The deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.
 Near the ground, where the winds are slowed by friction, the air blows at an acute angle
toward areas of low pressure, forming great gyres creating cyclones and anticyclones.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, the Coriolis force causes air in
 low-pressure areas to spiral counter clockwise and inward, forming a cyclone,
whereas air in
 high-pressure areas spirals clockwise and outward, forming an anticyclone.

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  In the Southern Hemisphere, cyclones turn clockwise and anticyclones, counter
clockwise.
Types of Winds

There are three types of surface winds. They are:

 planetary
 monsoon
 local winds.
 Planetary winds and their relationship with pressure belts: Planetary winds blow over
large areas of the earth’s surface.
 They are closely associated with the world pressure belts.
 Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
 The most common planetary winds are trade winds, westerlies and polar easterlies.

 Monsoon winds: They are seasonal winds whose movements are controlled by pressure that
differs during different seasons.
 Monsoon winds are very common in South and South East Asia.
 Seasonal changes in the direction of these winds are caused by the unequal heating of
land and water surfaces.
 The direction of monsoon winds changes between summer and winter.

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 Local winds: They affect only limited areas and blow for a short period of time. They affect
climate conditions on a small scale. Local winds are caused by the nature of the physical
features of the area. The main local winds are:
 Land and sea breezes
 Mountain and valley breezes
1. Land and sea breezes:
 winds are common along coastal areas.
 winds change their directions daily and affect very small areas.
 During the daytime, temperature on the land is higher than on the water/sea.
 So low pressure is formed on the land, while it is relatively high on the sea. Wind
blows from the sea towards the land.
 This is known as a sea breeze. At night the land is colder than the sea. So low
pressure develops over the sea.
 The wind blows from land towards the sea. This is known as a land breeze.
2. Mountain and valley breezes:
 Mountain and valley breezes arise from contrasts in temperature between a valley
floor and mountain slopes.
 During the day the air at the bottom of the valley becomes warmer. As a result, it
expands and rises along the mountain slopes.
 This is known as a valley breeze.
 At night the wind over the slope of the mountain becomes cool.
 Then this cooler and heavier mountain air slides down slopes towards the valley.
 This is called a mountain breeze.

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4. Clouds
What are clouds? How are clouds formed? What are the major types of clouds?

 A cloud is a dense concentration of very fine invisible water droplets, sleet or ice crystals.
 Clouds are formed by the condensation of water vapour below the dew point in the
atmosphere.
 There are varieties of clouds, based on their height, appearance and shape.
Types of clouds

Controls of Weather and Climate

What are the major controls of weather and climate?
 The energy that the earth receives from the sun is not distributed evenly.
 Many factors affect the distribution. These include
 Latitude,
 Altitude,
 Distance from the sea,
 Cloud cover,
 Ocean current,
 Planetary winds and
 Pressure.

 Latitude
 On a global scale, latitude is the most important factor determining the strength of heat
reaching the earth’s surface.

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  When the sun’s rays are vertical (at a right angle) to the surface, the amount of heat
received is the greatest.
 But when the sun’s rays are slanting (oblique) the heat’s strength decreases.
 At the equator, the overhead sun is high and of high intensity insolation is
received.
 At the poles, the overhead sun is low, so the amount of insolation is low.
 The sun is overhead at noon for six months between the equator and the Tropic of
Cancer, and it is overhead for another six months between the equator and the Tropic of
Capricorn.
 The sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer on June 21 (the June
solstice).
 The sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn on December 21 (the
December solstice).
 At March and September equinoxes, the sun is directly overhead at the equator.
At times between solstices and equinoxes, the sun is overhead in tropical areas in
the zone between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
 The sun passes directly over every tropical place twice a year: once as the sun
moves from being overhead at the equator to being overhead at the tropic and then
again on the return from the tropic to the equator.
 The sun is never overhead outside of the tropics.
 The sun is closer to overhead in the middle and high latitudes on the day of their
hemisphere’s summer solstice.
 Altitude
Do you know how to compute temperature change with altitude?
 Air temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The normal decrease of temperature
with height is 6.4oC per 1000 m is known as the normal lapse rate.
 Example: If the altitude of the given mountain is 4070 m above sea level and the
temperature at sea level is 20oC. What will be the expected temperature at the top of the
mountain?
Solution: At normal lapse rate temperature decreases 6.4oC per 1000 m Altitude of
mountain = 4070 m

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Therefore, the temperature at the top of the mountain = 20oC – 26.05oC = - 6.05oC

 Distance from the Sea

 Land heats more quickly than water.
 But it loses its heat quicker than water.
 This is because of the transparency of water reflections from water surfaces, evaporation,
mixing and currents in water.
 All these conditions result in greater and more rapid temperature changes on land than in
the seas.
 Therefore coastal regions are cooler than inland regions.

 Cloud Cover
What is cloud? How cloud affects temperature?
 Cloud reduces the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface and the amount
of radiation reflected from the earth’s surface.
 When there are no clouds both types of radiation will be at a maximum level.
 Ocean Current
What is ocean current? How ocean current affects the distribution of temperature?
 Ocean current is the horizontal movement of ocean waters caused by winds and
differences in temperature.
 The effect of ocean currents on temperatures depends upon whether the current is cold or
warm.
 The water at the equator is warmer and less dense than that in polar areas.
 Convection currents in the oceans result in a pole ward flow of warm, light, surface
water.
 Compensating heavy cold water flows through the ocean depths towards the equator.
 Ocean currents are the source of temperature regulation on the earth.
 The currents also play major roles in determining the global geography of precipitation.
 The sun can more easily evaporate warm water than cold water and thereby produce the
atmospheric vapor that results in rain.

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  Therefore, land impacted by warm currents tends to have abundant precipitation in
addition to a comparatively warm climate.
 In contrast, land impacted by cold currents tends to receive very little precipitation in
addition to having a comparatively cool climate.
 Winds
What is wind? What is the effect of wind on temperature?
 Winds indirectly change the temperature of places near the sea according to the areas
from which they blow.
 There are two ways by which distribution of temperature is influenced by winds.
 Winds carry the temperature from one place to another.
 Winds blow the surface layers of a body of water in the direction of their flow.
 In this way, the winds have the effect of raising the temperature of the shore towards
which the wind is blowing and lowering the temperature of the opposite shore.
Note in temperate zones, winds that blow from the land lower winter temperatures, but raise
summer temperatures. Winds blowing from the sea lower summer temperatures, but raise winter
temperatures.
Classification of the Climates of the World
How is climate classified?
There are many ways to classify climate, each with its own advantages and disadvantages,
depending on the purposes for which it is used. In the following sections, we consider two
systems of climate classification with their climatic regions:

 The ancient Greeks classification system – based on temperature and sunshine within
latitudinal boundaries
 The Koppen classification system – based on temperature and precipitation as reflected
in vegetation zones
1. Classification by Ancient Greeks

Which zone is warm year - round?

After considering worldwide temperature and sunshine distribution, the ancient Greeks
divided the world into three climatic regions. Note that they are bounded by specific
latitudes:

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  The low-latitude tropical (or torrid) zone: a winterless tropical region. It is
bounded by the northern and southern limit of the sun's vertical rays (23½oN and
23½oS). In this climatic region, the noon sun is always high, day and night are of
nearly equal length, and it is warm year-round.
 A middle-latitude temperate zone: sandwiched between the other two zones i.e.,
(23½o – 66½oN), and 23½o – 66½oS this climatic region has distinct summer and
winter seasons and exhibits characteristics of both extremes, in terms of seasonal
temperatures.
 The high-latitude polar (or frigid) zone: bounded by (1) the Arctic Circle, at 66½N-
90oN, and (2) the Antarctic Circle, at 66½oS-90oS. Places with this climate
are considered summer less, because they are cold all year round due to long periods
of winter darkness and a low summer sun.

The ancient Greeks’ system is somewhat simplistic method of climatic classification because
it does not consider precipitation, and therefore it does not differentiate between wet and dry
regions.
2. The Kðppen System of Climate Classification

What makes Koppen classification more acceptable than the others? This widely used
classification of world climates is based on seasonal variations in the annual and monthly
averages of temperature and precipitation. It was devised by the famous German scientist
Waldmir Kðppen (1846 – 1940). Faced with the lack of adequate observing stations
throughout the world, Kðppen related the various climates to the distributions and types of native
vegetation in the world. In this way, where no climatological data were available,
climatic boundaries could be approximated with vegetation zones. The Kðppen climate
classification, is now used by climatologists throughout the world. It defines five principal
climatic groups. Each type is designated by a capital letter. Note that a single climatic region can
exist in multiple locations on the earth. A Koppen climatic region is not a spatial or areal region.

Tropical moist climate: All months have an average temperature above 18ºC (64ºF).
There is enough moisture to support abundant plant communities. Since all months are
warm, there is no real winter season.

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 Dry climates: precipitation is deficient most of the year. Potential evaporation and
transpiration exceeds precipitation.
Moist mid-latitude climates with mild winters: C climates have warm-to-hot summers
with mild winters. The average temperature of the coldest month is below 18oC (64oF)
and above -3oC (27oF).
Moist mid-latitude climates with severe winters: D climates are similar to C
climates, but have distinct summer and winter seasons. They have enough moisture
to support abundant plant communities.The average temperature of the warmest
month exceeds 10oC (50oF), and the coldest month average drops below -3oC
(27oF).
Polar climates: They have extremely cold winters and summers. The average
temperature of the warmest month is below 10oC (50oF). Winters are extremely cold,
and even the summers are cool. Since all months are cold, there is no real summer
season.
Highland climate: At low latitudes the effect of altitude can produce tundra and polar
conditions. Glaciers on tropical mountain sum its attest to the cooling effects of
altitude highland climates follow the pattern of Earth’s mountain ranges

Climate Change
What is climate change? Is climate change a reality? What are some of the manifestations
and consequences of climate change?
Climate change is a long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over
periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in the average
weather conditions or a change in the distribution of weather events with respect to an average,
for example, greater or fewer extreme weather events. Climate change may be limited to a
specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth.
Causes of Climate Change
What causes climate change?
The earth’s climate is dynamic. It is always changing through a natural cycle. What the world is
more worried about is that the changes that are occurring today have been speeded up because of
man’s activities. These changes are being studied by scientists all over the world and tried to

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identify the causes. The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories - those that
are due to natural causes and those that are caused by human factors.
A. Natural causes
There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. Some of the more
prominent ones are continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents etc. Let’s look at them in a little
detail.
 Continental drift
The continents that we are familiar with today were formed when the landmass began gradually
drifting apart, millions of years back. This drift also had an impact on the climate because it
changed the physical features of the landmass, their position and the position of water bodies.
The separation of the landmasses changed the flow of ocean currents and winds, which affected
the climate. This drift of the continents continues even today; the Himalayan range is rising by
about 1 mm (millimeter) every year because the Indian land mass is moving towards the Asian
land mass, slowly but steadily.
 Volcanoes
When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust,
and ash into the atmosphere. Although the volcanic activity may last only a few days, the large
volumes of gases and ash can influence climatic patterns for years. Millions of tones of sulphur
dioxide gas can reach the upper levels of the atmosphere (called the stratosphere) from a major
eruption. The gases and dust particles partially block the incoming rays of the sun, leading to
cooling.
 Ocean currents
What causes ocean currents?
The oceans are a major component of the climate system. Ocean currents move vast amounts of
heat across the planet - roughly the same amount as the atmosphere does. But the oceans are
surrounded by land masses, so heat transport through the water is in channels. Ocean currents
have known to change direction or slow down. Much of the heat that escapes from the oceans is
in the form of water vapour, the most abundant greenhouse gas on earth. Yet, water vapour also
contributes to the formation of clouds, which shade the surface and have a net cooling effect.
B. Human Causes

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How do human activities affect climate? The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the
large - scale use of fossil fuels for industrial activities. These industries created jobs and over the
years, people moved from rural areas to the cities. This trend is continuing even today. More and
more land that was covered with vegetation has been cleared to make way for houses. Natural
resources are being used extensively for construction, industries, transport, and consumption.
Consumerism (our increasing want for material things) has increased by leaps and bounds,
creating mountains of waste. Also, population growth has increased to an incredible extent. All
this has contributed to a rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse Gases and Their Sources
What are the sources of greenhouse gases?
Carbon dioxide is undoubtedly, the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
Changes in land use pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, and other activities
have all led to a rise in the emission of carbon dioxide.
Methane is another important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. About 1/4 of all
methane emissions are said to come from domesticated animals. These animals produce
methane during the cud - chewing process. Methane is also released from rice or paddy
fields that are flooded during the sowing and maturing periods.
A large amount of nitrous oxide emission has been attributed to fertilizer application.
Greenhouse effect
What aggravates greenhouse effect? The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal
radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-
radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface, energy is
transferred to the surface and the lower atmosphere. As a result, the temperature there is
higher than it would be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming
mechanism. This mechanism is fundamentally different from that of an actual greenhouse,
which works by isolating warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.
Global warming, a recent warming of the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere, is believed
to be the result of a strengthening of the greenhouse effect mostly due to human - produced
increases in concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases, CO2 in particular.
Consequences of climate change

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What are the possible consequences of climate change resulting from global warming?
Global warming
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of earths near - surface air and oceans
since the mid - 20th century and its projected continuation. According to the 2007 fourth
assessment report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global surface
temperature increased by about 0.74 ± 0.18oC (1.33 ± 0.32oF) during the 20th century. Most of
the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century has been caused by
increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, which result to human activity such as the
burning of fossil fuel and deforestation. Global dimming, a result of increasing concentrations of
atmospheric aerosols that block sunlight from reaching the surface, has partially countered the
effects of warming induced by greenhouse gases.
 Desertification
Desert - like conditions may spread over human habitats, crop lands and wet lands. Grass land
and forest areas might turn into desertified environments as a result of global warming and hence
climate change.
 Drought
Because of climate change which results in extensive damage to plants, crops and
animals, droughts are likely to occur more frequently. Up to three billion people
could suffer from increased water shortages by 2080. In Ethiopia, for example, drought started to
reoccur more frequently, at an interval of 3 to 8 years in the most drought prone regions.
 A rise in the sea – level
Globally, the average sea - level could rise by 18 to 59 cm, or more, by the end of the century.
Rising sea levels could swamp some small, low - lying island states and put millions of people
living in low - lying areas at greater risk of flooding. It is also possible that salt from rising sea
levels may contaminate underground fresh water supplies in coastal areas. The sea expected to
encroach coastal areas and cover land surfaces.
 Shift of the direction of global winds
If the average global temperature increases the jet stream will weaken and global winds will shift
from their “normal’ position. This in turn may disturb the “normal” amount of seasonal pattern
and distribution of precipitation. Shift of Tropical Zone The tropical zone expected to extend

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north and southwards by not less than one degree in the northern and southern hemisphere
respectively.
 Expansion of Tropical Diseases
It is widely recognized that zone of mosquitos breeding and hence malaria spread
farther into upper grounds, lower Woina Dega agroclimatic zones in case of Ethiopia.
 Loss of Biodiversity
A global temperature rise could make some species extinct. There are already changes to the way
plants and animals live. Further changes in rainfall and temperature will affect many animal and
plant species around the world. Some species might be unable to adapt quickly enough and
habitats might not be available for them to move into. If global temperatures rise by two degrees
celsius, 30 percent of all land-living species could be threatened by an increased risk of
extinction. The atmospheric greenhouse effect blocks the escape of some radiation to upper
space. Therefore, it heats the earth’s atmosphere and surface. This process is due to the presence
of blanketing “greenhouse gases” such as CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC, and water vapor in the
atmosphere. Their presence acts as a barrier to radiation and heat that would normally escape
through the atmosphere. The atmosphere warms as it absorbs and then emits infrared radiation
downwards, while allowing shortwave radiation to pass out, away from the earth. The most
noticeable result of the greenhouse effect is global warming, which is characterized by global
temperature rises ranging between 0.5oC and 0.6oC.

3.1.4. Natural Regions of the Earth

The Concept of Region and Regional Studies

What is a region? What are the major human activities in your locality? Can you identify the
natural features of your locality?
 A region is a part of the earth’s surface which has similar physical elements and to some
extent similar human activities.
 The earth provides many environments that vary in natural elements, such as relief,
climate, vegetation, soil, etc.
 A region can be natural or human-made, can be small or large, and does not have a clear
boundary.

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  To study the different ways of life of all the peoples of the world, one by one, would be
very difficult. We have a method by which we can study the different geographical
environments of the earth through peoples’ social and economic activities.
 This is what we call a regional study.
 The regions we are going to learn about are based on the physical elements of climate,
vegetation, human activities, etc.

Major Natural Regions of the Earth

What is a natural region? Are all environments similar? What makes them different?
 Different environments result in differences in human activities, population distribution
and economic development.
 Mostly, natural regions are named after the dominant vegetation found in them. But their
division is based on climate.
 The earth can be divided into three major temperature zones. These are:
 Tropical (hot) zone.
 Temperate zone.
 Frigid (cold) zone.

Tropical (Hot) Zone

What is the location of Tropical zone? Explain the general characteristics of temperature?

 The tropical or hot zone is the zone between the Tropic of Cancer (23½oN) and Tropic of
Capricorn (23½oS).

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  The tropical zone is characterized by high temperature throughout the year.
 The annual average temperature is above 20oC, which decreases pole wards from the
equator.
 Rainfall decreases and becomes seasonal as one moves away from the equator.
 Along the equator there is dense forest which gradually changes with distance from the
equator, to savanna grassland, semi-desert vegetation and true desert vegetation.
 Agriculture and mining are the major economic activities of the zone.
The tropical zone is divided into four sub-regions. These are:
 Equatorial rainforest region
 Savanna grassland region
 desert region
 Tropical monsoon land.

 The Equatorial Rainforest Region

What is the location of equatorial rainforest region? What are the major areas of the
equatorial rain forest region?
Location---
 Is found in the lowland areas within 60 north and south of the equator.
 The main areas in the world include.
 Amazon Basin
 Congo Basin
 Southern Malaysia and some Indonesian islands
 The equatorial rainforest region does not form a continuous belt around the earth.
 It is broken by high altitudes in East Africa and South America.
 The Amazon Basin is the most extensive area.

Climate
 Equatorial rainforest region has uniformly high temperature and heavy rainfall
throughout the year.
 The mean annual temperature is about 27oC, and the annual range of temperature is less
than 3oC.
 But the daily range is greater than the annual range of temperature.
 Rainfall in this region is mainly of a convectional type which falls every day, usually in
the afternoon.

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  The total annual rainfall is very high, usually between 1500 mm and 2500 mm.
 All months have rainfall with a small variation in amount.

Natural Vegetation
 The region has dense, tall, broad-leafed and evergreen trees.
 The high temperature and abundant moisture of this region makes plants growth
continuous.
 The ground is covered with tropical rainforest, the most luxuriant type of natural
vegetation in the world.
 Most of the trees are hardwood, such as rosewood, ebony, and mahogany, which are
valuable for making durable furniture.
 Trees are closely spaced and interlaced with climbing vines called lianas. There are as
many as about 3,000 species within a few square kilometres.
Wild Animals
 The Equatorial rainforest is inhabited by varieties of animals, such as insects, birds,
reptiles, mammals.
 Most mammals are arboreal.
 They are small in size and are tree climbing, example apes, monkeys, bats, squirrels, etc.
 Water body animals, such as crocodiles, alligators, hippopotamuses, fish, etc, are also
available.

Human Activities
What are the major economic activities in the equatorial rain forest region?
 The human activities found in equatorial rainforests include primitive hunting and gathering,
shifting cultivation, plantation agriculture, and mining.
 Hunting and gathering
 Shifting cultivation
 Plantation agriculture: Plantation agriculture is characterized by:
 Large-scale holdings, which draw most of their labor supply from the local
inhabitants.
 The production of a single crop (mono culture)
 Heavy investment in processing plant, railway, shipment facilities, etc.

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  The most important crops grown in the plantations of the equatorial rainforest
region include rubber, palm oil, jute, bananas, pineapples, cocoa, sugarcane, etc.
 Mining: is the extraction of mineral-bearing substances from the earth’s crust. The
equatorial rainforest region is a source of useful minerals. Bauxite (an ore of
aluminium) is found in Ghana, Guyana and Venezuela. Petroleum is found in Nigeria,
Venezuela, and Indonesia. Iron ore is found in Liberia.
B Tropical Deserts

What is a desert? Where are the major tropical hot deserts? How were tropical deserts
formed? What are the major characteristics of hot deserts?

Location

 Deserts are almost barren lands.

 The tropical hot deserts are located between 15 to 300 north and south latitudes of the
equator.
 The largest hot desert is the Sahara Desert.
 There are also other important deserts such as the Kalahari, Atacama, Colorado, Arabia,
Thar and Australian deserts.
 Deserts are formed due to their location
 in the trade-wind belts
 on the leeward side of high mountains
 in the interior of continents
 along cool ocean currents
 Most deserts arise due to atmospheric wind conditions.
 Warm air masses create two belts of desert, one along the Tropic of Cancer and the other
along the Tropic of Capricorn.
 Other deserts result from the effects of ocean currents on land masses, where cool air
masses carry fog and moist, but little rain, along coastal regions.
 Deserts are located on the western margins of continents, except for the Sahara Desert,
which is in North Africa and extends to the northeastern coast of the African continent.

Climate

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  The main characteristics of desert is that the climate is hot throughout the year, and there
is very low and unreliable rainfall (not more than 250 mm per year)
 Temperature ranges from 250C to 400C or above during the daytime, and they can fall
even below 0oC during the night, due to the absence of clouds.
 The winds are warm and dry.
Vegetation
 The climate of the hot desert is not favourable for plant growth.
 However, there are some plants that have a special way of behaving or special features
(adaptations) which enable them to survive.
 Plants in deserts have long roots, few or no leaves, hard bark and an oily leaf surface.
 These features help the plants to extract every drop of moisture from the soil and reduce
the loss of water by evapotranspiration.
 These are called xerophytes. Xerophytes are woody and thorny plants, grasses and herbs,
for example cacti.
Animal life
 Animals such as gazelle, hare, fox, snakes, lizards, etc are commonly available in the
desert region.
 For the desert people camel is their best companion.
 It has special adaptations, which helps it to survive the desert.
Human Activities:

 The major economic activities found in the hot deserts are

 Pastoralism- is the grazing of animals. Many of the desert people practice a
nomadic way of life. Nomads do not live in one area.
 Crop cultivation and
 Mining- Most deserts are important sources of minerals. The most important
mineral is oil. The Middle East alone accounts for about 60% of the world’s total
oil reserve.

Vertical Distribution of Climate in Ethiopia

 Ethiopia lies within the tropics (30N to 150N latitude).

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  It lies in a zone of maximum insolation where every place has overhead sun twice a year.
 However, as it is a highland country, tropical temperature conditions are not experienced
everywhere.
 They are limited to the lowlands in the peripheries.
 The traditional classification of climatic zones of Ethiopia is divided into five:
1 Bereha (hot arid): found below 500 m a.s.l., where the average annual temperature range is
between 30oC and 40oC or higher.
2 Kola (warm to hot semiarid): It is a climate of hot lands with altitudinal ranges of 500 - 1,500
m a.s.l. Average temperature is between 20oC – 30oC.
3 Weina dega (warm to cool semi-humid): This is a zone which covers the temperate highlands
that fall in altitudinal ranges of 1,500 – 2,300 m a.s.l. Its average annual temperatures are
between 15oC and 20oC.
4 Dega (cool to cold humid): This describes the cool temperate highlands with an altitude
ranging from 2,300 – 3,300 m a.s.l. and average temperatures between 10oC to 15oC.
5 Wurch (cold moist temperature): It coincides with the Afro-alpine areas on the highest areas
of the plateaus. The lower limit of the wurch zone, generally, coincides with the transition
from coniferous forest to the vegetation dominated by Asta. This happens above 3,300
m.a.s.l. where Average temperature is below 10oC.
Though Ethiopia is a tropical country, its climate types range from desert to hot steppe, and
from tropical savanna and rainforest to warm temperate cool highlands. Ethiopia is a
multifaceted tropical country, because of the influence of altitude.

3.1.5 Ecosystem
What is an ecosystem? What are the components of an ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a community of living things and their non-living environment.

It is a basic functional unit of biosphere, consisting of organisms (plants and animals) and their
environment (air, water, soil and rock). The non-living features of the environment are the
abiotic factors, and the organisms in the environment are the biotic factors. Populations and
communities make up an ecosystem. An ecosystem may be small organisms in a drop of water,

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or even the whole earth as one system. There are many types of ecosystems, even within a
relatively small area. Some are on land, others are aquatic. All components of an ecosystem
function together as a closed unit of biological community or association.

All ecosystems require energy in order to exist. This is provided by sunlight, with only minor
contributions from other sources. Energy from the sun reaches the earth’s surface in two forms.
These are heat energy and light energy. Heat energy cannot be used directly by plants and
animals. Light energy can be captured only by green plants during the process of photosynthesis.
Only about one percent of light energy falling on leaves is converted into food energy and stored
as carbohydrate molecules. Ecosystems have lots of different living organisms that interact with
each other. The living organisms in an ecosystem can be divided into three categories: producers,
consumers and decomposers. They are all important parts of the ecosystem.

Producers are the green plants. They make their own food by means of photosynthesis.
Green plants are the primary passage from one organism to another along the food chain.
A food chain is a simple way of showing how energy in the form of food passes from one
organism to another.
Consumers are animals, which get their energy from the producers or from organisms
that eat producers. There are three types of consumers:
 Herbivores (primary consumers) are animals that eat plants.
 Carnivores (secondary consumers) are animals that eat herbivores and sometimes
other carnivores.
 Omnivores are animals that eat both plants and other animals.
Decomposers are plants and animals that break down dead plants and animals into
organic materials that go back into the soil. When organisms die, their bodies decompose
and form a source of energy and nutrients for other organisms. Similarly, waste matter
passed from the bodies of living organisms are also sources of energy and nutrients.
These materials are not wasted by their ecosystems. They form the food for many other
organisms, which are referred to as decomposers. Decomposers are microorganisms,
mainly fungi and bacteria, which live on dead organic matter.

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3.2 Physical Environment of Africa
3.2.1 Position, Size, and Shape of Africa
3.2.1.1 Position of Africa

Africa’s location can be expressed in two ways, namely, absolutely and relatively.

As you can see from the above Figure, Africa lies between 37o21'N and 34o52'S latitudes and
between 17o33'W and 51o28'E longitudes. This means that the continent extends for about 37 o to
the north of the equator and 35o south of it. Similarly, Africa extends for about 17o west and 51o
east of the Greenwich Meridian. From this absolute location, we can understand that the
continent stretches in all the four hemispheres. The four extreme points of the continent, which
mark the extreme points of Africa are the following.

 Extreme North - Cape Bon (Tunisia) -37o21'N

 Extreme South - Cape Agulhas (Republic of South Africa (RSA)) - 34o52'S
 Extreme East - Cape Guardafui (Somalia) - 51o28'E
 Extreme West - Cape Verde (Senegal) - 17o33'W

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From the map that shows the absolute location of Africa, we can learn that:

 When we measure Africa’s greatest north-south and east-west extents, we find that they
are almost equal:
 north-south – approximately 8000 kilometers
 east-west – approximately 7,600 kilometers
 The equator crosses Africa almost at its north-south center.
 The north-south extents above and below it are almost equal, although the northern area is
greater than the southern one.
 The land area north of the equator is about twice that of the south.
 Africa is the only continent crossed by all of the following: the Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn, the Equator and the Prime Meridian.
 Almost ¾ of the continent's total area is found within the tropics, and therefore much of
the continent experiences tropical climates.
When Africa’s position is expressed in relation to the major landmasses and water bodies that are
close to it, it can be described as follows. Africa is found to the:

 South of Europe
 Southwest of Asia
 South of the Mediterranean Sea
 West of the Indian Ocean
 East of the Atlantic Ocean
 North of the Southern Ocean

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As the map shows, Africa gets closest to Europe across the Strait of Gibraltar, which is about 22
kms wide between Morocco and Spain. With relation to Asia, the continent comes closest across
the Strait of Bab-el Mandab, which is about 40 kms wide. A narrow stretch of land called the
Isthmus of Suez, which is cut into two by an artificial canal called the Suez Canal, connects
Africa with Asia. The relative position that Africa has, in relation to the rest of the world, gives
the continent many advantages. The following are the most important ones.

The continent occupies a central location in the world. This makes the continent close to the rest
of the world, providing it geographical accessibility.
 The geographical proximity that the continent has with Europe and Asia has resulted in
sociocultural contacts.
 This has encouraged socio-economic and cultural exchange and integration among the
three continents.
3.2.1.2 Size of Africa

Africa is the second largest continent in the world, following Asia. The continent’s total area
is about 30,335,000 km2. This constitutes 20.2% of the earth’s total land surface. With this
area, the continent is about two-thirds of the size of Asia and 3.36 times larger than Europe.
The following Table indicates the sizes of the world’s continents.

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Africa’s large area gives the continent several advantages, including the following:
 A large area of land that can be used for settlements, agriculture, and other economic
activities.
 Huge resource potentials in terms of resources like soil, water, minerals, flora and fauna
and the like, which are vital for its development.
However, Africa’s large size also has disadvantages. For example, it makes geographical
connectivity difficult among the people of the region and of the world. As a result, there are
problems related to integration among peoples of the continent and others outside, making both
integrated development and international trade a challenge.
3.2.1.3 Shape of Africa

What is shape? What is its significance?

How do you describe Africa’s shape?
Shape is defined as the geographical form of an area. In other words, it is the external
geographical appearance of a place. It has great impact on the socioeconomic integration and
flow of goods and services within each region.

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The shapes of places can be described in different ways for example, as moderately compact,
elongated, fragmented, perforated, and the like. A moderately compact shape is close to that of a
circle. An elongated shape is a shape with one side longer than the other. A place with a
fragmented shape is made up of multiple disconnected areas. For example, some countries are
composed of islands. Africa has a relatively compact shape. This means that the continent’s
longest east-west and north-south distances are almost the same. The following evidence
supports the above statement.
 The east-west and north-south extensions are almost equal, with a minor difference.
 Africa has a fairly unbroken coastline. The continent’s coastline does not have many
indentations, inlets, bays or gulfs. This condition creates a relatively smooth coastline,
compared to those of other continents, and therefore a relatively short one. For example,
if we compare Africa and Europe, the coastline of the latter is, by far, longer than the
former.
The unbroken coastline of Africa makes the continent poor in natural harbors.
 Many places in Africa are not very far from the coast. Almost all places are at most
located 1500 km from the coast. Therefore, many countries of the continent are not very
far from the sea.
 The unbroken coast line discourages external communication.
Regional Division of Africa

The mainland of Africa has five major regions. They are defined in terms of socio-economic and
cultural similarities. Each region consists of a number of countries with their own regional
variations. The regions are

 Eastern Africa

 Central Africa

 Northern Africa

 Southern Africa

 Western Africa

The geographical location of these regions and their political units are given in the following
figures. A brief description of the socio-economic conditions of each region is also made

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 below the figures. Study them carefully and try to identify each region’s relative location as
well as the countries that constitute the region.

3.2.2 Geological and Relief Structure of Africa

The present relief structure of Africa is the result of long, complex and continuous processes that
have taken place for several millennia. In this lesson, we will consider the geological history of
Africa. Throughout the 4.5 billion year history of the planet, several geologic processes acted
on the planet and formed its relief. In this process, Africa underwent several major geological
events and changes. The continent of Africa was part of the old continent that we call Pangea. In
the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era, some 200 million years ago Pangea broke into two,
forming Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Laurasia was the northern continent, and Gondwanaland
was the southern. Africa was part of Gondwanaland. As time passed, each of these continents
was further broken down, forming the seven present-day continents. In this process of change,
the planet experienced several geologic events that resulted in the formation of the world’s
present surface structure. In Africa, major geologic events and processes acted on the continent’s
surface and left their scars, forming the continent’s diverse relief. Now let us see the major
events that took place in the African continent in each era.
Precambrian Era (4.5 billion - 600 million years before the present)

This era is the oldest and largest division of the geological time scale. It covers almost 5/6th of
the geological history of the planet. Due to its remoteness in time and lack of fossil evidences,
not much is known about this era. However, two processes are believed to have been dominant.
These are orogenesis (a series of mountain-forming processes) and metamorphism.
For Africa, the following events are assumed to have been dominant in this era.

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  Formation of the Basement Complex Rocks: the oldest rocks of the continent, which are
called Precambrian or crystalline basement complex rocks, were formed during this era.
These rocks cover nearly two-thirds of the continent. Precambrian rocks are rich in
metallic mineral deposits, such as gold and copper.
 Orogenesis: is a mountain-forming process. In this era, many mountains that make the
face of the continent very rough and undulating, were formed.
Paleozoic Era (600 - 250 million years before the present):
This is the second-longest and second oldest era in geological history. This era witnessed no
major rock formation processes. As a result, it is a gap, relative to during this era. The following
are the most important ones.
 Series of denudation and peneplanation: during this era, internal and external forces
acted on the face of Africa, resulting in denudation and peneplanation of its surface.
Denudation is the lowering of the earth’s surface, while sinking of land and its resultant
peneplanation refers to the formation of almost level surfaces as a result of lowering in
altitude.
 Heavy erosion: the denudation and peneplanation processes were facilitated by the
heavy erosion that affected many places in Africa. The eroded materials accumulated in
the Maghreb region, the Western Sahara, and the Southern Cape. From Eastern Africa,
sediments were taken to Southern Africa and the Middle East. These sediments finally
formed sandstones, shale and limestone. Also during this era, Fold Mountains that run
parallel to the Great Karroo, the interior plateau, formed.
 Formation of coal during the Carboniferous period. Carboniferous period: The coal
Age: is that part of the Paleozoic Era when coal was extensively formed. Thick layers of
partially decayed swamp vegetation, covering coastal lowlands were buried under marine
deposits when the coastal lands sank. More swamps were formed when the water grew
shallower and the process was repeated. As the deposits became compressed and
hardened, the vegetation matter formed coal.
Mesozoic Era (250-70 million years before the present)
The Mesozoic era is the third-largest and third-oldest era in the geological history of the earth.
For Africa, the era was a time of alternate sinking and rising of the land. The era is divided into
three periods. These are the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous. During the first period, the

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Triassic, there was sinking of the land in the eastern part of the continent. The land remained
under the sea during the Jurassic period. Rising (uplifting) of the land began in the Cretaceous.
The following are the most important events that took place during the Mesozoic era in Africa.
 Sinking of the Horn of Africa resulted in the gradual transgression of the sea during the
early years of the Triassic period;
 Formation of sedimentary rocks like those in eastern Africa, which were the results of
the alternate sinking and rising of the land;
 Uplifting of the land in the Horn of Africa, resulted in the regression of the sea during the
Cretaceous period;
 The flooding of the Sahara region, by water that advanced from Tathys (a sea that
separated Laurasia from Gondwanaland), and the subsequent accumulation of sediments.
Cenozoic Era (70 million - present)

This era is the most recent and the shortest era in the geological history of the earth. It covers the
time from 70 million years ago to the present. As a result, the era is sometimes called the living
era. There are two periods in this era. These are the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. A number
of geologic events that changed the face of the continent took place in this era. The major
geologic events of this era are the following.
 Formation of the Mediterranean Sea, the Great East African Rift Valley, the Red Sea and
the Gulf of Aden.
 Formation of many of the volcanic mountains, plateaus and young fold mountains (Atlas
Folds) of Africa. The volcanic mountains that shape the landscape in eastern Africa were
formed during this era.
 Climatic change that resulted in the cooling and later warming of the earth’s climate. The
cooling of the climate resulted in the Pluvial (Fluvial) rains in tropical Africa, which
caused heavy erosion in many parts of the continent. Later, warming of the climate
resulted in heavy evaporation and drying up of many water surfaces. In some instances,
such a change resulted in the formation of extensive salt plains like the one in
northeastern Ethiopia (Afar).
The various geological events and processes that took place in the four major eras of the
geological time scale have affected the African landmass. The diverse landscapes that we see
today in Africa are the results of these processes. The following Table gives a summary of

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 the major geologic events that took place in Africa during the four eras and during their
periods and epochs.

The Relief Structure of Africa

What is relief? How do you describe the relief of Africa?

Africa's relief is made up of huge mountains, extensive plateaus, deep valleys and gorges, plains,
and the like. However, much of Africa is plateau. The continent's relief consists of 71% plateaus,
25% plains and 4% mountains. Africa is the only continent that is predominantly covered by
plateau lands, and that has only a small proportion of plains. The relief of Africa ranges from
5,895 m above sea level (at Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania) to 132 m below sea level (at the
Qattara Depression in Egypt). This makes the maximum relief of Africa to be 6027 m. The
plateau nature of Africa can be seen in the following Table.

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As the above Table indicates, much of Africa is composed of plateau landscape. In contrast to
the rest of the continents of the world, Africa has the greatest part of are mountains, plains and
the Rift Valley. Now, we shall discuss each of these relief features.
Mountains
What is a Mountain? Where are most of the Mountains of Africa found?
A mountain is a high land with steep slopes and a peak. Africa’s landform is dominated by two
major types of mountains. These are volcanic and fold mountains.
Volcanic mountains: were formed as a result of the great volcanic activities that took place in the
Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era. They constitute the highest points (peaks) of the continent,
with many of them being above 4,000 m above sea level. Many of the volcanic mountains of the
continent are concentrated in Eastern Africa. The following Table shows you the major volcanic
mountains of the continent with their heights and locations.

N.B. Mount Ruwenzori (5119 m) is among the highest mountains in Africa the formation of
which was associated with tectonic movement.

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Fold Mountains: are found in the northern and southern extremes of Africa.
They are of two types: young and old. The young fold mountains are located in northwestern
Africa, particularly in the Maghreb region, a region that covers areas in Morocco, Algeria and
Tunisia. They are called the Atlas Mountains. These mountains are contemporary to the Alps of
Europe and the Himalayas of Asia, and they were formed during the Alpine orogenesis during
the Cenozoic era. Their general elevation declines from west to east. The old fold mountains are
found in South Africa. They were formed during the Hercynian orogeny in the Mesozoic era.
They are contemporary to the Australian Alps. They are called the Cape Ranges.

The Great East African Rift Valley

What is a rift valley? How do you describe the Great East African Rift Valley?
The East African Rift Valley is part of the world’s Great Rift Valley system, which stretches
from Syria, in the Middle East, to Mozambique, in Southeastern Africa, over a distance of about
7,200 km. It was formed in the Tertiary period as a result of faulting processes that acted on the
crust of the earth in the region. This rift system extends a distance of about 5600 km in Africa,
touching 15 countries in the continent. The Rift Valley has four trenches (branches). These are:
 Ethio-Eritrea-Djibouti-Northern Somalia Branch
 Western Branch
 Eastern (Gregory) Branch\
 Malawi Rift Valley

Ethio-Eritrea-Djibouti-Northern Somalia Branch

As the name itself implies, this branch runs through the four countries of the Horn of Africa. It is
the northern most part of the African Rift Valley, extending north from Lake Turkana in Kenya.
It branches out into three trenches at the Afar Triangle, forming the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden. It has many lakes, including Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes like Lakes Hawassa, Langano,
Shalla, Abijata, and Ziway.
Western Branch
This part of the Rift Valley runs from Uganda in the north, southwards through the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi to Tanzania. This part of the Rift Valley hosts the
continent's highest block (horst) mountain, Mount Ruwenzori, and also lakes such as Lake
Edward, Kivu and Tanganyika.

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Eastern (Gregory) Branch
It runs from Lake Turkana in northern Kenya, crossing Tanzania to the east of Lake Victoria.
Lakes such as Turkana, Naivasha, Norton, Manyari and Eyasi are located in it.
Africa's largest lake, Lake Victoria (83,000 km2) is found trapped between the western and
eastern trenches of the Rift Valley.
The following are the major characteristics of the East African Rift Valley:
 It is bounded by steep escarpments (edges);
 It has numerous active and dormant volcanoes;
 It is often affected by earth tremors like earthquakes, volcanism and landslides, making
the Rift Valley very unstable;
 Has a hot and dry climate in its many parts, making the place difficult for human
habitation;
 Many structural basins (lakes) occupy the floor of the Rift Valley.

3.2.3. Climate of Africa

Controls of Weather and Climate in Africa
Africa has varied climatic conditions. Why are there varied climates in Africa? The answer is
that the variation in the climatic conditions of the different places in Africa is due to the
intervention of weather and climate controls. The most important factors that are responsible for
this variation include latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, mountain barriers, ocean currents
and major planetary winds and pressure belts. These factors are called climate controls because
they regulate the conditions of the elements to produce different weather and climatic conditions.
They are discussed below in detail.
 Latitude
What is latitude? How does it affect the climate of Africa?Latitudes indicate the distance places
have from the equator. A place’s latitudinal location affects the amount of incoming solar
radiation the place receives, and thereby its temperature. As we discussed earlier, much of Africa
(nearly 2/3rd) lies within the tropical latitudes. Hence, the continent receives high sun angles
throughout the year. Due to its latitudes, Africa is the hottest of all the continents.
 Altitude
What is altitude? How does it affect the conditions of temperature and rainfall in Africa? Much
of Africa is plateau. There are also high mountains in many parts of the continent, especially in

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Eastern Africa. These plateaus and mountains have great impacts on the continent’s climate. The
plateaus and high mountains reduce maritime influence. This condition reduces temperature. For
instance, Eastern Africa, despite its closeness to the equator, experiences highland climates.
Similarly, the Atlas Mountains of North Africa and the Cape Ranges of South Africa experience
the coldest temperatures in the continent. There are several reasons for this. One of the reasons
that temperature is low in higher altitudes is that the air is very thin. This reduces the
temperature-retention capacity of the air. The other reason is that, when air rises, it cools. The
third factor is the fact that the atmosphere is heated from below (by the earth) directly, not by the
sun. These are some of the factors why we feel colder at mountain tops than in valley bottoms.
 Distance from the Sea
How do you describe the impacts of the Sea on the climate of Africa? Water bodies that are
adjacent to land masses have great impacts on the temperature and rainfall conditions of those
places. Africa in its northern part is very wide. This makes much of the area far from the sea. In
addition, the extensive plateaus of Africa, which almost reach the coast with steep edges, form
barriers greatly reducing the influence of the sea. Furthermore, the continent’s relatively straight
and smooth coastline also reduces the impact of the sea in the interior areas. As a result, many
parts of interior Africa experience continental climates with insignificance maritime influence.
 Ocean Currents
What is Ocean Current? Which ocean currents affect the climate of Africa? Oceanic water moves
in two dimensions, vertically and horizontally. The horizontal movement of oceanic water is
called ocean current. Based on their origin, ocean currents are of two types. These are warm and
cold. Warm ocean currents have high temperatures and high moisture content, and therefore they
have warming effect. They also tend to bring moisture to the coastal areas. In contrast, cold
ocean currents have cool temperatures and low moisture content. Therefore, they have cooling
effects on the areas that they blow over. They also bring no rain to adjacent areas, making places
over which they blow very dry and desert. Three major ocean currents affect the African
continent. These are the Canary Cold Current, the Benguela Cold Current and the Mozambique
Warm Current. The first two make the northwestern and southwestern parts of Africa both cool
and dry. On the other hand, the Mozambique warm ocean current makes Southeastern Africa
warm and wet.

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Major Planetary Winds and Atmospheric Pressure
What is wind? What about atmospheric pressure?
What are the major winds and pressure systems that affect Africa?
Most of Africa lies within the tropics. Hence, much of it lies within the trade wind belts. The
southeast trades and northeast trades dominate the climate of tropical Africa. The westerly winds
from the subpolar high-pressure belts of the world reach the southern and northern tips of the
continent. The Guinea monsoon winds (equatorial westerlies) also have significant impacts on
the climate of equatorial Africa. Of the global pressure belts, the subtropical highs (around 30oN
and S) and equatorial lows (doldrums) (between 5oN and 5oS latitudes) are the main pressure
belts that affect the climate of the continent. In addition, the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), which is the zone of convergence between the trade winds, regulates the winds that blow
into Africa at different seasons.
The ITCZ moves between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, following the overhead sun,
pulling winds towards it. Hence, it controls the distribution of rainfall in Africa.

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Temperature Conditions in Africa
Spatially, lowlands (coastal areas) and the desert and semi desert areas of Africa experience the
highest temperatures in the continent. The Sahara, the largest desert in the world, has the highest
temperature. The Kalahari Desert in the south has relatively cooler temperatures as a result of the
cold Benguela Ocean current. The Ethiopian and East African highlands, on the other hand, have
lower temperature condition as a result of their high altitude. The Atlas of Morocco and Cape
Ranges of South Africa have the lowest temperature in the continent as a result of their high
altitudinal and latitudinal location.
The distribution of temperature in Africa also has seasonal variation. Such variation is the result
of the apparent movement of the overhead sun between the two tropics. The months of
December, January and February constitute the summer season in the southern hemisphere.
During this time, the sun is overhead, south of the equator. As a result, areas of high temperature
are found in Southern Africa. The Northern and northeastern parts of the continent remain
relatively cool and dry at this time. Similarly, the summer season in the northern hemisphere
corresponds with the months of June, July and August. This season is a season of high sun angle
in Africa north of the equator. Hence, the Sahara and other parts of Northern Africa experience
high temperature conditions. In contrast, the areas south of the equator are characterized by
lower temperatures at this time.
Rainfall Distribution in Africa
The distribution of precipitation (rainfall) in Africa is controlled by the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The position of ITCZ is, in turn, determined by the position of the
overhead sun. For instance, in July the overhead sun is located near the Tropic of Cancer. Hence,
winds that carry moisture from the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans, the Guinea monsoon (equatorial westerly) and the southeast trade
winds, invade parts of Africa north of the equator, causing the region to receive high rainfall. In
this season, West African coastal areas, the Ethiopian highlands, and eastern Madagascar get
their heavy rainfall.
In January, the sun is overhead near the Tropic of Capricorn, pulling the northeast trade winds
southward over Africa. These winds are continental in origin, carrying limited or no moisture. In
this season, therefore, Northern Africa remains dry, except for the Maghreb region, where the
Mediterranean type of climate dominates. Southern Africa, however, gets its maximum rainfall

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from the southeast trades of the Indian Ocean. The Congo Basin gets rainfall from the moist
winds of the Atlantic Ocean. To better understand the points so far discussed, study the
following points.
 The Guinea monsoon (equatorial westerly) winds from the Atlantic Ocean bring rainfall
to the north of Africa up to the southern fringes of the Sahara in July.
 Moist winds from the Atlantic Ocean and the southeast monsoon winds from the Indian
Ocean bring rainfall to Southern Africa in January.
 The westerly winds bring rainfall to the Maghreb region of North Africa and the Cape
Province of South Africa in their respective winter seasons. Summer is not the wettest
season in these places.
 Summer is a season of heavy rainfall in all parts of Africa, except in the Sahara desert
and the Mediterranean-climate regions;
 Winter is dry in all parts of Africa, except for the equatorial and Mediterranean climate
regions.
Climatic Regions of Africa
The distribution of temperature and rainfall show great spatial and seasonal variations in Africa.
As a result, many different climatic regions are established by these variations. A climatic region
is a geographical area with more or less similar climatic characteristics mainly of temperature
and rainfall. Multiple areas can be characterized by a single climatic region,
There are seven main climatic regions in Africa. These are:
 Equatorial
 Tropical continental (savanna)
 Tropical desert and semi-desert
 Tropical maritime (monsoon)
 Warm temperate continental
 Highland (mountain)
 Mediterranean
The following map shows the locations of the major climatic regions of Africa. Study it carefully
and try to identify the geographical locations of each region.

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The Equatorial Climate
The parts of Africa that are found around the equator have this type of climate. The region
surrounds the equator extending between 6o or 7oN and S latitudes.
The region is characterized by:
 High sun angle throughout the year;
 High mean monthly and mean annual temperatures;
 High daily and low annual range of temperature; and
 High total annual rainfall, with rain falling throughout the year.
Tropical Continental (Savanna) Climate
Where in Africa do we have the savanna climate? What climatic features characterize this type
of climate? This climatic region is found between 5o and 15o north and south latitudes. It occurs
north and south of the tropical wet zone, in many parts of Western Africa and Southern Africa
and in most of Madagascar. The region is situated between the wettest and driest climate zones
of the continent. As a result, it is said to be the zone of transition between the equatorial and the
desert climatic regions of

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Africa. In this region, summer is very hot, with an average temperature of 25oC, and winter is
cool, with an average temperature of slightly above 15oC.
The region is characterized by:
 a well-defined dry season of three to eight months, with annual rainfall ranging between
500 and 1,500 mm;
 a progressive decline in total annual rainfall, north and south wards;
 that part of the savanna which borders the equatorial rainfall region receives high
rainfall, with that amount decreasing as distance from the equator increases.
 slightly higher ranges of temperature than the equatorial climatic zone, with the range
increasing with distance from the equator; and
 high daily temperatures averaging more than 30°C in its northern section throughout the
year, with relatively lower temperatures in its Southern and eastern sections, due to
higher altitudes.
The Tropical Desert and Semi-desert Climate
What characterizes the desert and semi-desert climatic regions? Where in Africa are these types
of climate found? This type of climate is found bordering the tropical savanna climatic region,
especially in north central and Southern Africa. There are two types of deserts in Africa. These
are the coastal and continental deserts. The coastal type includes deserts that are found along the
western coast of the continent, like the Namib and Western Sahara. In contrast, the Sahara,
which constitutes Africa’s continental type of desert, is located north of the equator.
The following characteristics distinguish the tropical-desert and semi-desert climatic region from
the others.
 A short rainy season of up to three months. There are about 250 to 500 mm of rain per
year in the semi-desert areas and less than 250 mm in the desert regions;
 Variable, unreliable and insufficient precipitation, which hinders plant growth;
 High daily average temperature, which ranges between 25°C and 36°C;
 Significant annual temperature variations and also extreme fluctuations in temperature
over the course of a day. For instance, in the Sahara desert, daytime summer
temperatures exceed 50°C, but winter night temperatures drop below freezing.

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Drought in Africa
Drought is a condition of unusually dry weather within a geographic region.
Expected rainfall does not occur during drought. Therefore drought conditions differ greatly
from conditions in an area that is normally, or at least seasonally, dry.
The term is usually applied to a period in which an unusual shortage of rain causes a serious
hydrological imbalance a situation whereby water-supply reservoirs empty, wells dry up, and
crop damage follows. The severity of a drought is measured in terms of the degree of moisture
deficiency, its duration, and the size of the area affected. Droughts tend to be more severe in
some areas than in others. Disastrous droughts occur mostly at latitudes of about 15°-20°, in
areas bordering the permanently arid regions of the world. As most parts of Africa lie within
these latitudes, the continent is one of the most drought affected areas in the world. Repeated
drought is common in many areas.
Major causes of drought in Africa include unwise use of natural resources, including
deforestation, overgrazing and over cropping, expansion of farm lands and settlements, and the
resultant environmental degradation.
The repeated drought that occurs in many areas of the continent causes environmental
degradation, habitat destruction, shortage of water and famine (shortage of food). This, in turn,
results in the displacement/migration and death of people and animals. The huge displacement of
people and the high rural-urban migration that occurs in many countries of Africa is associated
with this phenomenon. Drought also affects the biodiversity of a place. As drought prevails,
plants and animals may fail to survive. As a result, some species of plants and animals may
become extinct or be exposed to danger of extinction.
This is happening in the drought-affected areas of the continent. The Sahel region of Africa is
one of the extremely drought-affected areas in the continent. The region is a transitional zone
between the Sahara on the north and the wetter tropical areas to the south. Desertification of the
Sahel was aggravated by extended drought between the late 1960s and early 1980s, the worst in
150 years. The stress of increasing human and livestock populations is another major contributor.
Desertification is the process whereby soil loses its ability to retain moisture, and then desert
encroaches on arable land. Desertification is shrinking the size of the Sahel and causing famine
in many parts of the region. This climatic condition covers many countries that are found to the
south of the Sahara desert. As a result, they are among the areas repeatedly affected by drought.

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3.2.4 Drainage in Africa
Africa is rich in terms of water resources. Thousands of rivers that originate in African highlands
drain the extensive landmass of the continent. Furthermore, large numbers of lakes are found in
the continent. Swamps are also dominant drainage features in Africa. These resources have
tremendous potential. However, the people of the continent are far behind the developed world in
terms of their socioeconomic status, and therefore also in the technology and other resources
needed to develop this potential.
The Major Rivers and Drainage Systems of Africa
The entire area that a river drains is called its catchment area or drainage basin. A group of
drainage basins, which are supplied by multiple rivers, with common characteristics, such as a
common destination, form a drainage system. Nine major rivers drain the African continent.
These are the Nile, Congo, Zambezi, Limpopo, Orange, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal
rivers. These basins are categorized into four major types of drainage systems, based on their
flow direction. These major drainage systems are
 Atlantic Ocean drainage system;
 Indian Ocean drainage system;
 Mediterranean Sea drainage system; and
 Closed (Inland) drainage system.
A .The Atlantic Ocean Drainage System
What are the major rivers that constitute this system?
This system is made up of all major rivers that drain westward and southward and empty into the
Atlantic Ocean. The system is the largest in terms of catchment area, annual discharge and
drainage density. It accounts for about 90 percent of the content’s surface flow. The major river
basins that constitute this system are the Congo, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Orange and Senegal
basins. Several other, small rivers are also found in this system.

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B. The Mediterranean Sea Drainage System
Which river is the most important in this system? Why?
This drainage system includes all the major rivers that flow northwards into the Mediterranean
Sea. However, the system has only one major river basin, which is the Nile. The Nile is the
longest river in the world. Two major tributaries, namely the White Nile and Blue Nile, form the
Nile proper when they converge in the Sudan, at Khartoum. The White Nile originates from
Lake Victoria in Uganda, while the Blue Nile emerges from Lake Tana in Ethiopia, near Bahir
Dar. The Nile flows generally northwards through the Sudan and Egypt and empties into the
Mediterranean forming an extensive delta in north Egypt.
C. The Indian Ocean Drainage System
Which rivers of Africa form the Indian Ocean Drainage System?
The Indian Ocean Drainage System includes all the major rivers that flow eastwards into the
Indian Ocean. This system is the second largest system, in Africa in terms of drainage density,
catchment area and annual discharge. The Zambezi, Wabishebelle and Juba river basins are the
major basins in this system.

D. The Closed (Inland) Drainage System

What are the rivers that form the Inland drainages system of Africa?
The rivers of Africa that do not have direct access to the sea form this drainage system. Most of
the rivers in this system have multiple flow directions. This makes the system different from the
rest of the drainage systems in Africa. This drainage system covers nearly 32% of the total area
of the continent. It receives nearly 4% of the continent’s total annual runoff. The Awash and
Ghibe/Omo rivers in Ethiopia, the Okovango Swamp in Botswana, and the Sudd Basin in the

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Sudan, the Danakil Basin in Ethiopia and Eritrea and Lake Chad Basins are among the major
inland drainage basins of the continent. The Chad Basin is the largest inland basin in Africa.
Table: Catchment Areas and Lengths of Some of the major Rivers of Africa.

General Characteristics of African Rivers

Most African rivers share some common characteristics:

a) Steep long profile: Most of the rivers in Africa have steep courses, as a result of the
continent's relief. Furthermore, most of the rivers empty into the major water bodies by falling
from the edges of interior plateaus of the continent. This affects the navigability of many of the
rivers of the continent.

b) Waterfalls and Rapids: Many African rivers are interrupted by waterfalls and rapids, which
impede navigation. The waterfalls and rapids are due to Africa’s number of plateau lands, with
their steepsides, and strong erosion-resistant rock, which the rivers encounter in their courses.
Some examples of rivers with these features are the Congo, Nile, Niger, Zambezi, Orange and
Cunnen Rivers. Study the following table, which presents Africa’s major waterfalls.

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c) Seasonal Fluctuation: Many of the rivers of Africa have their origins in areas of seasonal
rainfall distribution. As a result, there are variations in their volumes between the wet and dry
seasons. The Nile and Niger Rivers are good examples of this phenomenon. Both originate in
wet highlands with seasonal rainfall. In contrast to the other African rivers, the Congo River does
not show significant volume variation. It is the only African river with a steady volume
throughout the year. This characteristic is due to the fact that it has tributaries running from both
within and south of the equator.
d) Deltaic Mouths and Mangrove Swamps: Many of the African rivers have low pressure
force along their lower courses. This allows the rivers to branch out into distributaries, and
results in the formation of deltas and mangrove swamps at the mouths of the rivers. For instance,
the Nile, Niger and Zambezi rivers have extensive deltas and are swampy at their mouths. Such
conditions affect the penetrability of the rivers from the coast.
e) Exotic Nature of the Rivers: Many of the rivers of Africa, like the Nile, Senegal and Orange,
travel across different physiographic regions that range from cool to extremely hot climatic
conditions. As a result, they lose much of their water through evaporation and seepage before
they reach their final destinations. The Nile River faces the greatest impact in this case. It loses
nearly 64% of its total run off through evaporation and seepage. The Senegal River loses 54%,
and the Orange River has a total loss of 44% in its runoff.
Deltaic mouths, mangrove swamps, the fluctuation regime of the rivers, and waterfalls and rapids
across the major rivers of Africa hinder the navigability of their courses. However, these rivers
have high HEP potential. The water falls of Africa, if regulated, could produce enormous
amounts of hydro-electric energy.

Lakes and Swamps of Africa

What is a lake? What about swamps? Where are most of the lakes of Africa found?
Africa has many lakes and swamps. Some of them are natural, and others are human-made
(artificial). The lakes differ in their size and depth. For instance, lakes Tanganyika and Malawi
are deep and large, while Victoria and Tana are wide and shallow, respectively.
Lakes of Africa
The lakes are divided into two types-natural and artificial (anthropogenic).
 Natural lakes are formed by tectonic, volcanic and/or denudation processes.

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  Anthropogenic lakes are formed when water is accumulated at the backs of dams that
are constructed across rivers for various purposes, including hydro-electric production
and irrigation.
Natural Lakes
What is a natural lake? How are lakes formed naturally? These are lakes that are formed under
natural conditions. Based on location, natural African lakes are divided into two groups: Rift
valley and Non-Rift Valley lakes. The first group includes all the lakes that occupy the floor of
the Great East African Rift Valley. Lakes, like Turkana, Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert, Malawi,
Edward and the numerous Rift Valley lakes in Ethiopia belong to this group. The major non-Rift
Valley natural lakes include Victoria, Chad and Tana.
The following Table presents the major natural lakes of Africa and some of their
characteristics.

Artificial (Anthropogenic) Lakes

What are artificial lakes? How and why are artificial lakes formed?
Africa has large numbers of rivers that have enormous hydro-electric power and irrigation
potential. To utilize the rivers for these and many other purposes, large dams have been
constructed across their courses. The major anthropogenic lakes in Africa are Nasser, Koka,
Volta, Kaindji and Kariba.
Table presents the major artificial lakes in Africa.
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Swamps of Africa
What is swamp? How are they formed? There are many seasonal and permanent swamps
(marshes) in Africa. They develop mostly in depressions and areas of seasonal flooding along the
courses of the major rivers. The major swamps of Africa include:
 Sudd swamps, along the Nile river basin;
 Kamulando swamps, in the Congo Basin;
 Batorse and Kafue swamps, in the Zambezi Basin;
 Okovango swamps, in Botswana;
 Swamps adjacent to lake Chad;
 Mangrove (coastal) swamps along the deltaic mouths of the major rivers;
 Timbukto swamps, in Mali along the Niger River.
The Uses of African Rivers and Lakes
The rivers and lakes of Africa have great potential for development. They can contribute to the
socioeconomic development of the continent if they are properly developed and utilized. Some
of their uses are discussed below.
Hydro-Electric Power (HEP)
Africa has about 40% of the world's HEP potential. The steep profile of the rivers and the
waterfalls and rapids that develop along their actual and potential courses make the continent
rich in this respect. Although, very little (about 5%) of this potential is actually being utilized,
large dams have been constructed for this purpose. For example, see the following Table.

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Irrigation
The rivers and lakes in Africa have great potential for irrigation. However, what has been
utilized so far is insignificant compared to this huge potential. Lack of technology, capital and
skilled human power, as well as conflicts and political unrest, are among the factors that result in
low development of irrigation in Africa. Among the major irrigation schemes, some are the
Gezira and Kenana irrigation in Sudan, Nile Delta and lower Nile irrigation in Egypt; Fish river,
Orange and Pongola irrigation in RSA.
Fishing
What is fishing?
Africa's rivers and lakes are rich in fish resources. There are about 2,000 different species of fish
in the continent.
The most widespread human use of lakes in Africa is for fishing, but this economic sector is
poorly developed. Most fish production in the continent is for home consumption. As a result,
very little is taken into the market. This situation is primarily due to insufficient technical skills
in the continent.
Navigation (Inland Waterways)
Most of the rivers in Africa are characterized by waterfalls, rapids, steep profiles, deltaic mouths
and seasonal volume fluctuation. These conditions hinder their navigability. However, the Nile,
Niger, Senegal and Gambia Rivers are navigable along parts of their courses, especially in
summer. The Congo River is navigable for a good part of its course throughout most of the year.
Lakes like Chad, Victoria, Tana and Malawi also provide transport services for a good number of
people.

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Tourism and Recreation
In many countries in Africa, rivers and lakes are good tourist destinations and centers of
recreation. The waterfalls along the rivers and the birds of the lakes are attractive. The Nile in
Egypt, Victoria Falls on
91
the Zambezi River, and Lake Nakuru in Kenya and Lake Malawi in Malawi and Tis Abay on the
Abbay River, and Awash Falls in Ethopia are good examples.
Fresh-Water Supply
The rivers and lakes in Africa constitute most of the continent’s fresh-water resources. The piped
water supplies for urban Africa and the water supply for the rural population, are all dependent
on the rivers and lakes of the continent.
Source of Minerals and Construction Materials
Rivers and lakes carry various rocks and their fragments that are good sources of minerals and
construction materials. For instance, the alluvial deposits along the major rivers of Africa contain
gold and diamonds, as well as other minerals, for example, tin in Ghana and Namibia. Salt and
potash as well as sand and gravel can be obtained from rivers and lakes.
The Hydro Politics of the Nile River
The Nile River is one of the most politically significant rivers in Africa. In its basin, countries
have significant interest over its water. The countries that are found in the Nile basin are
Ethiopia, Egypt, Kenya, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Eritrea and Tanzania. Based on the general alignment of the river these countries are categorized
into two as upper course and lower course countries. The upper course countries are those that
contribute the water for the river and are generally found at higher altitude where the major
tributaries of the Nile originate. On the other hand, the lower course countries, namely Sudan and
Egypt, are those that are found at lower elevation where the water of the river flows gently over
vast plains.
Blue Nile is the largest contributor of water to the Nile proper. Together with Baro-Akobo and
Tekeze rivers, Ethiopia accounts for about 84% of the water of the Nile. The Hydro-politics of
the Nile is, therefore, related with the degree to which the Nile River is utilized in its upper and
lower courses. Of the total estimated 110bn m3 of annual water resource, nearly 65% (72 bn m3)

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occurs in the Ethiopian portion of the Nile basin. Of this, about 52.6 bnm3 is accounted by the
Abay River alone.
Historically, the two countries, Egypt and Sudan have been the most benefited of all the
countries in the Nile basin. This is especially true for Egypt where the Nile River’s water and
alluvial soil along its flood plain have become the source of life in the desert affected Egypt. The
Aswan high dam that is constructed along the Nile River in Egypt has been the most important
source of water, energy, fish and recreation for the Egyptians. In Sudan, too, the river has been
developed to a greater extent. Contrary to this, the upper course countries have been the least
benefited. This unbalanced and unfair utilization of the river between the upper and lower course
countries has been a great area of interest. However, the countries of the basin are now in a
situation where by they are working together to bring about equitable utilization of the river. The
Nile basin initiative is a good example in this case. Through the initiative, the countries are
working together to maintain balanced utilization of the river in the upper course and lower
course countries.

3.2.5 Natural Vegetation and Wild Animals of Africa

There are different types of climates in Africa. As a result, varied types of natural vegetation
develop over the landmass of the continent. There are also various species of wild animals that
inhabit the various physiographic regions of the continent.
Major Vegetation Zones of Africa
What is Natural Vegetation? What are the major vegetation types that develop in Africa? What
causes a variation in vegetation type and distribution in Africa?
The type of natural vegetation that develops in a certain environment is a reflection of the
climatic characteristics of that place. Africa has a number of different climatic regions with their
own distinguishing climatic features. As a result, we have various types of natural vegetation
covering the different geographic regions of the continent. In general, five different vegetation
zones can be identified in Africa. These vegetation types are discussed below.
 Tropical rainforests
 Tropical grassland (savanna)
 Desert and semi-desert vegetation
 Afro-montane (Afro-alpine) vegetation
 Mediterranean vegetation

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Tropical Rainforests
What is a rainforest? Where in Africa do we have rainforests? What unique features do
rainforests have?
Tropical rainforests develop in areas with equatorial climates. In Africa, they are confined to
Central and Western Africa, and eastern Madagascar. In these places, the climate is typically
tropical, with high rainfall and high temperatures throughout the year. Tropical rain forests are
also known as equatorial broad leaf evergreen forests. Africa’s most extensive rainforest is found
in the Congo Basin.
The following points give you some ideas about the nature of these forests.
Rain forests are complex, with these three distinct layers:
 Top layer – made up of tall trees (30 - 50 m) with buttress roots;
 Middle layer – made up of tree ferns, lianas (creepers), epiphytes, and trees with heights
of 19 - 34 m; and
 Bottom layer – consists of ferns, herbaceous plants, saprophyte (plants which live on
dead plants) and trees with heights of up to 17 m.
 They contain broad-leaved evergreen trees (green throughout the year);
 Different plants exhibit different stages of growth at the same time, due to the absence of
climatic seasons. Some are in flower, some in fruit, and others in the leaf-fall stage;
 They have little undergrowth, as the canopies of the tall trees prevent light penetration;
 Most of the trees are hardwood, like mahogany, ebony, ironwood, rosewood and green
heart;
 They have high species diversity and thick growth.
Tropical Grassland (Savanna)
What is a Savanna? Which parts of Africa have savanna vegetation?
This kind of vegetation develops in areas of seasonal rainfall. Tropical grassland vegetations are
extensively developed in areas that have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical grasslands exist
in Northern and Southern Africa, and they encircle the equatorial rainforests. Rainfall in savanna
areas varies, decreasing over the range from the forest margins to the edges of the desert.
Savanna areas that are close to the equatorial rainforests receive more rainfall, compared to the
areas at the edge of the desert. This results in the development of three Savanna zones in Africa.
These are:

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i. Park (Wetter) Savanna: it is found close to the rain forests and made up of many trees and
grasses. Geographically, it is found in Western Africa, northern Congo, southern Sudan and
central Malawi.
ii. High (True) Savanna: this type of grassland is developed between the wetter and drier
savannas. It is made up of more grasses than park-savanna areas, and contains scattered trees
only. It is found in Zimbabwe, Malawi, southern Kenya, eastern Tanzania and Western Africa.
iii. Thorn Scrub (Drier) Savanna: this savanna zone is developed along the desert margins and
is made up of short grasses with widely scattered thorny trees, thorn bushes and low scrub. It is
common in the semi-arid areas of the Sahel region that extends from Senegal to Ethiopia,
Northern Kenya, Angola and Botswana.
The main features of savanna vegetation include the following.
 They have tall grasses that are often as tall as 2 m;
 Trees are more common than grasses in areas bordering the forest, and grasses are more
common than trees in areas bordering the desert;
 Most of the grasses wither and turn brown in the dry season and regain in the wet season;
 The trees survive the dry season by shading their leaves, storing water, having long roots,
thorny leaves, and only a small number of leaves.
Desert and Semi Desert Vegetation
What is a desert? What about a semi-desert climate? What type of vegetation develops in such
climatic regions? In which parts of Africa do we have desert and semi-desert vegetation? Why?
Desert and semi-desert vegetation is developed in areas where rainfall is scant. This climatic
condition is found in the driest areas of the continent. The Sahara, the largest desert in the world,
the Namib deserts and the Sahel region of Africa have such vegetation. You may think that
deserts are devoid of natural vegetation. The reality, however, is that it is different in Africa. The
continent's drier areas have high species diversity. For instance, more than 3,000 species of
plants (about 20% endemic) are found in the desert and semi-desert zones of Northern Africa.
Even the southern deserts support plants. Cactus, thorn bushes and coarse grasses are among the
most common plants in this vegetation zone.
The desert and semi-desert climatic regions are characterized by very low rainfall, extremely
high evaporation and low humidity. The plants that develop in such regions are xerophytes with

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high drought resistance. To withstand such problems and survive in deserts, desert plants have
different mechanisms of adaptation. For example,
 They have long roots that can penetrate to great depths to reach the underground water
table;
 They store water in their spongy leaves, stems, roots, fruits, and the like (example, cactus);
 They have waxy or needle-shaped leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration;
 They produce seeds that lie dormant for several years during extreme dry seasons until
rain falls;
 Their leaves are small in size and few in number, reducing water loss through
transpiration; and
 They have thorny leaves to protect them from being eaten by herbivores, etc.
Afro-Montane (Afro-Alpine) Vegetation
What type of vegetation is Afro-Alpine vegetation? In which parts of Africa do we have this type
of vegetation? This type of vegetation develops over the tropical highlands of Africa, mainly
over the Ethiopian and Eastern African highlands. In these areas, the climate is highly modified
by altitude, with temperature decreasing as altitude increases. As a result, the vegetation that
would have existed in the tropical climate at lower temperatures is replaced by vegetation typical
of temperate regions. The vegetation consists of highland (temperate) forests and temperate
grasslands. As altitude decreases, vegetation varies. For example, alpine (coldresistant) plants
like Asta and Gibera (in Ethiopia) grow in areas with altitudes above 3000 m. Afro-montane
forests grow in altitudes up to 3000 m. Bamboo forests are found at 2000 – 2500 m. Then we
find temperate evergreen (coniferous) forests of trees such as Tid, mountain grassland, and heath.
Mediterranean Vegetation
Which parts of Africa have this type of vegetation? What are the common trees of the
Mediterranean vegetation in Africa? As the name indicates, this type of vegetation develops in
the northwestern and southwestern extremes of the continent, where Mediterranean climate is
dominant. The region is rich in plant species. Evergreen and deciduous trees constitute a good
part of the vegetation of this zone. Cork oak, maquis, and wild olive, are among the most
common plant types in the region.

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Mediterranean climatic regions have hot dry summer seasons. Thus, plants develop certain
adaptation mechanisms to withstand the summer drought. Among others, the following
adaptation mechanisms are common.
Storing water in their leaves and bark and using it during the dry season;  Having waxy thick
leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration;  Having spiny small leaves to reduce water
loss through transpiration; and  Having long roots to tap underground water.
Factors Affecting the Natural Vegetation Of Africa
Despite the richness of the continent in terms of natural vegetation, the resource is far from being
properly utilized. Deforestation, overgrazing, burning (wildfire), and the expansion of
settlements and farmlands are among the major problems affecting natural vegetation in the
continent.
Of all the challenges of natural vegetation in Africa the most serious one is deforestation.
Deforestation is indiscriminate cutting or over-harvesting of trees. The deforestation rate in the
continent is both very high and escalating. In the late 1970's, for instance, the annual rate of
deforestation in the continent was about 3.6 million hectars per year. Slightly less than a decade
and a half later, this rate (according to 1993 FAO estimations) had reached 4.3 million
hectars/year. At the present time, the figures are even greater than what we have seen above.
Clearance of tropical forests for various reasons is a common practice in many African countries
where rainforests develop. People clear the forest for many reasons. The major ones, however,
are the following.
 They clear the land for shifting cultivation, especially in the equatorial areas where soil
leaching is a common problem;
 The need for land for permanent agriculture;
 The increased need for fuel wood - nearly 90% of African energy demands are satisfied
by using fuel wood that is collected from forests;
 Extractive forest uses, such as selective forestry, to get logs for industries.
Deforestation has multifarious impacts. Forests regulate the climatic conditions of the earth and
reduce soil erosion. Thus, deforestation can cause climatic change, resulting in problems like
desertification and soil loss through erosion. In addition, where the forest habitats are destroyed,
the animals that live in the forests are affected. As a result of habitat destruction, animals may
migrate and even die. Deforestation results in the extinction of some of the wild animals and

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plants of the continent. There are also many endangered plants and animals in the continent due
to deforestation and related impacts.
Possible Conservation Measures
The problem of deforestation can be reduced through the application of different forest-
conservation measures. These measures include reforestation, afforestation, agro-forestry and
social forestry.
 Reforestation: is planting trees in areas where the original forest cover has been
removed. It is done to replace the trees that have been cut by humans for different
purposes.
 Afforestation: is planting trees in areas where there was no original forest cover. For
example, afforestation is appropriate for areas where the land is left empty and therefore
is exposed to erosion.
 Agroforestry: is forestry combined with farming. It is a practice of integrating the
planting of trees into farming to provide fuel, fruit, forage, shelter for animals or crops,
and other benefits. In short, it refers to associating crop production with forest
development.
 Social forestry: refers to planting trees in urban areas in association with human
settlements.
Wild Animals of Africa
It is a well-known fact that natural vegetation serves as habitats for wild animals. Thus, the
different vegetation zones of Africa, together with the varied climate and topography of the
continent, create an ideal situation for wild-animal diversity. For example, the equatorial
rainforests of Africa are habitats for different species of wild animals. The region hosts different
kinds of tree climbing (arboreal) animals like monkeys, apes, baboons, and gorillas, as well as
birds. The aquatic environment of this zone hosts large animals like hippopotamus and
crocodiles. The region has the highest species diversity in Africa. Most of the time wild animals
that live in the equatorial rainforest have small body sizes. This is because the thick and dense
forest of the region limits movement in the forests. There are also large numbers of herbivorous
and carnivorous animals in the Savanna lands of the continent. The herbivore animals include
numerous species of antelope, zebra, giraffe, buffalo, African elephant, and rhinoceros. The
carnivore wild animals include the lion, leopard, cheetah, hyena, jackal and mongoose.

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There are also various species of wild animals in the desert and semi-desert areas of the
continent. The desert fox, hares, gazelles, jerboa, the wild ass and different reptiles like snakes,
lizards and tortoises are among the most common species. Similarly, the rivers, lakes and
swamps of the continent are inhabited by different species of aquatic animals. There are
crocodiles like the Nile crocodiles, hippopotamuses, fish (about 2,000 different species), and
different species of birds like the guinea fowl (the leading game bird in Africa), pelicans, goliath
herons, flamingos, storks, egrets, and the ostrich, mainly in Eastern and Southern Africa. In
addition to the above wild animals, the continent also has a variety of destructive insects, notably
mosquitoes, driver ants, termites, locusts, and tsetse flies.
This wild-animal resource of Africa is of great importance for the people of the continent. They
serve a wide range of purposes, including the following. They:
 are used as sources of animal protein in many countries of Africa;
 help to maintain the balance of nature by feeding on each other and plants;
 serve as source of income through tourism, legal hunting and legal sale of live wild
animals;
 provide scientific and educational opportunities to researches, students and the like;
 provide inputs (industrial raw materials such as skins and excreta) for various
industries; add aesthetic value to the environment, hence serving as source of recreation
for people;
Factors Affecting Wild Animals
Despite all these and many other advantages that wild animals provide to the people of Africa,
the attention paid by the people to animal conservation is inadequate. Many animals face serious
problems that emanate from human interference-for example, with their habitats. Such
interventions threaten many species. As a result, some animals and birds are extinct and still
others, like the Mountain Nyala and Walia Ibex in Ethiopia, and the Ostrich in Algeria, are
endangered or threatened.
Wild animals in Africa are facing different challenges. The following are the most serious ones.
 Illegal hunting (poaching): In many parts of Africa, poaching, or illegal hunting, is a
common practice. People hunt wild animals for many reasons. While some are economic,
others are sociocultural. For instance, elephants are hunted for their tusks, rhinos for their
horns, lions, and cheetah, for their skins etc. This activity threatens some species like the

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 African elephant and black rhinoceros. Some animals in Africa are also brutally
exterminated for several reasons. For example, animals are killed because they are
considered to be pests. They are also killed for food. People also kill animals to be
honored by society, as there are cultural group that attach bravery/heroism to killing large
dangerous wild animals. This practice exists particularly in the very traditional parts of
the continent.
 Human Encroachment: in many areas of Africa, people encroach into the natural
habitat of wild animals. For instance, many people in Ethiopia enter into the habitats of
wild life in the Bale Mountains, Semien Mountains and Awash National Parks and
disturb the habitat. The encroachment is the result of the increased need of human
populations for farm and grazing land, settlement areas, fuel wood and the like. Such
increased needs result in: -
Deforestation – people in Africa clear forests for shifting and permanent cultivation, fuel wood,
charcoal, settlement and the like. This disturbs the habitats of wild animals and causes the
migration and death of wild-animals.
Burning of vegetation cover in order to obtain land for shifting or permanent agriculture, people
set fire to vegetated areas.
Overgrazing – When land is grazed beyond its carrying capacity, overgrazing occurs. This, in
turn, leads to environmental degradation.
Desertification – it is the expansion of desert-like climatic conditions, which occurs as a result
of changes in the characteristics of the local climate.
Drought – is extreme shortage of rainfall. It occurs when expected rains fail to fall in an area.
Possible Conservation Measures
These and many more challenges are affecting Africa’s wildlife resources. Animals migrate, and
even die due to the disturbance of their environment as humans encroach. To curb the situation
the following measures can be taken.
 Conserving natural vegetation: the conservation of one type of natural resource means the
conservation of others. Conserving natural vegetation that serves as habitats and sources of food
for wild animals can ultimately help with their conservation.
 Establishing national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries: these areas provide protection
and conservation for wild animals. They are established to conserve wild animals and their

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 habitats so that they have a secure environment that is safe for their survival. In this regard,
Kenya, Tanzania, the Republic of South Africa and Uganda are significant. In Ethiopia, too, nine
national parks and many other sanctuaries and game reserves have been established to promote
the conservation of the wildlife resources of the country.
 Controlling illegal hunting: it can be done by developing strict legislation whereby illegal
hunters are punished or penalized for their illegal acts. For instance, an international ban on ivory
trade, instituted in 1989 by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) and supported by over 120 countries, has diminished the illicit ivory
trade and reduced the related wild-animal killing.
 Raising the people’s awareness: this can be done by educating the people about the uses of wild
animals so that their attitudes and activities change. This is the most important conservation
measure, and it needs the closest attention, because nothing can be done without getting the
support of local communities.
 Changing the economic condition of the people through good and applicable policies and
programs.

3.2.6. Soils of Africa

Soil is defined simply as a loose and unconsolidated material that overlies the crust of the earth. Soil
is Africa’s most important resource. This is because the majority of the people in the continent, and
almost the entire economy of the continent, depend on activities that are directly or indirectly linked
with this resource.
Major Soil Types of Africa

Why is Africa endowed with varied typed of soils? What are the most common soil types of
Africa?

The diverse climatic conditions, natural vegetation and the geology of Africa result in the
presence of different soil types. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN (FAO) has
classified the soils of Africa into several groups, of which the following are the most important:

 Pedalfers (the largest group in Africa)

 Pedocals
 Hydromorphic soils

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  Azonal soils

Based on their geographical distribution, the soils of Africa are classified into the following
types. These are Ferrasols, Nitosols, Acrisols, Lixisols, Plinthosols, Luvisols, Planosols,
Vertisols, Calcisols, Solonchaks, Gleysols, Fluvisols, Arenosols, Regosols and Leptosols. The
geographical locations and characteristics of each of these soils is discussed in brief in the next
sections.

A. Pedalfers

Pedalfers are soils with aluminum deposits. They are soils without a layer of accumulated
calcium carbonate. Such soils have high content of iron and aluminum. Soils of this group
include the following.

 Ferrasols: are found in the central parts of Africa around the equatorial forests and savanna
lands. They are red and yellow in color. Since they are found in areas of heavy rainfall, they
are affected by leaching. As a result, they are characterized by high concentrations of iron,
clay and aluminum.
 Nitosols: These soils mainly develop in humid climatic regions. Their parent materials are
usually volcanic rocks. Such soils have a deep profile and are rich in humus content.
Therefore, they are the most productive soils in Africa. As a result, they are ideal for crop
production.
 Acrisols: These are soils that develop in hilly areas with wet tropical and monsoon climates.
These soils are weathered, acidic and shallow. As a result, they are unproductive. This soil
type is found in Western Africa and the Lake Region of East Africa.
 Lixisols: Lixisols are found in the savanna and semi-arid areas. These soils are reddish and
sometimes yellowish in color. Geographically, they are abundant in the plains of Western
Africa, Eastern Africa and east-Central Africa. Lixisols are more fertile than ferrasols and
acrisols.
 Plinthosols: these soils exist on plains and gently-sloped areas. They are soft and laterite.
Such soils also develop in rainforest areas and the savanna regions, where marked dry and
wet seasons characterize the climate.

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  Luvisols: these soils are developed in the Mediterranean climatic regions of the continent.
They have high mineral reserves and are fertile.
 Planosols: these soils dominate the High Veld of South Africa, particularly the waterlogged
plains of the country. They are used mostly for grazing.
 Fluvisols: fluvisols develop in seasonally flooded plains, valleys and tidal marshes. They
are found in the Nile and Zambezi River Deltas, and the coasts of Western Africa and Lake
Chad. They have a brown color. Most of these soils are young and fertile. As a result, they
are suitable for large-scale irrigation.
B. Pedocals
 Vertisols: These are black basaltic soils with clay character. Due to their clay, they become
sticky during the rainy season and crack during the dry season. As a result, working such
soils is very laborious. They are found in the Sahel region at the southern border of the
Sahara. In some parts of Africa, these soils are cultivated with the help of irrigation and
rainfed agriculture. However, generally they are used for grazing.
 Calcisols: They are found in the Sahara and Namib deserts of Africa. Though they are
potentially fertile in terms of mineral content, they are poor in humus. These soils are used
mostly for grazing.
 Solonchaks: these soils are found in inland river basins, bottoms of ancient lakes,
depressions and coastal areas. They are saline and not very productive.
C. Hydromorphic Soil
 Gleysols: Like solonchaks, they are found in depressions and low-lying areas of shallow
ground water. They are extensively found in the Niger Delta, the Congo Basin and interior
parts of Angola. In Africa, these soils are used for the production of rice, sugar cane, yam
and vegetables.
D. Azonal Soil
 Arenosols: They are found in the humid tropical parts of Africa, the semi-arid zones of the
southern Sahara, southwest Africa and Africa’s coastal plains. They are used mainly for
grazing and dry farming.
 Regosols: They are found in arid areas extending from West Africa to Ethiopia and
Somalia. They are used for pastoralist grazing.

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  Leptosols: These are young, shallow and stony soils that are highly susceptible to erosion
and drought. They are found in the strongly dissected uplands of Northern Africa, the
Sahara, and in Southern, Central and Eastern Africa. Terracing is the most important
mechanism for cultivating these soils. Otherwise, they are devoted to transhumance, forestry
and tourism.
Problems and Conservation Measures of Soils in Africa
Problems of Soils in Africa
What are the major problems of soil in Africa? What measures, do you think, should be taken to
conserve Africa’s soil resources?
Soil erosion and environmental degradation are among the major problems concerning soils in
Africa. The major causes of soil erosion and degradation in the continent include traditional
farming practices, overgrazing, deforestation, and over-exploitation of vegetation for domestic
uses. Due to these and many other factors, the continent loses huge amounts of soil every year to
erosion.
Also, such problems result in the deterioration of the quality and productivity of the soil.
Soil erosion is affecting Africa in many ways. Among others, the following are the major
impacts. It results in the:
 deterioration and depletion of agricultural and range (pasture) lands;
 decline of productivity of the major cereal crops;
 the collapse of agriculture and thereby the migration of people;
 downstream pollution, sedimentation, floods and damage to settlements, irrigation and
farmlands;
 Consumption of national economic resources to control erosion. For example, Zimbabwe
invests 3% of its total annual budget for applying fertilizer to replace nutrients lost
through erosion.
As we have said earlier, soil erosion is serious throughout Africa. However, the problem is more
intense in some areas than others. These areas are highly affected by the problem.
 Most of the Sahel Region of Western Africa, and the Sahara and Namib deserts of Africa
where wind is the major agent of erosion;
 The sub-humid (savanna) regions and the tropical rainforests, where water is the main
agent of erosion; and

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  The tropical highlands and mountain areas of Africa such as those of Ethiopia and other
East African countries.
Conservation Measures
Major soil conservation measures that could be taken to increase soil fertility in Africa include
the following.
 Terracing: constructing stair like structures along hillsides to reduce the speed at which
water flows down the slope, thereby reducing erosion.
 Agroforestry: is associating agriculture with forest development.
 Afforestation: is planting trees in areas which originally were not covered by forests.
 Reforestation: is planting tree seedlings to replace cut forests.
 102
 Windbreaks and shelter-belt plantations: planting trees along a line to break the speed
of the blowing wind and reduce its erosivity.
 Check dams: are small ditches that are prepared along sloppy areas to reduce the impact
of the down slope surface flow.
 Strip cultivation: is planting two or more types of crops on the same farm, using a
pattern of stripes of alternating crops. This approach reduces soil erosion because
different types of plants use different ways of binding soil particles to themselves.
 Contour plowing: is plowing the land sideways, following contours. It is commonly
used in sloped areas, forming furrows perpendicular to the angle of the slope. These
furrows act as blocks, slowing the flow of downhill water.
 Crop rotation: planting different crops alternately on a farm.
 “Green manure”: This approach uses plants that have soil-nutrient value to enrich the
soil in the same way that animal faeces are used as fertilizer. The “green manure” plants
are cultivated on the land and then ploughed under to mix them with the soil.
 Mulching: is covering the soil with plant residue to let the soil regain some nutrients as
the residue decays.
 Fallowing: is leaving the farm idle for a while until the soil regains its fertility.

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3.3. Physical Environment of Ethiopia
3.31. Location, Size and Shape of Ethiopia
Location of Ethiopia
Do you know the extent to which the location of a given place is important in world politics?
What locational significance does Ethiopia have as a country that is in the Horn and near the Red
sea route?
Every place has its own particular location in relation to its surroundings. Ethiopia’s location can
be expressed in two ways: relative location and absolute location.
Relative Location of Ethiopia: Relative location can be expressed in vicinal and geological
terms.
I. Relative (Vicinal) Location of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a landlocked country that is surrounded by five neighboring countries. Each country
shares different lengths of Ethiopia’s borderlines. The total length of Ethiopia’s boundary line is
5260 km.
Table: Ethiopia’s boundary line length, as shared with neighboring countries.

This Table indicates that:-

 Sudan shares the longest length of boundary line, followed by Somalia.
 The Republic of Djibouti shares the smallest boundary line length.
II. Strategic (Global, Geological) Relative Location of Ethiopia
Ethiopia’s geological location can be described in the following ways. It is found:
 to the southwest of the Asian continent,
 to the south of Europe,
 to the northwest of the Indian Ocean,
 in the Nile Basin, and
 in northeastern Africa.

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Absolute (Astronomical) Location of Ethiopia
Ethiopia’s absolute location is expressed as follows.
Ethiopia is located between 3oN – 15oN latitudes and 33oE– 48oE longitude.
As a result, Ethiopia’s extreme points lie at
 Badime in the north (Tigray)
 Moyalle in the south (Borena)
 Akobo in the west (Gambella) and
 The tip of Ogaden in the east (Ogaden).
Size of Ethiopia
What is size in terms of spatial distribution? Does size influence the economic strength of a
country? Ethiopia is the tenth largest country in Africa, with a total area of 1,106,000 square
kilometers. It contains about 0.7 percent of the world’s land area and about 3.6 percent of
Africa’s land mass.

Ethiopia is the largest country in the Horn. This status in size, in combination with its status of
having a large population, confers many advantages to Ethiopia in the Horn area.

Advantages: Ethiopia’s large size lets it:

 possess diverse agro-ecological zones, resulting in a wide variety of fauna and flora,
 possess a large amount of arable land,
 have a great variety of mineral resources, and
 be the home of diverse ethnic groups.

Disadvantages: Its large size compels Ethiopia to:

 require great financial power to construct infrastructural facilities,

 have a large army to protect its sovereignty,

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  preserve an efficient and popular government to administer its vast territory.

Shape of Ethiopia

Countries vary not only in location and size but also in shape. Some have nearly circular
(compact) shapes, others have elongated (linear) shapes, and still others have truncated
(shortened) shapes. These shapes affect each country‘s administration, defense and economic
integration, both within the country and in respect to outside areas.

Ethiopia’s shape is of the compact type. Its shape is considered to be compact, or essentially
circular, because the extreme north-south and east-west spans of the country cover comparable
distances. You can easily see this approximate circularity in your school atlases and wall maps.

There are three theoretical indicators of the compactness of an area:

 the boundary-circumference ratio (B/C)

 the area-boundary ratio (A/B)
 the actual area-area of the inscribing circle (A/A')
Each of these theoretical assumptions is based on a value of 1 as indicating a perfectly compact
shape. They consider 0.5 –1.5 values as deviating only slightly from circular/compact and
therefore indicating approximate compactness. In contrast, smaller values indicate greater
divergence from compactness, especially as they approach zero (0). These small values reflect
tendencies to elongation or truncation. For example, let’s use the boundary-circumference ratio
to measure Ethiopia’s degree of compactness or index of compactness. In the ratio,
circumference is based on an inscribing circle that touches the north, south, east and west
boundaries of Ethiopia described earlier in the “Absolute (Astronomical) Location” section.

The inscribing circle is the circle drawn through the extreme points on the boundary of Ethiopia.
The radius is obtained by taking half the length of the distance between the astronomical
extremes of west and east of Ethiopia i.e., 480E – 330E = 150/2 = 7030’ (this is radius of the
inscribing circle). Then, change the obtained length (7o30') into kilometers: 10 = 110.5 km 7030' ×
110.5 km = 828.75 km.

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The value obtained, 1.01, indicates that Ethiopia’s shape to be nearly a perfect compact shape.
The value obtained indicates that Ethiopia’s shape deviates by only 32% from being perfectly
compact. Therefore, Ethiopia’s shape is closer to the compact type than to either of the other
shapes.

3.3.2. Geological Structure and Relief of the Horn of Africa

The geological history of the Horn cannot be separated from the geological history of Africa. It
deals with various geographic activities that have occurred for many millions of years in the past.
The geological history of the Horn shows us that four major geological eras have elapsed. Each
era is divided into periods, and each period is sub-dived into epochs. Each geological era is
distinguished from the others, based on grounds of the following three characteristics:
 the relative positions of the continents
 the character of the prevailing climate
 the predominant life form
Summary of Major Geological Events in the Horn
Let’s begin by considering the different geological eras and then study the events that took place
in those eras. Here are the geological eras, in chronological order.
 Precambrian Era – the oldest era (from 4.5 billion years to 600 million years ago;
 Paleozoic Era (from 600 million years to 250 million years ago)
 Mesozoic Era (from 250 million years to 70 million years ago)
 Cenozoic era (from 70 million years to the recent time)
The Precambrian Era (from 4.5 Billion to 600 Million years ago)
What do you understand by the term Precambrian? The Precambrian Era is the oldest and longest
geological era, covering about 5/6 of the earths geological time. The following geological events
occurred in the Horn during this era.
 frequent orogenic movements
 intensive volcanic activities
 denudation during the later periods
 formation of folded mountain ranges in a NNE – SSW direction
During the Precambrian era
 The first forms of life emerged, such as amoeba, and jellyfish.

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  The oldest rock formed – the old crystalline basement. This rock underlies all other
rocks.
Today, in a few areas of Ethiopia, outcrops of old crystalline basement complex rocks are found
on the surface, due to continuous denudation.
Example:
 In central and northern Tigray.
 In Mettekel, Assossa, Illubabor and the Abbay.
 In central Sidama, southern Omo, southern Bale and Borena.
 In central, western and northern Eritrea.
The Paleozoic Era (from 600 Million – 250 Million years ago)

 Which life form was dominant in the Paleozoic era?

 The main geological events of the Paleozoic era were denudation and peneplanation. No
significant structural formation took place. The massive denudational activity resulted in
the formation of inselbergs in some parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The Paleozoic era is known for the predominance of invertebrates.

Mesozoic Era (from 250 Million – 70 Million years ago) an Era of Reptiles

 Which life form was dominant in the Mesozoic era?

 The most important geological occurrences of the Mesozoic era in the Horn were the
sinking and uplifting of the landmass.

The landmass sank during the Mesozoic’s Triassic and Jurassic periods:

 In the Triassic Period, the landmass sank due to internal forces. This event was followed
by transgression of a nearby sea into the mainland of today’s Somalia, and southeastern
Ethiopia.
 During the Triassic Period, the oldest sedimentary rock known as Adigrat sandstone was
formed. In the Jurassic Period, the transgression of the sea continued into the mainland in
the northwest direction. This event deposited another sedimentary rock known as Hintalo
limestone.

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  In the Cretaceious Period, the landmass began to rise and the sea started to regress towards
the southeast, depositing sedimentary rock known as Upper Sandstone. Upper Sandstone
is the youngest sedimentary rock, and therefore overlies the rest. Because of the direction
of the regression and deposition, Upper Sandstone is the youngest and thinnest in the
southeast, and is the oldest and thickest in the northwest.

The Mesozoic Era was an era of sedimentary rock formation in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The deposited sandstones vary in age and thickness from the northwest to the southeast
direction.
 The Adigrat sandstone is older and thicker in the southeast and progressively decreases in
age and thickness to the northwest.
 The transgression of the sea extended up to northwestern Ethiopia, as far as central Tigray
and the western slopes of the western highlands.
 The sedimentary rocks formed in the Mesozoic Era were later buried by overlying
Cenozoic igneous rocks. However, the sedimentary rocks have been exposed at the
surface in some areas of Ethiopia. They are thinnest (because they are the youngest) in the
southeast and thickest (because they are the oldest) in the northwest.
 One can see them exposed at the surface mostly in the south eastern lowlands of Ethiopia,
central Tigray, and in the Abbay and Wabishebelle gorges. (For more information, look at
the geological map of Ethiopia.)
Biological Events of the Mesozoic Era
The Mesozoic is also known for the predominance of reptiles. Huge reptiles, such as dinosaurs,
were dominant. However, at the end of this era, two other significant biological events occurred:
 Disappearance of the dinosaurs, and
 Emergence of mammals, birds and flowering plants.
The Cenozoic Era (from 70 Million to Recent Years)
Do you know the era in which the human form of life appeared? The Cenozoic is the most recent
geological era. Very significant structural, climatic and biological events have occurred in the
Horn. In order to make things simple and easily comprehendible, we shall discuss only the
geological events of this era into events of the Tertiary and Quaternary Periods.
Geologic Events of the Tertiary Period - (70 million - 2 million years ago)

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In the Tertiary Period, the uplifting that began in the Cretaceous Period of the Mesozoic Era
continued and reached its maximum height. In Ethiopia and the Horn it formed huge blocks of
dome over the greater part of the region. As the uplifting continued through time, great cracks
opened in the crust and resulted in the pouring out of extensive basaltic lava (known as the
Trappean lava series). The lava resulted in the formation of:
 The Eritrean Highlands
 The Northwestern Highlands
 The Southeastern Highlands
 The Somali plateaus
As the cracking continued during the period, it formed the Great East African Rift Valley System
of which the Ethiopian Rift Valley System is part.
Geologic Events of the Quaternary Period (2 million - recent years)
In the Quaternary Period, these structures were formed in Ethiopia and the Horn:
 The Afar Horst that extends into Djibouti
 The active volcano of Ertalle in Afar
 The dormant volcanic mountain of Fentalle in Eastern Oromia
 The extensive lava field of Methara.
Climatic Events in the Cenozoic Era
In addition to the geological events that happened in this period, a significant change of climate
took place in the Horn and Ethiopia. A massive flood, called the pluvial period, occurred. This
flood formed deep gorges, moraines and lacustrine deposits. One good example of the deep
gorges formed as the result of the flood is the Abbay gorge.
 It is believed that Lake Langano, Lake Abijata and Lake Shalla were one sheet of water
during the time of the pluvial period. The same is believed true of lakes Abbaya and
Chamo. Today these lakes are widely separated.
 The Cenozoic Era in its Quaternary Period is assumed to be the period in which
modern man evolved.
Here is a simplified presentation of the rock profile in Ethiopia and the Horn:

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The relief of Ethiopia
Look at the relief map of the Horn of Africa. It shows high mountains and extensive lowlands
mostly found at the coasts and the Great East African Rift Valley that diagonally bisects the
region and stretches to East Africa.
In terms of the geological and structural features that resulted from the two types of forces, the
relief of Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three main physiographic divisions:
 Highlands
 The Rift Valley
 The lowlands
The Highlands of the Horn
Highlands are lands with altitudes of over 1000 meters above sea level (masl). The Horn’s
highlands are:
1. The Northwestern Highlands
2. The Southeastern Highlands
1. The Northwestern Highlands of the Horn
The Northwestern Highlands of the Horn stretch from Ras Kassar in Eritrea to the highlands of
GamoGoffa in southwestern Ethiopia. They are separated from the southeastern highlands by the
Rift Valley, which is part of the Great East African Rift Valley. They consist of:
 The Plateau of Eritrea
 The Plateau of Tigray
 The North Central Massifs
 The Plateau of Shewa
 The Southwestern Highlands

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The Plateau of Eritrea
The plateau of Eritrea is located between the course of the Barka River and the coastal plain of
Eritrea. It is bisected by the upper basin of the Mereb River. The plateau is capped by basaltic
rocks.
The Plateau of Tigray
Is the plateau of Tigray contemporary to the other plateaus of Ethiopia?
The Plateau of Tigray is the most northerly plateau in Ethiopia. It is separated from the Eritrean
plateau by the Mereb River. It lies to the southeast of the upper course of the Mereb/Gash River
and to the northeast of Tekkeze River Gorge. It is an area composed largely of sandstones and
limestones, as the overlying basalt have been eroded. As a result, the soils are poor and thin. The
plateau has been exposed to severe erosion due to long periods of human inhabitation.
There are very high mountains on this plateau with elevations of over 3000 meters above sea
level. Three of these are:
 Mount Tsibet – 3988 m.a.s.l
 Mount Ambalage – 3291 m.a.s.l
 Mount Assimba – 3248 m.a.s.l
The North-Central Massifs
What makes the Northern central massifs distinct from the massifs of central Ethiopia?
These are the most rugged and dissected plateaus of Ethiopia. They are capped by basalts and
surrounded by deep gorges. Within each of the plateaus are small arable lands known as ambas.
The ambas are isolated from one another by gorges. The Tekezze, together with its tributaries, is
the main river that drains the region. Tekezze River has divided the North Central Massif area
into western and eastern massifs, which are connected by the Yejju-Wadla-Dilanta plateau. The
western massifs make up the massifs of South Gondar (Semein), while the eastern ones make up
the Lasta and Wollo Massifs. South of these is found the Gojjam Massif. The Semein Massif is
dominated by Ras Dashen, while the eastern forms the watershed of the Nile drainage basin.
The Gojjam Massif is the most extended tableland and is comparatively less dissected. It is
formed on the core of the Amedamit-Choke Mountains. It is carved by the Abbay River that
effectively separated it from the Shewa plateau in the south and the Amahara Saynt Massif in the
northeast. The North-Central Massifs are made up of numerous high mountains. They are known
for the production of cereals, such as teff, pulses and oil seeds.

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Famous mountain peaks on these massifs are
 Mt. Ras Dashen (In Semein) – 4620 Masl
 Mt. Legeda (In Gondar) – 4532 Masl
 Mt. Analu (In Gondar) – 4480 Masl
 Mt. Tefaw Lezer (In Gondar) – 4456 Masl
 Mt. Kolo (In Lasta) – 4300 Masl
 Mt. Guna (In Gondar) – 4231 Masl
 Mt. Abuna Yoseph (In Lasta) – 4190 Masl
 Mt. Hey (In Gondar) – 4154 Masl
 Mt. Birhan (In Gojjam) – 4100 Masl
The Plateau of Shewa
Have you ever had the opportunity to travel from Addis Ababa to Debre Markosor Bahir Dar? If
yes, what do you recognize all the way through until you reach the Abbay Gorge? The Shoan
Plateau is a dome-shaped plateau that serves as a watershed between the Awash and Abbay
River basins. It extends westwards into western Wellega through Horo Guduru and forms a
crescent shape which causes the Abbay to swerve and drain northwards. The Shoan plateau is
separated
 from the plateau of Gojjam by the Abbay gorge in the north
 from the southeastern highlands by the Awash River and the Rift Valley.
 from the Highlands of Keffa by the Ghibe River.
The Plateau of Shewa is drained by the tributaries of the Abbay River in the west and the Awash
River in the east. Its high mountains are found on its northeastern and south eastern margins;
they are:
 Mt. Abbuye Meda (on the northeastern margin) – 4000 masl
 Mt. Guraghe (on the southeastern margin) – 3721 masl
The Southwestern Highlands of the Horn
Which regional zones are found in the southwestern highlands of the Horn? These include the
highland areas of Wellega, Illubabor, Gamo Goffa and Keffa. These Ethiopian highlands lie
south of the Abbay trough which is greatly eroded due to torrential rain that pours down on in the
area for almost all of the year. It is the wettest region of the country with a total average annual
rainfall of above 1500 mm.
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The region is drained:
 Northwards, by the Dabus and Diddeessa tributaries of the Abbay River
 Westwards, by the headstreams of the Baro-Akobo River
 Southwards, by the Omo-Ghibe River, which ends in Lake Turkana
 Eastwards, by the right-bank tributaries of the Omo-Ghibe (the Gojeb-Ghibe River of
Jima and Yem zone)
The general elevation of these highlands is relatively low, when compared to that of the Northern
and Eastern Highlands. Only a few areas are above 2500 meters.
The highest points in the region are the:
 Gamo-Konso Highlands (in GamoGoffa)
 Maji-Korma Highlands (in Keffa Zone)
 Kulo-Konta Highlands (Keffa zone)
 Benishangul mountain (in Benshangul Gumuz)
 Tullu Wallel (in West Wellega)
Mt Gughe has the highest altitude: 4200 masl. It is found in the Gammo plateau.
The Southeastern Highlands of the Horn
The Southeastern Highlands of the Horn include the plateaus of
 Hararghe
 Sidama
 Arsi
 Bale
 Somali highlands
Their formation is similar to that of the North and Southwestern Highlands; and they are capped
by basaltic rock. They are the main sources of the Wabishebelle and Genalle rivers. They are
bounded:
 in the west, by the fault line of the Rift Valley
 in the east, by the Ogaden Lowlands
 in the south by the Elkerie and Borena Lowlands.
These highlands are subdivided into the plateaux of Hararghe, Arsi, Bale and Sidama. Each is
discussed in turn as follows.

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  The Plateau of Hararghe
The Plateau of Hararghe rises sharply from the fault line of the Rift Valley and extends gently to
the east up to Jijiga. After Jijiga, a fall in elevation takes place, giving way to the Ogaden
Lowlands. The Plateau is drained by the left-bank tributaries of the Wabishebelle River. The
basaltic rocks have been worn away, exposing limestones and earlier sedimentary rocks.
The Hararge Plateau area and its foothills are significant producers of coffee, chat, sorghum and
millet. The highest points of this plateau are Mount Gara Muleta (3381 masl) and Mount Jebel
Tita (3122 masl).
 The Plateau of Arsi
This plateau area consists of the Gugu and Chillalo Massifs. It is an extendingly rolling plateau;
it is a very suitable plateau for farming. These features are due to the fact that erosion on the Arsi
plateau has been comparatively low. The Arsi plateau is known for its wheat. The highest points
on the Arsi plateau are Mount Chillallo (4136 masl), Mount Bada (4139 masl) and Mount Kaka
(4180 masl).
 The Bale Massif
The Bale Massif is next to the Arsi Plateau but is separated from it by the headstreams of the
Wabishebelle River (popularly known as the Wabe). In the north, the massif consists of a flat
form that is similar to basaltic plateaus. In the south, the massif consists of huge mountains. The
Bale Massif is dominated by
 Mount Tulu Dimtu (4377 masl)
 Mount Batu (4307 masl)
 The Plateau of Sidama
This plateau area is next to the Bale Massifs, but is separated from them by the Genalle River.
The area constitutes the southwest extension of the southeastern highlands. The plateau slopes
away gently to the south and is drained by the Dawa River and its tributaries. The Jemjem is the
dominant part of the plateau.
 The Somali Highlands
The highlands are the extension of the southeastern highlands of Ethiopia. Their average altitude
doesn’t exceed 1500 masl. They rise gently in the west and descend sharply to the Indian Ocean
coasts.
The Rift Valley System

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The Ethiopian Rift Valley System is part of the Horn’s Rift Valley System, which is part of the
Great East African Rift System. The Great East African Rift System is a set of fractures in the
earth’s crust that extend from the Dead Sea in the north, through the Red Sea, and then across
East and Central Africa to Mozambique in the south.
Major faulting and rifting took place at the end of the Tertiary Period of the Pleistocene Epoch as
a result of tectonic epeirogenic activity. These events formed the Great East African Rift System.
Let’s now consider the Ethiopian Rift Valley System. It has been the scene of intense volcanic
activity and minor faulting. Even today, active volcanic activity exists there. It is therefore, the
most unstable physiographic division of the area. As you can see in the following map, the Rift
Valley runs diagonally from northeast to southwest and divides Ethiopia east-to-west. It covers a
total length of 1700 kilometers in Ethiopia and Eritrea.

Subdivisions of the Ethiopian Rift Valley System

Covering a length of 1700 km, the Ethiopian Rift Valley System comprises 18 percent of the
country’s total area. It is subdivided into three main parts:
 The Afar Triangle (northern)
 The Main Ethiopian Rift (central)
 The Chew-Bahir Rift (southern)
 The Afar Triangle (Northern Subdivision)
The northern subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift Valley System, i.e., the Afar Triangle, is the
largest and widest part of the system. Its altitude is generally low, ranging from 116 meters
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below sea level at the Kobar Sink to about 900 meters above sea level at Awash. This part of the
Ethiopian Rift System is characterized by
 Faulted depressions (the Dallol Depression) and grabens (also called troughs)
 Volcanic mountains.
Also, a large part of the area is covered by extensive salt plains and lakes (Lake Assale and Lake
Afrera). The Afar triangle is bounded by parallel fault lines on the east and west. Its floor is
made up of: grabens such as the Tendaho Graben volcanic ash and lava deposits; Lacustrian and
fluvial deposits, and Volcanic Mountains Such As Mount Fentalle.
What is more, the Afar Triangle has special characteristics that do not exist in other regions of
Ethiopia do not bear. It consists of:
 Fossil rich sediments
 Rich archeological sites which have shown us that the area was the home of the ancient
ancestors of primates and hominids.
 The Main Ethiopian Rift (Lake Region or Central Part)
The central subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift system, i.e., the Main Ethiopian Rift, covers the
area from the lower Awash basin up to Lake Chamo. This subdivision is the most elevated part
of the Ethiopian Rift Valley. It is also the wettest, most densely vegetated, and most densely
populated. Sedentary farming is practiced here. The area also includes numerous lakes of
enormous aesthetic value.
 The Chew-Bahir Rift (Southern Subdivision)
The southern subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift system, the Chew-Bahir Rift, is also known as the
OmoGhibe trough. It is the smallest section of the Ethiopian Rift System. It consists of an
extensive shallow marshy area covered by tall grasses. In the vicinity of Arba Minch, this part of
the Ethiopian Rift valley system is split into the Ganjuli and the Galena Valleys by the Amaro
mountain range.
The Lowlands of the Horn
These landform divisions occupy the peripheries of Ethiopia on its eastern and western sides,
running from north to south. They are generally below the 1000 meter contour line and have
relatively harsh and very hot climates. The lowlands more than 35 percent of the total area of the
country. They are inhabited mainly by pastoralists.
The lowlands of the Horn are subdivided into

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-Western lowlands - Southeastern lowlands
 The Western Lowlands
These lowlands extend from western Eritrea in the north up to the Omo-Ghibe River in the south,
bordering the Sudan. They have a general elevation of 500 – 1000 masl.
These lowlands are sub-divided into
 The Setit and Barka Lowlands (in Eritrea)
 The Tekezze and Angereb Lowlands (in Tigray and Amhara regions)
 The Abbay Dinder Lowlands (in Benishangul and the Gumuz Region)
 The Baro-Akobo Lowlands (in Gambella)
 The Omo-Ghibe Lowlands (in SNNP)
The Western Lowlands are characterized by arid and semi–arid conditions. The Baro-Akobo
lowland is the wettest lowland. Because of climatic hardship in most parts of these lowlands, the
communitiespractice nomadic and semi-nomadic pasturalist ways of life. However, there are
notable towns, such as Humera, Kurmuk, Omedla and Metema that serve as business centers for
the communities living along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
 The Southeastern Lowlands

Like the Western Lowlands, the Northeastern and Southeastern Lowlands run from northwest to
southeast. They begin in Djibouti and run all the way to Somalia in the southeast, bordering the
Indian Ocean. They consist of

 Red Sea coastal plains (in Eritrea)

 Afar plains (in Afar) which are included in the Afar Triangle.
 Ogaden plains (in Somali region)
 Elkeri plains (in Bale)
 Borena plains (in Oromiya)
 Benadir plains (in Somalia)
 Djibouti

These lowlands are highly extensive lowlands. They are characterized by low annual rainfall-
often below 500 mm. Most of these lowlands are covered by sandstones and recent marine
deposits. The people practice a pastoralist way of life because of the harsh climate.

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3.3.3. Climate of Ethiopia
Distribution of Major Elements of Climate in Ethiopia Temperature Distribution
Temperature in Ethiopia is determined primarily by altitude and latitude. Ethiopia lies within the
tropics, a zone of maximum insolation, where every place has overhead sun twice a year.
However, considerable portions of Ethiopia are highland areas, and their altitudes give them non-
tropical temperatures. Ethiopia’s tropical climate occurs in lowlands at the country’s peripheries.
Away from the peripheral lowlands, the land begins to rise gradually and considerably,
culminating in peaks in various parts of the country. The highlands form the heartland of the
country. Thus temperature in most of the center of the country is affected by altitude, and
temperature essentially decreases from Ethiopia’s peripheries towards the interior. Ethiopia
experiences both hot and cold extremes of temperature.
Daily Temperatures: Ethiopia’s daily temperatures are more extreme than its annual averages.
In terms of spatial distribution, Ethiopia’s daily maximum temperature varies from a high of
more than 37oC over the lowlands of the northeast and of the southeast to a low of about 10oC-
15oC over the highlands of Ethiopia. In terms of temporal distribution, the months of March,
April and May are generally the hottest throughout the country.
Monthly Temperatures: Ethiopia’s monthly temperatures also exhibit extremes. The lowest
monthly minimum temperatures mostly occur over the highlands of the country. Most of the
highlands experience mean minimum temperatures as low as 0ºC between November and
January (Bega season). The highest mean monthly minimum temperature (20ºC - 30ºC) is
observed in the Dallol Depression. The lowest mean monthly minimum temperature (0ºC or less)
occurs in January in the highlands in the northwest (Gonder and Gojam), central (Shewa) and
southeast (Arsi-Bale), and the highest (30ºC) occurs in the lowlands of the western, southeastern
and northeastern areas.
Annual temperatures: Mean annual temperature varies from a low of about 10oC, in the
northwest, central and southeast highlands, to a high of about 35oC at the country’s northeastern
edges, which contain the Dallol (Denakil) Depression. As you can again infer, altitude is the
most important temperature-controlling factor in Ethiopia.
Temperature Ranges
Daily (diurnal) temperature range: In the northern hemisphere, during the winter months of
December, January and February, the sun apparently shifts to the southern hemisphere and

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Ethiopia experiences its bega season. During this period, the sky is clear, without blanketing
cloud cover to retain heat or cold on earth. Therefore, during the day the heat from the sun is
intense. But at night, because of the clear sky and relatively longer nights, temperature drops
very low. Reflecting such clear-sky conditions, Ethiopia’s daily temperature range is greatest
during bega in most parts of the country.
Annual temperature range: Ethiopia’s annual temperature range is the highest in the lowlands,
and it decreases with increasing altitude.
Distribution of Rainfall

Overall, mean annual rainfall ranges from over 2200 mm in pockets of areas in the southwestern
high lands to less than 400 mm over the northeast and southeastern lowlands of the country
(Figure). However, the low end of the range is much less in the southeast lowlands, the Ogaden
area, standing at 200 mm. In the northeast lowlands, the Afar region, it is even less than 100 mm.
The map shows that southwestern Ethiopia is the region of heaviest rainfall. It is the wettest part
of the country, with only two to four dry months in a year. The mean annual rainfall for
southwestern Ethiopia is about 1500 mm, but in some areas it is much higher – reaching up to
2800 mm in Mocha, southwestern parts of Gore and Arjo. Also well over the national average,
mean annual rainfall can exceed 2000 mm in parts of Gimira and Kafa, Limu, Gore, Buno
Bedele, Sore and Geba and the southern extreme of Gimbi. The adjoining western lowlands of
Gambella and Assossa and Benishangul, which are found on the windward sides of the western
highlands, receive over 1000 mm of annual rainfall.
From the southwest, mean annual rainfall gradually decreases towards the northeast and east. In
central and north-central Ethiopia, the annual amount is moderate, about 1100 mm. But, there are
some pockets where annual rainfall reaches over 2000 mm. These include the western parts of
Awi zone, and parts of Metekel and Kola Dega Damot. In parts of northern Gonder and central
Wegera and central Semien, the mean annual exceeds 1600 mm. In southeastern Ethiopia, the
mean annual rainfall is about 700 mm. However, this amount varies from over 2000 mm in
Jemjem, and over 1200 mm in parts of Genale and Dolo in the Bale zone and parts of Webera in
Harerge, to less than 400 mm in most of the Ogaden area. In northern Ethiopia, including Tigray
and Wollo, the mean annual rainfall is about 500 mm, but in some areas it rises to over 1200
mm.

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Seasonal Pattern of Rainfall
Summer Rainfall
As the ITCZ (Inter - Tropiacal convergence zone, zone of convergence of north east and south
east trade winds) drifts towards the north in northern hemisphere summer (Keremt), the
equatorial westerly winds from the South Atlantic Ocean invade most parts of Ethiopia, while
the trade winds from the north retreat from the country. The ITCZ’s southward drift marks the
onset of the trade winds from the north, which causes the retreat of the equatorial monsoons.
Such periodical shifts in the flow pattern of winds causes rainfall to be variable and seasonal in
Ethiopia.
Rainfall in Ethiopia is seasonal, varying in amount over space and time. There is the long and
heavy summer rain, which is normally referred to as “the big rain” or keremt. There are also
short and moderate rains in autumn (Tebi), winter (Bega) and spring (Belg). They are
collectively called “the little rains”. In contrast to the rest of Ethiopia, southwestern Ethiopia gets
rain for a long period that stretches usually for more than eight to ten months.
Other regions, for instance the southeastern lowlands, receive rain twice a year. These rainy
seasons do not correspond with keremt or bega. In most of highland Ethiopia, the main rainy
season is in summer (June to September), when the ITCZ is to the north of Ethiopia. During this
season, the whole country with the exception of a few places is under the influence of the
southwest equatorial westerly winds from the South Atlantic Ocean or of the south easterly
winds from the Indian Ocean.
Effects of the southwest equatorial westerly winds: The southwest equatorial westerly winds
originate from the South Atlantic Ocean, and they blow over the humid regions of the Gulf of
Guinea, the Congo basin and Central Africa on their way to Ethiopia. When these winds
approach Ethiopia they encounter highlands. When they start ascending over the highlands, they
cause heavy rain in southwestern Ethiopia because they are moisture - laden. However, the
amount of rainfall gradually decreases as the winds move north and northeastwards.
Highland Ethiopia receives the widest coverage of these keremt rains, though the amount that
falls in different areas varies. The southwest experiences the longest Keremt rain. Keremt lasts
for only two to three months in the extreme northeast highlands. The eastern escarpments of the
northeastern highlands and associated lowlands (the Afar region) remain dry, because they are in
what is called a rain shadow.

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Effects of the southeasterly winds: The southeasterly winds that originate from the Indian
Ocean blow over Ethiopia’s southeastern highlands and associated lowlands. However, these
winds lose their moisture over the East African highlands before they reach Ethiopia. Therefore,
the country’s southeastern highlands and associated lowlands that receive the winds remain
relatively dry.
Winter Rainfall
In winter the ITCZ shifts farthest south. Most of Ethiopia comes under the influence of North
East Trade winds, which originate from west Asian high pressure centers. These winds are cold
and dry, and they carry little or no moisture, giving most of the country a dry winter. Only the
Red Sea coastal plains, including parts of the Afar region, receive rain. This rain is little in
amount, and is due to the area’s proximity to the Red Sea.
Another exception to this lack of rain is southwestern Ethiopia. In winter this region is still under
the influence of the equatorial westerly winds, although they are now weak. The moderate rain
they supply to the region at this time is the area’s smallest annual amount.

Spring and Autumn Rainfall

In spring the ITCZ drifts to the north and lies across Ethiopia. At this time, a strong low-pressure
cell develops over the Sudan. This center attracts.

 Winds from the Gulf of Aden

 Indian Ocean highs

These moist south easterly winds blow across central and southern Ethiopia, and they produce
the big rains in southeastern Ethiopia. The same winds produce the little rain of spring for the
east central part of the northwestern highlands. These rains are often called Belg rain. Spring is
the major rainfall season in the southeastern highlands and associated lowlands (Ogaden, Borena
of Oromia and the South Omo zone). The area’s second rainfall season is in autumn. In the
southeast peripheral lowlands, the towns of Moyale and Kelafo also receive their rainfall in
spring and autumn. Moyale’s annual rain is about 1000 mm. Kelafo’s is about 500 mm. For
Moyale, about 50% occurs in spring, and about 37% occurs in autumn. For Kelafo, the
percentage distribution are approximately 60% and 33% respectively.

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Major Climate Controls in Ethiopia

Many physical factors influence Ethiopia’s climates and their distribution. They are collectively
called controls of climate.

Ethiopia’s most important climate controls are

 Latitude
 Altitude
 Cloud cover

The above noted factors, together with other less important ones, determine the distribution of
climate in Ethiopia. As noted earlier, Ethiopia is located within the Tropics. Therefore, in
principle, it is a tropical country and might be expected to have tropical climate throughout.
However, since Ethiopia is a highland country, much of its climate is affected by altitude. It is
only in lowland areas that a tropical climate (Kolla) prevails. Altitude is the most important
climate control in the highland parts of the country. For instance, rainfall amount tends to
increase with altitude, while, in contrast temperature decreases with increasing elevation.
In Ethiopia’s highlands, cloud cover is another important climate control during the long rainy
season – June to September. Although this period has high sun, comparatively low temperatures
prevail due to the season’s cloud cover, which absorbs and reflects away much of the incoming
rays of the sun. The other period of high sun in Ethiopia is March to May. In the highlands, this
season is not characterized by cloud cover and its temperatures are relatively high. The northeast
and southeast lowlands have both low altitude and clear skies, and therefore their temperature is
high.

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Climate controls are factors that act on climate elements and produce different climate types. On
a global level, important climate controls include latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, ocean
currents, wind and air pressure, major and local relief, and sky conditions. In the Ethiopian
context, altitude and latitude are the most important determinants of climate. Although two
places might lie on nearly the same latitude, if their altitudes vary, they probably have large
temperature differences.
Main Seasons and Climatic Zones of Ethiopia
Main Seasons of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a tropical country. It is located completely within the tropical zone. Because of its
tropical location there is little variation in the length of days and nights. The maximum
difference, about 30 minutes, occurs in December and June. Many people of the country are not
aware of the differences. There are four main seasons per year: Keremt, Tseday, Bega and Belg.

Traditional Climatic Zones of Ethiopia

The traditional Ethiopian classification of climatic zones is based on altitude and temperature.
This system divides the nation into the following five major climatic zones: Bereha, Kolla,
Woina Dega, Dega and Wurch. Bereha: Bereha is the hot arid climate. Bereha is the climate of
the desert lowlands that are found below 500 m above mean sea level where the average annual
rainfall is less than 400 mm, and average annual temperature is over 30oC.
Bereha is usually characterized by strong wind, high temperature, low relative humidity, and
little cloud cover. Evapotranspiration is always in excess of rainfall in some places.
Kolla: Kolla is a (warm-to-hot semi-arid climate). Kolla is the climate of the hot lowlands with
an altitudinal range of 500 to 1500 m a.s.l. Average annual temperatures are between 20oC and

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30oC. Although mean annual rainfall ranges between 410 mm and 820 mm, it can be as high as
1600 mm in the wet western lowlands of Gambella. Rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
This region is intermediate between the hot arid climate and the humid climates.
Woina Dega: This is subtropical warm-to-cool semi-humid zone which corresponds to roughly
with what is commonly known as the warm temperate climate. Woina Dega has distinct dry and
wet months in winter and summer respectively.
The average annual temperature is between 15ºC and 20ºC, and annual rainfall is generally
around 1200 mm. Woina Dega covers the temperate highlands that fall with altitudes between
1500 m and 2300 m amsl. In the southwest, rainfall reaches 2400 mm.
Dega: Dega corresponds roughly with the temperate climate. Dega is the climate of the cool
temperate highlands. It covers a region with an altitude range of 2300 m to 3300 m amsl. The
coldest month is less than 10oC. The area experiences adequate rainfall. Rainfall ranges from
about 1000 mm, in most areas, to 2000 mm in higher altitudes.
Wurch: Wurch is a type of Alpine climate. The annual average temperature is less than 10ºC.
Annual rainfall is between 800 and 2000 mm. The zone exists at altitudes equal to or more than
3300 m amsl. This zone exists as afro-alpine areas on the highest areas of Ethiopia’s plateaus. It
is found in small isolated high areas such as the Senate plateaus (Bale zone), Semen mountains
(north Gonder), Mount Guna (south Gonder), Amara Saint (south Wollo), and the Choke
mountains (Gojam).

Drought in Ethiopia
Drought is a condition that happens when much less rain is received than is normally expected. It
is a period of abnormally dry weather that is sufficiently long enough to cause serious problems
for agriculture and other activities in the affected area. This extended period usually involves

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months or years during which the region receives consistently below-average rainfall. Drought is
one of the world’s major environmental hazards. It affects human and animal life
catastrophically, and it can cause severe crop failure.
Consequences of drought
Unless drought-causing conditions are reversed by putting into practice measures of mitigation,
drought can have adverse consequences both on the natural environment and on the socio-
economic life of the people in drought-prone areas. Some of the general consequences include
climate change, drying up of surface and subsurface water sources (ponds, streams, swamps,
reservoirs, lakes, etc.), decline in underground water tables, loss of soil moisture, crop failure,
starvation and famine, death of animals and human beings, lack of seeds, livestock and labor,
loss of biodiversity and environmental deterioration, desertification, rural out-migration, etc.
Although famine and starvation can result from drought, they are not its necessary consequences,
even though this has generally been the case in Ethiopia and other less developed countries.
Drought can happen anywhere in the world. But a countries’ ability to resist it is a function of
their developmental stage. Less developed countries like Ethiopia are highly vulnerable, and
affected by post-drought effects. In addition, their political, economic and social affairs are
highly influenced by drought and its product, famine. However, economical well-to-do countries
can manage drought and resist its after effects with their systems and wealth. A country under
the influences of drought and famine for long periods of time may develop dependency
syndrome.
This may lead to loss of self esteem and national pride and end up in longing for foreign
donations.
Drought-Prone Areas in Ethiopia
The three drought-probability zones of Ethiopia include:
i. High drought probability zone (zone III) covered about 25% of Ethiopia in 1988. This zone
includes the Bereha climatic zones of the largest part of the Somali and Afar regions, part of the
Tigray region, the eastern portion of the Amhara region, and the southern part of the Oromia
region.
ii. Medium drought probability zone (Zone II) covers part of the Somali, Oromia and Afar
regions, and small portions of the eastern Tigray and Amhara regions. It covers about 10% of the
country.

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iii. Low drought probability zone (Zone I) also covers about 16% of Ethiopia’s area, including
most of the semi-arid (Kolla) climatic zones. It includes part of the eastern highlands of Tigray
and Amhara regions, the eastern and southern parts of Harerge, a portion of the Bale, Borena and
Guji zones, and the southern portion of the south Omo zone.
Drought-Coping Mechanisms in Ethiopia
Geographers expect major droughts to reoccur in Ethiopia at about ten-year intervals and expect
minor droughts at two-year intervals. Hence, the Federal and Regional Governments, the
nation’s farming community and other stake holders, should make themselves ready for the
challenge of reoccurring drought and related problems by mobilizing the resources of rural
farming and pastoralist communities and government facilities to avert the situation by
implementing as many of these mitigation and adaptation measures as possible.
 Carefully planned land use to increase agricultural productivity and minimize erosion
 Encouraging farmers in the drier areas to plant crops that have low water-dependencies
 Drilling deep water wells, installing water pumps and building simple irrigation channels.
 Rainwater harvesting collecting and storing rainwater on various scales
 Recycling waste water for reuse after treatment and purifying
 Building reservoirs and canals and redirecting rivers as massive attempts at irrigation in
drought prone areas
 Instituting outdoor water-use restriction - regulating the water use of sprinklers or buckets
for watering outdoor plants, for filling pools, and for water-intensive home maintenance
tasks
 Planting trees in degraded areas
 Ensuring wise use of forest rangeland resources
 Maintaining reserves of food (for example, grains) and other facilities
 Limiting household size by regulating population growth
 Instituting water and soil conservation programs.
 Other measures include resettlement and rehabilitation of drought victims, the
distribution of seeds, oxen, fertilizers and livestock in pastoralist regions, and
construction of roads.

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3.3.4. Natural Vegetation and Wild Animals of Ethiopia
Types of Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
Natural vegetation refers to any original plant grown in and covering an area. The distribution of
natural vegetation is influenced by many factors. The most important ones are:
 Altitude
 Climate
 soil type, and
 drainage
The types of natural vegetation in an area are strongly determined by temperature and rainfall.
That is why the natural vegetation of an area is a good indicator of the area’s climatic conditions.
Natural Vegetation’s Relationship to Altitude and Rainfall
In Ethiopia, the types of the natural vegetation of an area are highly correlated with altitude and
rainfall, as they are with temperature. The lowlands have harsh environments due to low rainfall
and are characterized by xerophytic plants, while the highlands are characterized by different
types of tree stands and forests. Based on altitude, we can classify the natural vegetation of
Ethiopia into the following five types:
 Afro-alpine and sub-Afro alpine
 Forests
 Woodland savanna
 Steppe vegetation
 Desert and semi desert vegetation
1. Afro-Alpine and Sub Afro-Alpine Vegetation
This type of vegetation is found at very high altitudes (above 3300 meters). Afro-alpine and sub-
afro-alpine vegetation is very similar to European alpine vegetation. Sub-afroalpine vegetation is
found between 3000 – 3300 m, while Afroalpine vegetation is found at higher altitudes than
these. In Ethiopia, Afro-alpine and sub-Afro-alpine vegetations are found in the:
 Highlands of Semein and
 Highlands of Bale
Afro-Alpine vegetation consists of tussock grasslands, serules, scattered mosses and lichens.
SubAfro Alpines are predominantly woodland scrubs. Gibra (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) and Asta
(Erica arborea) are dominant plant species in this region of natural vegetation.

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2. Forests
In Ethiopia, forests are characterized by broad altitudinal ranges (450 – 3300 m) and large
variations in mean annual rainfall (200 – 2200 mm). This wide variation in altitude and rainfall
results in the formation of highland and lowland forests. These two types of forests have very
different characteristics since they are the results of altitudinal zonation.
A. Highland Forests (forests that grow between 1500 - 3300 masl altitude) Ethiopia’s
highland forests consist of
 Kerkha (Arundinarial) 2800 – 3000 masl
 Tid (Juniperous Procera) or Coniferous trees 2200 – 2800 masl
 Zigba (Podocarpus) 1800 – 2200 masl
 Woira (Oliia Africana) and Kosso (Hagenia Abbyssinia (1500 – 1800)
B. Lowland Forests (forests that grow below 1500 m altitude)
These forests are known as gallery/riverine forests. In Ethiopia, they grow along the banks of the
Awash, Wabishabelle, and Ghanalle Rivers where moisture is available in the soil. The
predominant trees are Sholla and Warka. In areas where mean annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm,
Baphia forest predominates.
3. Woodland Savanna
Like forests, Savanna woodlands are found in both highland and lowland areas. Their altitudinal
range is 250 – 2300 m, and their mean annual rainfall range is between 200 – 1400 mm.
(Example: acacia, grass etc.) However, such vegetation is dominant at lower elevations and drier
climates than the forests. Savanna grasslands experience marked seasons and are characterized
by scattered acacia trees.
In areas where mean annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm, these grasslands can form attractive
parklike areas with acacia, wild fig, sycamore and kosso trees. Ethiopia’s savanna grasslands are
found in the southern half of Ziway, Langano, Abiyatta and Hawassa.
4. Semi-desert and Desert Vegetation
Sem-idesert and desert vegetation consists of short acacia, thorn bushes, succulent plants and a
few rough grasses. In Ethiopia, vegetation of this kind is found in the Eastern, Northwestern and
Southeastern Lowlands, i.e., in areas where annual rainfall is below 500 mm and drought persists
for a long period of time.
Wild Animals of Ethiopia

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The diversity in Ethiopia’s topography, climate, and vegetation has given the country a wide
variety of wild animals. Ethiopia’s wild-animal stock is generally similar to that of East Africa as
a whole, due to topographic similarity and other aspects. Ethiopia has about 277 species of
mammals and 862 species of birds. Of these, seven species of mammals and twenty five species
of birds are endemic to Ethiopia.
Types of Wild Animals in Ethiopia
The many types of wild animals found in Ethiopia can be grouped into the following broad
categories.
 Common wild animals: These ones are animals commonly found in many places of the
world. Many areas of Ethiopia have many common wild animals, including the hyena and
the jackal.
 Game animals: These are animals that are killed for sport. Ethiopia’s game animals
include herbivores and carnivores. They are found in the lowlands.
 Arboreals: These animals are animals that climb up trees. Ethiopia’s arboreal animals,
such as the Colobus monkey and baboons, are mostly found in the rainforest regions of
Ethiopia.
 Aquatic animals: These creatures are animals that live in lakes and rivers. Example: Fish,
crocodiles and hippopotamus.
 Birds: Ethiopia has different kinds of both endemic and migratory birds; for example,
Pelicans and flamingoes.
 Rare/Endemic animals: These are wild animals found only in Ethiopia. These days
Ethiopia’s endemic animals exist in only very small numbers. They inhabit highland and
other areas. They are at great risk of extinction. The following are some of them.
 Walia Ibex (wild goat), found in the Semein highlands.
 Mountain Nyala (Dega Agazon), found in the Bale Mountains.
 ‘Gelada’ or ‘Chelad’ baboon, found in the Semein highlands.
 Menilik’s Bushbuk (‘Dikula’) in the Shoan and Bale highlands.
 Swayne’s Hartebeest (‘Korkay’), found in the Nechsar park and the Sankalle sanctuary.
 Semein Fox (‘Key Kebero’), found in the Bale and Semein Highlands.
 Wild Ass (Yedur Ahiya), found in the Afar and Southeast Lowlands.
Causes of the Extinction of Wild-Animals

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The main reasons for such conditions are the shrinking and destruction of habitats, which are
mainly forest land by way of:
 Rapid expansion of farmland, settlements, and industrialization
 Expansion of grazing land
 Wide spread practices of illegal hunting by the local people in search of meat, skin, fur,
horn and ivory.
 Frequent wild fires
 Migration of the wild animals to neighboring countries, due to shortages of food and
water in Ethiopia adds to their perpetual disappearance.
Conservation Measures
Here are some conservation measures that have been recommended:
 Establish national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries.
 Monitor and administer existing conservation areas properly.
 Establish and implement strong laws that effectively prohibit illegal hunting.
 Educate the public about environment protection.
 Protect habitats.
 Educate and encourage local communities to protect their animals’ habitats and
resources.
As you can see, some of these mitigation measures involve direct protection of the animals – for
example by establishing and properly administering protected areas; and by training people in
how to protect these areas.
Establishing Protected Parks, Reserves, and Sanctuaries.
National Parks: National parks are conservation areas for wild animals in which legal hunting is
allowed, with some restrictions. The Ethiopian National Parks are;

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 Table: Ethiopian National Parks

Game Reserves

Game reserves are wild-animal conservation areas where tourists are allowed to practice licensed
hunting. The game reserves of Ethiopia are listed in Table.

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Sanctuaries

Sanctuaries are wild-animal conservation areas where hunting is strictly prohibited. Example:
Afar Gewane.

Human Intervention in Forest Lands

One intervention is in deforestation. At the beginning of the 20th C, the forest cover of Ethiopia
was estimated at 40 percent of the entire country. Now it is less than 3 percent. This
deforestation rate is alarming. We estimate that Ethiopia loses 100,000 – 200,000 hectares of
forestland every year.
Causes of Deforestation
The main causes are:
 Unwise tree cutting for supplies and materials
 Overgrazing
 Slash-and-burn practices
 Fuel wood
 Furniture
 Construction etc.
Overgrazing: This is the practice of placing too MANY livestock on a given piece of land. The
activities of these animals strips the land bare. In addition to overgrazing pasture areas, people
are increasingly converting forest land to pasture land. This practice has expanded grazing land
at the expense of forest land – in other words, through deforestation.
Slash and burn practices: People are involved in slash-and-burn practices to clear forestland in
order to prepare it for farming. This practice essentially strips the forest bare by slashing (cutting
down and digging up) all or most of the trees and other vegetation and then burning the piles
away. Slash-andburn is also used to periodically strip an area of farmland in order to leave it
lying fallow to regain its nutrients. In Ethiopia, slashing and burning forests destroys a large area
of forest annually.
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This approach to gaining farmland is commonly practiced in southwestern Ethiopia. Expansion
of built up areas: Built-up areas are areas occupied by factories, residence, recreational sites etc.
Ethiopia’s expanding human population increasingly requires more area for housing and other
services. Some of the land that is converted to built-up areas is forestland.
Mitigation Measures
The following approaches have been suggested for slowing down and/or mitigating Ethiopia’s
rapid deforestation rate:
 Conservation
 Capacity building
 Institutional development
These approaches are described below. However, despite their having great potential, these
approaches alone are not enough. More ideas are needed, and sustained effort must be applied to
enhance the mitigation effort.
Conservation of Natural Vegetation
These conservation measures have been suggested for preserving Ethiopia’s forests:
 Reforestation – planting trees after every tree harvest.
 Afforestation – planting trees on bare and unproductive lands.
 Controlling burning practices (i.e., the slash-and-burn activities).
 Practicing agro-forestry.
 Reducing the use of fuel wood by adopting alternative sources of energy for household
consumption.
 Controlling overgrazing.
Capacity Building and Institutional Development
Here are some approaches to preserve Ethiopia’s forests through capacity building and
institutional development:
 Providing environmental education to enhance public awareness about the use and
management of natural vegetation.
 Developing forest-related curricula for schools, colleges, universities, forestry institutions,
and forestry-management institutions. Then implement those curricula.
 Supporting and protecting community forests by applying strict legal measures.
 Moderating the existing rapid rate of population growth

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  Facilitate community participation in combatting deforestation.
 Changing the life style of the people in terms of ongoing deforestation activities.
These goals must be vigorously implemented if we are to attain the country’s ongoing goal of
defeating deforestation. For example, the anti-deforestation rules and laws must be vigorously
executed by relevant agencies.

3.3.5. Soils of Ethiopia

Formation of Soils in Ethiopia
Soils are the uppermost loose or unconsolidated material overlying the earth’s crustal rocks. Its
major components are water, air, organic and inorganic minerals. It is a dynamic, natural and
complex substance which can support animals and plants.
Soils of Ethiopia owe their origin to:
 Parent rock material, which has been broken into small particles by way of weathering
and Natural decomposition
 Climatic conditions, which largely determine the speed and nature of the processes that
form the Soil; for example, extreme heat, or cold, could stop the work of bacteria, and the
amount of Moisture influences on several aspects of soil formation.
 Vegetation cover, which adds humus to the soils and renders support to the soil making
animals and bacteria
On the plateaus that make up extensive areas in north, north western, south western, and central
and south eastern Ethiopia the parent rocks are volcanic origin and experience sufficient rainfall.
The soils formed in these areas are red basaltic and black basaltic soils. Unlike the red basaltic
soils, the black soils have high clay content that makes the soil difficult for farming.
Types of Soil in Ethiopia
The soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks. According to the latest classification made by the FAO, there are eighteen classes of soil
in Ethiopia.
Here are the main soil types. They cover more than 85 percent of the country.
Nithosols (red basaltic soils): These soil types:
 cover about 12 percent of the country.
 are basically associated with high rainfall and are found in areas that were previously
covered with forest.

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  are predominant in the Western Highlands of Wellega, Keffa, Illubabor, the Southern
Highlands of Sidama, the Central and Western Highlands of Shoa, the Highlands of
Gojjam and the Eastern Highlands of Hararghe.
 are matured soils with deep profiles. They are highly leached and lack soluble minerals
like Sodium, Calcium, etc., but they are rich in iron and aluminum.
 are potentially good for farming and other agricultural practices since they are friable,
and have a stable structure; as a result,
 are the most widely cultivated soil type. They are the best soils for coffee, inset and
cereals.
Vertisols (black Basaltic soils): soil types of these sort:
 cover about 10 percent of the total land of Ethiopia.
 have high clay content; so, are sticky. For this reason and for poor drainage qualities,
such soils are difficult to be used for farming purposes.
 have excellent nutrients that could provide support for agriculture, but their poor drainage
 qualities limit their use for grazing purposes.
 are largely found in Arsi, Bale and central Hararghe, where there are pronounced wet and
dry seasons.
Acrisols: These soil types:
 are found associated with Nithosols.
 cover about 4.5 percent of the country.
 are widely found in the Southwestern Highlands of Ethiopia,where there is high rainfall.
 are extremely leached; and therefore, have low productivity capacity.
Cambisoils: Such soils:
 are soils that developed from the recent lava deposits of the Quaternary Period.
 are young and shallow.
 are found on the rugged and sloping terrain of the Plateau of Shoa (eastern escarpment)
and Chercher Highlands.
Regosols: These types:
 like the cambisols, are shallow and young; but they are coarse-textured.
 have low agricultural value.

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  are found in the Danakil and Ogaden plains.
Xerosols: These soils:
These soils are generally young and shallow, and are found in arid and semi-arid regions. They
have a weakly developed profile.
 are found extensively in the Northeastern escarpment, Northwestern and Southeastern
Lowlands.
 are characterized by high salt content and humus deficiencies.
 have little significance for agriculture except places where they could be irrigated.
Yermosols: Soils of this sort:
 are found in desert and semi-desert areas, as are xerosols.
 are salty, acidic and have a weakly-developed profile.
 are not suitable for cultivation, even when irrigated, due to their salty and acidic nature.
Luvisols: These soils:
 are well-developed in areas where there are clearly marked wet and dry seasons and when
leaching is not very high.
 are among the best soils, since they have good chemical nutrients.
 are intensively cultivated, except in areas that are steeply sloped or water-logged.
 are found around Lake Tana, and in the eastern part of the Northern Central Highlands
and in the Southern Lowlands.
Lithosols: Such soils:
 are similar to cambisols and regosols in their poor maturity and their location on steep
slopes.
 are found in areas of low precipitation.
 cover the escarpments of the Northeastern and Chercher Highlands.
Fluvisols: This type of soils:
 are soils that rivers have transported from highlands to lowlands.
 cover about 10 percent of the country’s total area.
 are associated with river, sea and lake deposits.
 have very good agricultural potential.

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  are found extensively in the lower regions of the Omo, Awash, Abbay and Baro-Akobo
Rivers.
Soil Problems and Conservation in Ethiopia
Ethiopia’s Soil Problem – Erosion
For countries like Ethiopia, where the mainstay of the peoples’ livelihood is agriculture, issues
related to soil are extremely important. Therefore, whatever setback happens must be carefully
handled. One such setback is erosion.
Soil Erosion by Running Water
Every year enormous quantities of soil are carried away by Ethiopia’s rivers to neighboring
countries. As a matter of fact, the main problem related to soil in Ethiopia is erosion by running
water.
Examples:
 River Abbay alone carries away 3000 – 4000 million cubic metric tons of soil annually.
 The Ethiopian highlands experience a loss of about 2000 tons of soil per square kilometer
per year.
Factors that Accelerate Soil Erosion in Ethiopia
It is known that natural and human-made factors accelerate soil erosion. Both natural and
human-made factors play a role in accelerating erosion.
Natural Factors
Two main natural factors contribute to soil erosion in Ethiopia.
 Topography: Many Ethiopian rivers set in motion from high places and have steep
profiles as they progress to lower altitudes. These conditions are highly conducive for
erosion to take place at ease.
 The heavy summer rains: Although most of Ethiopia’s rivers have very low flows during
the dry season, the heavy summer rains turn them into rushing torrents. The cracks that
have appeared during the dry seasons turn rapidly into deep gullies. These conditions
greatly facilitate the mechanical action of raindrops to wear away the surface soil,
eroding it deeply.

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Human-Made Factors
Human activities accelerate the soil erosion that is caused by the natural factors that we have just
considered. Here are some of the many ways in which people have contributed to the erosion of
the land that they depend on.
Deforestation: Most of the highlands of Ethiopia were once covered by forests. These forests
provided cover for the land and protected the soil from the physical action of rainfall.
Deforestation is progressing at a rapid rate and has become one of the main causes for Ethiopia’s
hastened erosion rate.
Bad cultivation practices: Bad cultivation practices also speed up erosion by making the soil
vulnerable to the natural forces that we have just described a few lines above. For example,
Over cropping – This is one bad cultivation practice. It is the act of planting an area too densely.
This approach to farming uses up the soil’s nutrients faster than natural processes can replenish
them and destroys the land’s fertility.
Over cultivation – This one entails tilling land every year. For example, in order to keep up with
increasing food requirements, people over-cultivate their lands. Too frequent tilling can remove
nutrients from the soil faster than natural processes can replenish them.
Slash and burn – With such a practice, people slash (cut down and dig up) all or most of an
area’s vegetation and then burn the results. In farming, this practice is sometimes used
periodically to strip an area before leaving it to lie fallow to regain its nutrients. However, since
the soil is now bare and therefore unprotected, the land is vulnerable to the forces of erosion.
Slash-and-burn techniques are also used to clear forestland in order to prepare it for farming, but
unwittingly exposing the soil for erosion.
Keeping too many livestock (overgrazing): Most areas used for pastoral activities are
overgrazed because too many animals have been kept there relative to their grass. The livestock
destroys the vegetation faster than it can replenish itself. When the vegetation is destroyed, the
land is laid bare and is therefore vulnerable to erosion. Goats are particularly damaging. They
destroy all kinds and parts of an area’s vegetation, including the roots.
Unscientific tilling: Most peasants do not use (being unaware) scientific farming techniques,
such as terracing and contour ploughing, which serve as checks against soil erosion.
Using inadequately maintained tracks and trails: Without adequate maintenance, frequently used
routes across the countryside can gradually change into deeply eroded gullies and eventually

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make them impassable, for they are partly eroded. Most of this destruction is caused by the
action of rain and other running water on the soil, which has been laid bare by continual foot and
vehicle traffic.
Conservation Measures to Combat Soil Erosion
Here are some conservation measures that have been recommended for minimizing soil loss by
erosion in Ethiopia.
 Reforestation – replanting trees immediately after tree harvesting;
 Afforestation of areas that are not used for cultivation, are along steep slopes that are
exposed to erosion.
 Proper terracing of slopes and are set a side for cultivation.
 Intercropping – this is the practice of growing two or more crops on the same field so
that the land is not exposed to erosion.
 Controlling livestock populations.
 Developing improved grass types that can feed more livestock.
 Installing fences to control the movement of grazing animals, thereby restricting their
activities and protecting the areas outside of the fences.
 Proper construction of tracks and routes so that drainage could not wash them easily.
 Constructing check dams.
 Installing shelter-belts and windbreaks in arid and semi-arid areas.
 Extending irrigation schemes along the major river basins and their tributaries so that
water will be available in proper quantities at proper times. This measure would
alleviate both drought and flood conditions. Stored water would be used during dry
periods, and flood waters would be controlled and therefore would no longer be
destructive or wasteful.

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 UNIT FOUR

4. HUMAN POPULATION
4.1 Concept and Facts about Human Population
Human population is the number of people living in a definite area. It is all of the people living
in a specified area-such as a city, region, country, or continent-at a given time. Population is one
of the most critical factors that determine the socio-economic and environmental conditions of
every country in the world.
The study of human population is also necessary for development and socio-economic activities.
For example, population is the major source of the labor force for the productive and non-
productive economic sectors, such as agriculture, manufacturing, teaching, health services, etc.
Human population is also the main productive force and creator of material wealth. This makes
the study of population extremely important for the overall socio-economic development of a
country.
In geography, population geography is:-
 A branch of human geography that usually focuses on the spatial patterns and variations
of the various characteristics of human populations.
 Particularly emphasizes the spatial dimensions of population size, structure, composition,
distribution, settlement, density, migration, growth, and other demographic processes and
facts.
 Considers demographic facts in terms of their present contexts and causes, characteristics
and possible consequences to the geographical environments (i.e., both the physical and
cultural environment).

4.1.1. Sources of Population Data

Population data refers to population information, such as number, age, marital status, births and
deaths, occupation, religion, educational status, and other characteristics of the human
population. Such information is vital for studying the different aspects of the human population.
That is why we say that studying human population is dependent on reliable population data.
Statistical information about human population is obtained through a variety of ways.
Population information is important for many reasons. The data acquired through various
methods is used for many purposes that include the following.

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  It provides statistical information for making decisions related to social and economic
affairs.
 It indicates future requirements of the population in terms of social, health, education,
employment and other socio-economic needs.
 It helps policy makers to forecast the needs of the population and to understand how to
meet them.
The following are among the most commonly used methods of gathering information about
human populations.
 Population census
 Sample survey
 Vital registration
I. Population Census
Censuses are the main source of population data in many countries including Ethiopia. The
history of census goes back to ancient times in places such as Rome, Greece, Palestine, India,
etc. Census is usually defined as “The total process of collecting, analyzing, compiling and
publishing demographic, economic and social data of all persons in a country or delineated
territory at a specified time.” In other words, it is the official counting of all the people of a
certain geographical area with a well-defined boundary so as to collect socioeconomic and
demographic information about the population.
Census provides a wealth of demographic and socio-economic data. The size, growth rate,
fertility and mortality characteristics, marital status, employment situations, religion, ethnicity,
income, educational status, housing conditions, sex and age structures and much more
information about the population of a given area can be obtained through census.
In Ethiopia, the census is one of the most important ways of collecting population data. So far,
three censuses have been taken. The first was in 1984, the second in 1994 and the last one in
2007. Census in Ethiopia is conducted every ten years.
The Main Features of Census
The following are the main features that distinguish census from the rest of the sources of
population data.

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  Government Sponsorship: It is the responsibility of the national government to provide
or seek the resources necessary to conduct census. Obtaining them requires adequate
legislative support or legal authority.
 Defined territory: census refers to specified geographical unit such as state, country, or
province. The unit needs to have its own demarcation or boundaries.
 Universality: Enumeration must include every person within the scope of the territory
without omission or duplication. Census of population usually try to count everyone in
the country as of a fixed day, often known as Census Day.
 Simultaneity: The census should have a specific well-defined time, and it should be
conducted simultaneously throughout the country.
 Individual Units: in censuses, data is collected on an individual basis. The information
that is obtained normally relates to individuals rather than groups. It is compiled and
published.
 Periodicity: Ideally, census should be taken at certain specified time interval, usually
every ten or five years. For example, in the United States and Ethiopia, census is
conducted every ten years, while Canada and the UK conduct census every five years.
 Expensiveness: Census is the most expensive method of data gathering. This is because
of its universality which necessitates complete coverage of the entire territory and
population of the place where the census is taken.
II. Sample Surveys
A sample survey is the second most important and widely used source of population data. It
collects information only from a part of the whole population. They are usually undertaken to
generate socio-economic and demographic data in greater detail than conventional censuses can
provide.
Surveys are usually undertaken during a period of transition between two consecutive censuses.
They are employed to arrive at estimates of demographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status,
etc), population size, population distribution, mortality, fertility and migration. Sample surveys
are also an important source of population statistics in areas where census is not conducted.
In addition, they are important for gathering data to fill population information gaps. As there are
many countries that do not conduct census regularly, the main source of information about world
population comes from the United Nations Organization through sample surveys.

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As compared to census, sample survey is:
 Less expensive because it does not involve the entire population;
 Capable of providing very detailed information about the population;
 If the sample takers are well-trained and strict supervision is in place, it can provide data
of a better quality than census; and
 Able to estimate margins of error, or the accuracy of the data.
III. Vital Registration
What is vital registration? Vital registration is another source of population data. It refers to the
continuous registration of such vital events as births, deaths, marriages and divorces. These
events are recorded as they occur. Data on vital events are gathered from birth and death
certificates, marriage licenses, divorce records and other official registers. The building up of a
reliable vital registration system is an expensive and extensive process.
The completeness of registration and the reliability of the data gathered through vital
registration can be affected by several factors including the following:
 Level of literacy and awareness of the importance of population data in the population;
 Social custom may lead to non-registration as a result of superstitions or taboos;
 The rural population may be widely dispersed or inaccessible.
Factors Affecting the Quality of Data
As we have seen so far, population data can be acquired through different methods. Though a
variety of information can be obtained by using such systems, the gathered information may not
necessarily be accurate. This is because there are a number of socio-economic and culture related
problems that affect the quality of the data.
Some of these problems include:
 Inadequate financing.
 The use of different methods of census enumeration by different countries.
 Inadequate awareness about the importance of population data among the general
population. iv. Double entry (counting of a person twice).
 Neglecting or ignoring certain groups of people.
 False information about the age and the occupation of people.
 Lack of equal acceptance of the importance of vital registration by all countries.


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Uses of Population Data
Having accurate data of the population is essential for effective socioeconomic development
planning and administration:
Population studies in geography and other fields yield knowledge essential for planning,
especially by governments, in fields such as health, education, housing, social security,
employment, food security, and environmental preservation. Moreover, the studies provide
information needed in the formulation of governments’ population policies, which seek to
modify the trends of population size, composition, and distribution in order to achieve economic,
social, and environmental objectives.

4.1.2. Components of Population Change

A change in the overall size of a population is the result of the collective effects of changes in
fertility, mortality and migration.
The three factors are collectively known as population-change dynamics or determinants or
components. Fertility and mortality are biological factors, while migration is purely non-
biological. The combined effect of the three factors controls the changes in population size and
composition.
Fertility: It is the actual occurrence of live births in a given population; it is the beginning of
life. Specifically, fertility refers to the actual reproductive performance of a population. It refers
to the number of live births women have.
The study of human fertility occupies a central position in the study of population because it is
responsible for biological replacement and maintenance of the population of the human race. The
growth of world population depends largely on human fertility. This is so because any society
replenishes itself through the process of human fertility. Thus, in population dynamics, fertility is
a force of expansion of population by counteracting the force of attrition caused by mortality.
Fertility is affected by cultural, social, economic, and health factors. Most of these factors
operate through four other factors: (1) the proportion of women in sexual unions; (2) the
percentage of women using contraception; (3) the proportion of women who are currently not
fecund (primarily because of breastfeeding); (4) the level of induced abortion.
Fertility can be determined using different methods, but it is measured most commonly in terms
of:

 Crude Birth Rate (CBR),

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  General Fertility Rate (GFR) and
 Total Fertility Rate (TFR).

Crude Birth Rate (CBR): is the most common and simplest index of fertility. It is simply the
number of live births observed in one year among one thousand people in a given region. It can
be expressed as a number of live births per thousand people.

This measure is simple to compute, but it is crude because its denominator includes all persons,
regardless of their contribution to fertility (birth). For example all unmarried persons, including
children, are included. This is the weakness of the CBR as a measure of fertility.
General Fertility Rate (GFR): The easiest method of refining the weakness of CBR is by
expressing live births, not in terms of total population, but as a percentage of the number of
adults or, even better, of the number of women of reproductive age (typically defined as between
the ages of 15 and 49). GFR measures the number of live births in a year per thousand women of
reproductive age. It is calculated:

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GFR’s drawback is that it does not account for differences in age groups. Each age group is not
equally fertile. That is, the child-bearing rate is appreciably higher in the age group of 20- 29
than in the 15-19 and 30-49 age groups.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR):
What makes TFR different from the other measures of fertility? How do you calculate it? TFR is
the average number of children that would be born alive to a woman during her lifetime if she
were to pass through all her child-bearing years. This happens if the group under question passed
through its reproductive span of life with these birth rates in each year of age. It is generally
known as an effective summary rate for describing the frequency of child bearing in a year.
More importantly, TFR is useful when comparison is made, for it is standardized for age and is a
single summary measure. It is helpful for comparing the fertility performance of different
populations or social groups.
TFR is the sum of the age-specific birth rates (5-year age groups between 15 and 49) for female
residents of a specific geographic area (example: country, kelil, zone, kefle-ketema, woreda
kebele, etc.) during a specified time period (usually a calendar year) multiplied by 5. This rate
estimates the number of children a hypothetical cohort (person of same age group) of 1000
females in the specified population would bear if they all went through their childbearing years
experiencing the same age-specific birth rates for a specified time period. More importantly,
TFR is useful when comparison is made, for it is standardized for age and is a single summary
measure. It is helpful for comparing the fertility performance of different populations or social
groups. What problem of GFR have you noticed from the above example? Explain to the
class.

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Factors of Fertility Distribution

Various factors affect fertility distribution in the world including those presented in Table

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Mortality: Mortality refers the occurrence of death. Mortality rates, though decreasing
worldwide, are higher in the developing countries than in the developed ones. This difference is
caused by variations in standards of living, nutrition, medical services, personal hygiene and
environmental sanitation. While we all eventually die, the probability of dying during a given
time period is linked to many factors, such as age, sex, race, occupation, and social class. The
incidence of death can reveal much about a population’s standard of living and health care.
Measures of Mortality

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Crude death rate (CDR): is the ratio of the total registered deaths of a specified year in a region
to the total mid-year population, multiplied by 1000. It is computed as follows:

Infant mortality rate (IMR): is the number of deaths of infants under the age of
one year, per 1000 live births, in a given year.

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Migration: is the geographic movement of people across a specified boundary for the purpose of
establishing a new permanent or semi-permanent residence. Along with fertility and mortality,
migration is a component of population change. The terms “immigration” and “emigration” are
used to refer to moves between countries (international migration). The parallel terms “in
migration” and “outmigration” are used for movement between areas within a country (internal
migration).
Measures of Migration

Measures of Population Change

In order to calculate the change in the total population size of a particular nation or place one has
to use the following formula (see Figure 3.4).

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 i. Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): it is the difference between birth and death rates. Hence, it is
a naturally caused numerical change of a population which results from the interplay between
fertility and mortality. It is expressed as:

ii. Population Growth Rate (PGR): in order to find the growth rate of a population, we consider
net migration rate and rate of natural increase.

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4.1.3. Spatial Distribution of Human Population
Population distribution is the way that population is spread out over a given area. That area can
be anything from a small region to the earth as a whole. For several reasons, human population is
spread very unevenly over the earth’s surface. This distribution of population forms a pattern.
While some areas are heavily populated, others are sparsely populated.
The availability of natural resources, the nature of topography, the productivity of the soil, and
many other factors has resulted in an uneven distribution of people. There are densely,
moderately and sparsely populated areas in the world. The densely and sparsely populated
regions of the world are outlined below.
4.1.3.1. Densely Populated Regions:
There are three main belts of high population density and concentration in the world. These areas
are also called “Population Clusters’’ or ‘’Population Nodes’’.
The three belts alone account for well over two-thirds of the total world’s population. These
regions are:
 Asiatic population belt:
This belt is confined to the river basins of Monsoon Asia. The region accounts for about 60
percent of the world’s total population. The belt includes: East Asia - Japan and China are the
most populous in the sub-region. South Asia - India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are densely
populated.
 Peninsular Europe:
Europe makes up 10.8 percent of the world’s total population. It is the most developed cluster, in
both economic and demographic terms globally.
 Northeastern North America
This part of North America (mainly the USA) is highly urbanized and industrialized. It accounts
for about 5 percent of the world’s total population.
4.1.3.2. Sparsely Populated Regions
In contrast to the above discussed population clusters, there are areas of thin population cover.
These areas include:
 Tundra: - These areas support only a very few nomadic peoples.
 Hot-dry lands: - Include many of the tropical desert lands. Shortage of water and high
temperature do not encourage permanent settlement. However, in desert areas where

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 water is available, such as oasis and river basins, and mining sites, there are settlements
located right in the heart of hot deserts. Example: the Sahara Desert.
 Hot-wet lands: - Because of the unfavorable climate, there are few people living in these
areas.
 High relief: - Includes regions of mountainous areas with high altitude, rugged
topography and cold temperature. These areas do not encourage large settlements because
the terrain makes movement and interaction difficult.
 Areas with poor soil: - Include very large areas of the world which are covered by
infertile soil. Such areas do not support agricultural practices and hence are sparsely
populated.

4.1.4 Population Structures

What is population structure? How do population structures differ between developed and
developing countries?
The structure of a population is the distribution of males and females within different age groups.
Sex and age structures are basic characteristics and biological attributes of a population, and they
affect demographic as well as socio-economic situations. Data on population age-sex structure is
ideally collected through census, reflecting a complete population count. A population pyramid,
also called age structure diagram, is a graphical illustration. It normally forms the shape of a
pyramid and shows the distribution of various age groups of each sex in a human population.
It typically consists of two back-to-back bar graphs, with the population plotted on the x-axis and
age on the y-axis, one showing the number of males and the other showing females in a
particular population of five-year age groups (also called cohorts). Males are conventionally
shown on the left and females on the right, and they may be measured in raw numbers or as
percentage of the total population.
Population pyramids are often considered to be the most effective way to graphically depict the
age and sex distribution of a population. This is partly because of the very clear image that these
pyramids present. Population is divided into age groups of five-year intervals (0-4, 5-9, 10-14,
etc.) for each sex. The population of a given country can be further grouped into three categories
(segments) of the population consisting of young dependents (0-14), elderly dependents (65+)
and the working age groups that are economically active (15-65 years of age). The grouping
applies to both males and females of all ages . Population pyramids are often considered to be the

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most effective way to graphically depict the age and sex distribution of a population. This is
partly because of the very clear image that these pyramids present.
Population is divided into age groups of five-year intervals (0-4, 5-9, 10-14, etc.) for each sex.
The population of a given country can be further grouped into three categories (segments) of the
population consisting of young dependents (0-14), elderly dependents (65+) and the working age
groups that are economically active (15-65 years of age). The grouping applies to both males and
females of all ages.

Figure: Typical examples of population pyramids of developing (a) and developed (b) countries
A great deal of information about a population, broken down by age and sex, can be read from a
population pyramid. For example, it can shed light on the extent of development and other
aspects of the population. The proportion of the three age groups varies from region to region
and among countries. Most developing countries have a large proportion of their population in
the young age group. But in developed countries, people in the adult and old age group account
for the largest proportions of the population. As a result, the shape of the population pyramids of
the two groups of countries is not the same .
Observing different characteristics of a population pyramid can tell you a lot about the
population it presents.
 Width of the base of the pyramid: birth rate varies with the width of the base. A wide
base indicates a high birth rate, and a narrow base indicates a low birth rate. The former
is typical of populations of developing countries.

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  Symmetry: statistically speaking, pyramids are relatively symmetrical. Any asymmetry
indicates a size difference between males and females.
 Shape of sides: concave sides indicate a high death rate, and convex sides indicate a low
death rate. The population pyramid of Ethiopia exhibits concave sides, indicating a high
death rate.

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Dependency Ratio
What is dependency ratio? Is the dependency ratio of your locality or regionhigh or low? Why?
Why do we need to know about dependency ratio? The working age of people varies.
Traditionally people worked until they were 65 years old. The common trend now is for people
to retire closer to 55 years of age. However, for statistical purposes, we recognize people
between 15 and 65 as the workers of a society. People under 15 and over 65 are considered
dependent upon the working population. The age dependency ratio (ADR) of a population
indicates how many people are dependent upon every 100 workers.

4.1.5. Population Theories

The main purpose of population theory is to seek appropriate answers to the following
population-related questions.

 How large can world population ultimately become, and more particularly how many
human beings can the planet feed and the environment sustain?
 How does population growth determine the socio-economic issues of countries?
 How do biological, economic, social, and political factors determine population growth?

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The theories of population developed by different scholars, in response to the above questions,
can be grouped into two broad categories: Malthusian/neo-Malthusian and anti-Malthusian. The
two groups of theories have opposing views about the relationship between population growth
and socio-economic, political, and environmental factors. Malthusian and neo-Malthusian
theories are pessimistic, and the anti-Malthusian theories are optimistic.

The next figure indicates the characteristics and differences between these two types of
population theory.

4.1.5.1. Malthusian Population Theory

In his work, Malthus warned of a constant tendency for human population growth to exceed food
production. He classified the various ways that such growth would, in consequence, be slowed.
Malthus took an exceedingly pessimistic view, arguing that human populations are inescapably
caught in a conflict between their “need for food” and the “passion between the sexes”.
In his essay, Malthus put forward the following three basic propositions.
 Passion between sexes is inevitable and universal;
 Food production is limited, and population cannot increase beyond the means of
subsistence; and
 If population growth outstrips the means of subsistence, “positive checks” will apply.
Malthus was concerned that population would grow faster than the supply of food. He
believed that the supply of food can only increase by a constant amount, in arithmetical

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progression (1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5), but that the human population has a tendency to multiply in
geometric progression, (1 – 2 – 4 – 8 – 16), multiplying itself by a constant amount each time.
Therefore, eventually population would outstrip food supply until a catastrophe occurred.
This would be in the form of famine, diseases or war. Such catastrophes would occur as human
beings fought over increasingly scarce resources. Malthus referred to the catastrophes as positive
checks that control fast population growth and in the long term maintain a balance between
population and resources.
Malthus considered that, in order to avoid the inevitable occurrence of the positive checks,
human beings should adopt preventive checks. By preventive checks, Malthus meant “moral
restraint”, which includes late marriage, avoiding sexual conduct before marriage and having
fewer children. However, Malthus was against family planning methods; he was totally against
all artificial methods of conception or birth control. Malthus, therefore, appealed to people to
control their natural sexual urges in order to control the fast growth of population and to,
therefore, avoid the occurrences of the disastrous positive checks.
In general, Malthus believed that the “hot passion or sexual urge” of people could lead to
overpopulation, which, in turn, would result in poverty and other catastrophes (positive checks).
He concluded that “the poor are to be blamed for their own poverty. Neither wages nor
providence, nor society is to be blamed.”
Today, supporters of Malthus’s pessimistic view, who fear that population growth will outstrip
food supply and other resources, leading to the catastrophic consequences (the positive checks)
predicted by Malthus, are called Malthusians or neo-Malthusians.
4.1.6.2 Anti-Malthusian Population Theories
Anti-Malthusians are optimists who argue against Malthus. They believe that either population
growth will slow down well before it is limited by scarcity of food and other resources or the
ingenuity/cleverness of humankind will solve the problems, overcoming potential scarcities of
food and other resources. Let’s consider two anti-Malthusian theories – one was developed by
Karl Marx, and the other by Ester Boserup.

A. Marxian Population Theory

In his theory, Marx stated that there could be no population problem under a socialist mode of
production and of ownership of resources. He believed that population becomes a problem of

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surplus people only under capitalist modes of production. His view was that the capitalist
system not only views some of the population as surplus in an economic sense, but also causes
this phenomenon:
When existing food supplies are inadequate to support some of the population, capitalism calls
the unsupported people surplus population. However, Marx stated, such food scarcities are
purely the result of unequal distribution of resources by capitalism.
Marx believed that the capitalist system can produce food and other necessities for an
indefinitely expanding population, and that it is only capitalism’s unequal distribution of social
wealth that makes it seem as though these resources were limited and, therefore, that population
growth must have a natural limit. Moreover, in Marx’s view, the system of capitalist production
is not targeted to meet the needs of poor people. Instead, its aim is to increase the accumulation
of capital for the wealthy. Along the same lines, Marx stated that capitalism benefits from the
conditions that produce a so-called surplus population. Those conditions create competition for
jobs, thus driving down wages and therefore maximizing profits for the wealthy. Marx’s solution
to the problem of overpopulation was socialism with a new economic structure of society within
a new social order.
While Malthus focused on individual actions and considered “moral restraint” (preventive
checks) to be the solution to population problems, Marx focused on the economic structure of
society and believed the solution would be found in a new social order.
B. Boserupian Population Theory
Boserup formulated an optimistic theory about the influence of population growth on agricultural
development in support of her theory; she elaborated facts that showed population growth would
lead to agricultural development. For Boserup, population is a variable that contributes positively
to agricultural development, because it leads human-kind to innovation. In order to explain the
positive effect of population growth on agriculture, Boserup presented the following series of
historical agricultural transformations that were caused by population growth, in which humans
progressed from “a” through “e” in their approach to agriculture between the nth and nth
centuries. For each transformation, Boserup-
 Described the approach to agriculture of the specified time and explained how it used land
 Examined the labor requirements of that approach between the nth and nth centuries.

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Boserup noted that, as the human population grew, the amount of land available per-capita
shrank but that, in response, people developed more effective ways to use the land. With each
development in land use, labor requirements grew, and the increasing population provided the
labor – and, therefore, the means to implement these developments. In addition, the increased
labor requirements provided occupation for the growing number of people.
Boserup concluded that population growth could not be controlled by scarcity of food and other
necessities, as Malthus believed. Instead, population would continue to grow because the
increased demand for food and other necessities would lead to new innovations and
technological advancement which, in turn, would allow production to keep pace with the needs
of the increasing population.
Boserup thought that “As the size of population increases, it results in technological innovations
and advancement.” For her, population is an independent variable/factor, and agriculture is a
dependent variable/factor. She believed that population growth could not be controlled by
scarcity of food supply. Rather, the increasing demand for food caused by population growth
would increase agricultural productivity by stimulating innovation in agricultural systems and
technologies. In this regard, she said that “Necessity is the mother of invention”.

4.2 Human Population of the World

4.2.1 Size and Trend of World Population Growth
For most of our history, human populations have been small, compared to those of other species.
Studies of hunting and gathering societies (before 5000 BC) suggest that total world population
was probably only a few million people. A major change occurred about 10,000 years ago, when
humans began to domesticate animals. This advance led to increased food supplies, which
allowed the human population to grow, reaching perhaps 50 million people by 5000 B.C.
However, for thousands of years, the human population increased very slowly, and it took more
than 1,500 years to reach the 500 million mark. Growth was not steady, but was marked by great
fluctuations dictated by climate, food supply, disease and war.

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Both above Table and Figure show that, by 1900, world population had reached 1.60 billion, and
by 1960 it stood at 3.04 billion.
The United Nations estimated that world population reached 6 billion with an annual growth rate
of 1.5% by 2000 A.D. The number added to world population per year would increase from 80
million to 90 million if the growth rate of 1.5% continues, and world population would double in
a period of 40- 50 years from about 2000 A.D. Such rapid and dramatic growth rate of the world
population is known as population explosion.

Population growth rate determines the time required for a population to double. The lower the
growth rate, the longer is the doubling time, and the higher the growth rate, the shorter is the
doubling time (See the following Table).

As it is shown in the above Table, Europe and Africa have shown very contrasting doubling
times. The doubling times of the former and the later are 304 years and 27 years, respectively.

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This implied that even among the developing regions, Africa has the fastest population growth
rate in the world.
Generally, nations are considered to be less developed if they have a lower standard of living
than the developed nations. A large share of the population in these less developing countries
live at subsistence levels, and medical resources are limited. However, population growth in less
developed nations occurs at a much faster rate than in the developed nations.
As of 2000, 1.2 billion people lived in the developed nations of the world, and 4.9 billion people
lived in the less developed countries. By region, over half the world’s population was in East and
South Asia: China, with 1.3 billion inhabitants, India with 1.1 billion, and Indonesia with 0.23
billion were the dominant contributors. Europe and the countries of the former USSR contained
14% of the world population, North and South America made up 14%, Africa had 13%, Asia
58% and the Pacific islands had about 1% (see the following Table).

The nations currently defined as developed represented 20% of the world population in 2000.
This percent is expected to fall to 15% by 2050. Nine out of every ten persons who are now
being added to the world’s population are living in the less developed countries.
More specifically, when we compare the population trends of Africa and Europe (see the above
Table), Africa’s population has increased since 1900. It had added about 5.0% of the world
population between 1950 and 2000. This is expected to increase to 20.3% by 2050. Whereas, the
population of Europe has shown a trend of decline by 12.7% in the same period.

4.2.2 Spatial Distribution of World Population

The most important characteristic feature of current world-population distribution is its extreme
unevenness. It was estimated, some years ago, that one-half of the world's people was contained
within about 5% of the earth's land area while, in contrast, about 57% of the land area contained
less than 5% of the population.
World population distribution, and hence concentration, varies considerably across the earth,
among different continents, between individual countries, between developed countries and

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developing countries, between rim lands and hinterlands, between highlands and lowlands, and
between the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere.
Factors of Population Distribution
Numerous factors have positively and negatively influenced population distribution. The extreme
current unevenness in population distribution is due to these factors:
 Ecological (physical) factors
 Socio-economic factors
 Political factors
 Demographic factors
Some factors, for example, favorable climate, fertile soil, adequate water supply, and industrial
development positively influence population concentration. Others, such as unfavorable climate
(for example, extremely hot or cold and dry climates), mountainous regions of very rugged
topography with poor soils, and inhospitable areas where communication and trade are difficult,
discourage large human settlements.
The four population clusters and the sparsely populated regions are found in varying
geographical locations, have different population sizes and socioeconomic characteristics. The
following Table gives an overview of the various centers of high and low population
concentrations, their locations and determining factors.

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Population Density
It was noted earlier that population distribution over the earth’s surface lacks uniformity. Some
areas are overcrowded, while others are sparsely settled or uninhabited.
Table: Population density of the world and its regions in 2000

Population density, also termed as the spread of population over space, is measurable in various
ways. For example, we can relate numbers of inhabitants to area of lands inhabited:
a) Crude density or Arithmetic density
b) Agricultural density or rural density
a) Crude density or Arithmetic Density: is a measure of the number of inhabitants’ per unit
area. This type of measurement is also known as human-land ratio.

b) Agricultural density or rural density: It is the ratio of agricultural (rural) population to

cultivated land. Agricultural density considers only agricultural population, the segment of an
area’s population whose livelihood depends on agricultural activities. The area under
consideration can be a single contiguous piece of land, or it can be multiple unjoined areas –
such as the land occupied by all rural populations in all developing countries. In countries like
Ethiopia, almost all rural areas are occupied by people who are engaged in agricultural activities
and whose livelihoods depend mainly on agricultural income. This may not be the case in the
developed regions.
Agricultural population density is a more meaningful measure than crude population density for
developing countries where agriculture is the dominant economic activity. It also gives a better
indication of population pressure on natural resources.

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4.3 Population of Africa
4.3.1 Aspects of Population, Economy and Natural Resources of Africa
Population Size, Growth and Distribution
A. Size
How large is Africa’s Population? What percent of the world’s population is constituted by
Africa’s population? Africa has one of the world’s largest populations. The continent is the
world’s second most populous next to Asia. According to the World Population Data sheet, by
the mid of 2009, the continent had a total population of 999 million (nearly 1 billion). This
makes up nearly 14.7 % of the world’s total population. As the table below depicts, Africa’s
population is nearly 1/4th of that of Asia, the most populous, and 28 times that of Oceania, the
least populous.
Table: World population distribution

B. Growth

What is population growth? What are the components of population change? How fast is
Africa’s population growing?
Africa has one of the world’s fastest growing populations. The continent has been experiencing
rapid changes in its population size as a result of many factors including the interactions between
fertility and mortality. Despite the gradual decline in the birth and death rates, the continent
continues to experience high rate of population growth. As some historical sources indicate,
Africa’s population had been increasing very slowly until recent times. However, since the 1950,
the continent’s population began to increase very rapidly. As a result, the continent’s population
had almost been quadrupled between 1950 and 2000. The following Table shows you the trend
in the population size of Africa between the years 1000 A.D and 2000 A.D.

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As it can clearly be seen from the above table, Africa’s population had been increasing very
slowly until the early 1950s. The 1000 A.D. population of Africa had taken more than 650 years
to double itself. Another nearly 300 years were passed until the 1650 population doubles again.
Since the 1950’s the continent’s population began to grow faster and it took only about 25 years
to double itself.
Another population doubling has still been experienced in the last 25 years of the 20th century
between 1975 and 2000. Since 2000 till 2009, another 200 million people were added making
Africa’s population nearly a billion. The population growth rate of Africa is the fastest in the
world. According to the 2009 world population data sheet, the continent had a rate of natural
increase of 2.4%. The general growth rate, on the other hand, was 2.3%. This appears being the
highest rate in the world and twice as fast as the world’s average growth rate. In terms of the
period that Africa’s population needs to double itself, the continent has the world’s shortest
doubling time of about 29 years. Such a rapid population growth rate and short doubling time is
the result of the very high fertility rate that the continent has. Although birth rate is declining in
the continent, it is still high as compared to the rest of the world. The declining mortality in the
continent is also the highest in the world. The difference between the two has produced a very
high rate of population growth and short period of doubling time in Africa.

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C. Distribution

What is population distribution? What are the factors that affect the distribution of
population? Which areas in Africa are most populous? Why?
Population distribution refers to the way people inhabit and occupy the earth’s surface. As
elsewhere in the rest of the world, Africa’s population distribution is uneven. As a result, there
are areas of high and low population density. Some parts of the continent, particularly the vast
Sahara, have few permanent residents.
While, others rank among the world’s most densely populated areas. The Nile Valley of Egypt,
the Atlantic coastal area that stretches from Côte d’Ivoire to Cameroon, Rwanda, Burundi, and
South Africa’s province of KwaZulu-Natal are among the most densely populated areas in the
continent. The continent’s average crude population density during the mid of 2009 was about 33
people/km2.
Certain human and physical factors are responsible for such spatial variation in the distribution
of population in the continent. Among the physical factors some are climate, relief, availability
of water, fertility of soil, distribution of minerals and the like. On the other hand, the human
factors that determine the extent to which humans inhabit a certain place include economic
conditions, political situations and other social factors.
However, there exists a significant regional variation in population density. As it can be seen
from the following table, Eastern Africa has the continent’s highest crude density of 49 p/km2
followed by Western Africa with 48 p/km2. Contrary to this, central Africa has the continent’s
lowest crude density of 19 p/km2 followed by Southern Africa (22 p/km2) and Northern Africa
(24 p/km2).

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On country level, the most populous countries are Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the Republic of South Africa (RSA). These countries all
together account for about 43% of the continent’s total population. In terms of population
density, while some are heavily populated, others have very low population density. The
following table gives you the ten most densely and most sparsely populated countries of Africa.
Determinants of Population Change in Africa
The three components that determine population change are birth rate, death rate and migration.
Population change in a given country is affected by:
 The difference between deaths and births also known as natural change
 The balance between immigration (coming in) and emigration (going out) also known as
net migration.

In Africa, the current population change (growth) is a function of fertility, mortality and
migration. There is frequent migration of people within a country.

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However, these days there are not significant migrant flows from country to country or from
region to region due to lack of pulling factors. Since most African countries are in their lower
stage of development, there are little or no opportunities to accommodate a huge influx of people
from another country. Africa’s migration pattern is highly related to political instabilities and
natural catastrophes.
Fertility Patterns in Africa
Fertility refers to the occurrence of birth in the human population. It is a natural positive factor
that tends to increase the human population size. Africa’s fertility rate is the highest in the world.
Birth rates are high in Africa because:
 people have less access to contraceptives;
 people are backward and poverty stricken;
 women are of low status;
 many children are needed to work on the land;
 children are considered as symbol of virility;
 people are of low educational background; and
 Many religions encourage large families.
According to the UN World population prospects of the year 2009, the average birth rate for
Africa is estimated at 36/1000. This is the highest even for the standard of developing countries,
which is (22/1000).

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Although fertility is high in Africa, it still varies from country to country or region to region.
Currently African countries having birth rates below 30/1000 include:

Other African countries comprise rates ranging from 31/1000 in Swaziland to 50/1000 in Guinea
Bissau and Nigeria.
N.B. Ethiopia’s CBR was about 39/1000 in 2009.
Birth rate is defined as the number of live births per 1000 population in a year. For example,
when we say the birth rate of Africa is 36/1000, we mean that 36 births will occur for every 1000
people, on the average, every other year.
Death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 population in a year. For example, Africa’s death
rate is 12/1000. This is to say that 12 deaths will occur for every 1000 people on the average
every other year.
The difference between birth rate and death rate is conceived as a difference influenced by
natural change. The natural change for Africa can, therefore, be computed as:
36/1000 – 12/1000 or (36/1000 (birth rate) – 12/1000 (death rate))

Mortality Patterns in Africa

What is mortality? How does it affect the population of Africa? What are the factors that affect
mortality in Africa?
Simply defined, mortality refers to the occurrence of death in the human population. Africa’s
mortality rate is the highest in regions. The continent had a crude death rate of 12 deaths per
1000 population.

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When regional comparison is made, death rate ranges from 7/1000 in Northern Africa to 15/1000
in Southern Africa. In terms of infant mortality rate, which is the death of infants under one year
per 1000 live births, the continent still has the world’s largest rate of 74 deaths per 1000 live
births. Infant mortality rates also vary from region to region. Accordingly, Central Africa has the
highest rate of 95/1000 followed by Western Africa 80/1000 and Eastern Africa 76/1000 live
births. The lowest Infant Mortality rate is in Northern Africa which only 38/1000.
Africa’s high death rate is attributed to the following major factors:
 Low standard of living
 Low access to health facilities
 Poor sanitary practices
 Civil war and political instability
 Wide spread of famine caused by recurrent drought
 Poor nutrition, and
 High incidence of disease and infections
Africa’s death rate is declining since World War II due to development in medical technology,
and sanitary practices, and the discovery of medicines and vaccines for tropical diseases.
However, the continent’s crude death rate remains being the highest in the world.
Infant mortality rate is generally regarded as a prime indicator of socioeconomic development.
Infant mortality has declined from 138/1000 in 1950 to 88/1000 in 1975 – 80; and now, it is
down to 74/1000.
There is disparity in life expectancy between rich and poor countries. But this has shown a
significant converge over the last 50 years despite widening wealth gap between them. Life
expectancy at birth: is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live under
current mortality levels.

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The current birth and death rates of Africa reflect a very young (and economically dependent)
population of low life expectancy. Almost all sub-Saharan countries have a population of under
15 years of age rated in percent at more than 40. This has resulted in high dependency ratio in the
continent. The average life expectancy for the whole continent is 54 years.

Africa’s life expectancies are the lowest in the world. There is though, a wide disparity of this
fact from regions to regions within Africa ranging from 69 years for Northern Africa to 49 years
for Eastern and Western Africa.
Migration
What is migration? Why do people migrate?
Migration is a socio-cultural components of population change. It has both negative and positive
impacts based on its net effect. A negative net migration rate tends to reduce the population of
region. On the other hand, a positive net migration rate tends to increase population size.
The third component of population change is migration. It is an important control of population
change next to fertility and mortality. Migration is the movement of people from their home
place to another one. The most important aspects in the study of migration are its motives. The
motives leading to migration in Africa include:
 Prevalence of diverse and wide range of climatic zones
 Presence of diverse and multitude natural resources
 Coincidence of the continent’s large size
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  Pervasiveness of varying economic activities ranging from agriculture to trade: and
existence of
 Divergent level of economic and social development.
Migration may be internal and external or permanent or temporal.
A. Internal migration
Internal migration refers to when people move from one parts of the country to other parts with
in the national territory. The migration could be permanent or temporal.

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What are the advantage and disadvantages of international migration to the losing and
receiving country? Discuss in group.

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Characteristics of African Population
1 What does a characteristic of population mean?
2 What are the major characteristics of African population?
The structure or composition of African population falls under two categories classified thus on
grounds of biological and cultural characteristics. Biological characteristics include race,
ethnicity, sex and age. The cultural characteristics comprise education, health, nutrition,
religion, occupation, and the like.
Biological Characteristics
Age structure
How do you describe the age composition of Africa’s population? Africa is a continent which
one can deduce, could be characterized by young population. This can be easily identified from
the median age. If the median age is low, it implies that the population is young; for example,
Africa’s median age is 18 years. In contrast, if the median age is high, the population is likely to
be adult and old age group; for example the median age for Europe is 37 years. Low median age
reflects high fertility and high population growth rates whereas high median age prevails in a
population where population growth rate is low and slow.

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As it is shown in Table, Africa is the only continent which comprises high young population, but
very low old age population. In developing continents like Africa, the level of fertility is very
high; and so the rate of population growth is high, too. This is readily attributed to their
predominantly youthful age structure.
As high fertility persists, the pressure on scarce resources for development increases. The
demand for food, education, health facilities, employment opportunities, housing and other
services also increases. In order to maximize these needs so as to meet the demand of the
growing population, physical and institutional infrastructures have to be increased abundantly.
Persisting high rate of population growth constantly dwarfs whatever is achieved in the
economic sector. Resources which could be used for development purposes, could be shifted to
the provision of basic supply for the additional members.
The Demographic structure of a given country (region) is best illustrated by the use of population
pyramids (like the one in Figure 4.4). Population pyramids are used to portray the proportion of
males and females in different age groups. In Figure below, each bar represents a five year age
group apart from the upper most bar which illustrates the population above 85 years. The male
population is shown on the left of the vertical axis; and that of the females, on the right.

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 Age Dependency Ratio= Economically dependent population *100
Economically active population

This can be shown in the dependency ratio expressed as:

The above dependency ratio is explained as for every 100 economically active people. The case
country “Y”, for instance, can be stated as: there are 87 persons that depend up on 100 persons.
This dependency ratio is the highest in the world. When we see the age dependency ratio, of
Africa by its major region, central Africa has the highest ADR of 92.31% followed by western
and eastern Africa each of which having (88.68%) and northern and southern Africa having
61.29% each. The overall ADR of Africa was 78.57% and that of sub Saharan Africa was
85.19% in 2009.

The following are among the major characteristics of the African Population

 High fertility and mortality rates;

 Generally young population;
 Triangular population pyramid indicating the prevalence of high fertility and mortality
rates;
 High age dependency ratio and youth dependency ratio and low old dependency ratio;
 Low life expectancy; and
 High population growth rate.

Sex Structure

Sex ratio is an important demographic characteristics. It refers to the proportion of males to

females in the overall population of a given area. Sex ratio is expressed in terms of the number of
males for every 100 females.

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With regard to sex ratio, Sub-Saharan Africa sex ratio is below the world’s average which is less
than 98%. This means there are 98 males per 100 females, which is equitably balanced. Most
Sub-Saharan African countries, however, have sex ratio of far less than 100. That is to say, there
are greater number of women than men. Such an event is associated with a huge loss of men
population due to war and migration. In some countries of the region, though, male births
consistently exceed female births due to combined biological and social reasons. Some among
such countries are Equatorial Guinea, Uganda, Gambia and Kenya.
The context of high sex ratio in these countries is attributed to the prevalence of a large number
of immigrants. The fact that these countries exceptionally comprise high sex ratio for reasons of
immigration indicates that migration is age and sex selective. If there is a large influx of
population to a given country, then that country will have high sex ratio. High sex ratio means a
large proportion of active population age group will be added to that country. In countries where
there is a strong rural to urban migration, the population structure of the areas affected can be
different.

4.4 Population of Ethiopia

4.4.1 Population Size and Growth Rate
The population of Ethiopia was about 12 million toward the beginning of the 20th century (1900).
It had an annual growth rate of 0.2%. Had this growth continued, the population would have
doubled in 346 years. The rate of growth of the population was relatively very slow until 1920.
But, after 1920, the population of Ethiopia started growing very fast, and it took only 60 years to
double. The 1950’s was another remarkable period. By 1960 the growth rate quadrupled,
doubling the size of the population to 23.5 million. Then, between 1960 and 1990, i.e., within
thirty years, the population once again doubled. During that period, its growth rate tripled,
compared with the rate of 1920. The smallest doubling period recorded was in 1996, after which
it started increasing again.
Ethiopia conducted its first census in May 1984. So far, the governments have conducted three
successive population and housing censuses. The first census report showed that the population
of Ethiopia (together with Eritrea) was 42.2 million. When we compare the 2007 census results
with those of 1984 and 1994, we see that the population of the country increased by more than

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31 and 21 million over 23 and 13 years, respectively. The population growth rate increased from
2.9% in 1984-1985 to 3.0% in 1994-1995.

Since 1999, the growth rate has decreased at an average rate of about 0.2% per year (see the
above Table). By 2010, the rate had dropped to about 2.6% per year. With the current growth
rate of 2.6%, the country’s population is projected to grow by 1.9 million annually, and to attain
a size of about 79 million by 2010, 94.5 million in 2015, about 118 million by 2025. This trend
would make Ethiopia the most populous country in Africa, next to Nigeria. This rapid growth
seriously strains socio-economic development.

4.4.2. Spatial Distribution of Population

Spatial distribution of population is the pattern created as a result of human occupation of land
surface for settlement. The pattern of Ethiopian population distribution is markedly uneven. For
example, we have very high population densities in the highlands. On the other hand, the
peripheral lowlands of the country, which account for more than 50% of the total area of the
country, are very sparsely populated. There are variations in the distribution at the national level
as well as at lower levels for example, between and within regions, zones, weredas and kebele
administration units. The following Table shows the country’s population distribution at the
regional level.

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More than 80% of the population lived in three regions – Oromiya, Amhara and Southern
Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR). Their populations accounted for 36.7%,
23.3% and 20.4% of Ethiopia’s total population, respectively. According to the 1984 Ethiopian
census, the nation’s crude population density was 34 persons per square kilometer. By 1994, 10
years later, it had increased to 48.3. By 2007, the crude population density was almost double
that of 1984 – about 67 persons per square kilometer.

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The above Table presents Ethiopia’s ten most densely and sparsely populated zones, as of 2009.
Population densities exceeded 150 persons per square kilometre. All of the zones listed in the
first half of the table, except for the last four shown in the table, are in the SNNPR and are enset-
growing areas. Of the SNNPR zones, the most densely populated are Gedeo Kembata and
Tembaro, and Sidama. Their densities exceed 400 persons per square kilometre. In contrast,
there are places with very low population densities, below 25 persons per square kilometre.
Almost all very low-population areas are found in the peripheral lowlands of Benishangul
Gumuz, Gambella, and Afar and Somali regions. Some of zones of very low-population densities
include Agnewak, Metekel, Kemashi, Zone one (Afar), Etang, Zone two (Afar), Asossa zones,
Warder Zone, Korahe zone and Fik zone.
The following Table: Ethiopia’s ten most densely and most sparsely populated areas at the zone
level, 2009.

The spatial distribution of Ethiopia’s population is uneven, characterized by high population

density on the highlands while lowlands have very low population density. Such uneven
distribution of population has been the result of ecological (physical) factors and human factors.
More important physical factors include climate (mainly rainfall and temperature), soil,
vegetation and relief (altitude). The human factors primarily consist of historical factors, for
example peopling of the country and migration, development of infrastructure, types of
economic activities and political factors related to government policies such as resettlement
programs, land tenure system, villagization process, etc. All these factors individually or
collectively have influenced human settlements favorably or adversely. They have either
encouraged or discouraged settlement.

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4.4.3. Components of Population Change in Ethiopia
A. Fertility in Ethiopia
Fertility is one of the three principal components of population change that determine the size
and structure of the population of a country. In its general sense, fertility refers to the occurrence
of birth in a given country or region.
Before studying the fertility characteristics of the population of Ethiopia, become familiar with
the following measures of fertility.

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  Crude Birth Rate (CBR): this is the total number of births occurring in a given year, per
1000 population.
 General Fertility Rate (GFR): this one is the number of births occurring in a given year
per 1000 women in the reproductive ages (i.e., women aged 15-49).
 Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR): this is the number of births that occur in a given
year perwoman in the reproductive ages, presented in five-year age groups.
 Total Fertility Rate (TFR): this is the number of children a woman may have produced
by theend of her reproductive period, given the current ASFR.
Ethiopia’s total fertility rate is one of the highest in the world. In 1984, TFR was 7.52 per
woman. By 1994 it dropped to 6.74, and then to 5.4 in 2010. There is significant fertility
variation between urban and rural areas. For example, in 1984, TFR in urban areas was 6.33,
while it was 8.08 in rural areas. In 2010 these rates, respectively, dropped to 4.5 and 7.19.
Fertility also varies from region to region. In 1994, Oromiya and the SNNPR recorded the
highest TFRs, reaching as high as 7.26 and 7.16, respectively. In contrast to this, Addis Ababa,
Dire Dawa, Harari and Gambella recorded TFRs of less than 4.3.
The total fertility rate (TFR) for Ethiopia is 5.4 children per woman. This means that the total
number of children an Ethiopian woman would have by the end of her child-bearing period
(reproductive age) is about 5.4 children.
In Ethiopia, there are also substantial differentials in fertility among regions, ranging from a low
TFR of 1.4 in Addis Ababa to a high of 6.2 in Oromyia. With the exception of Somali and
SNNP, fertility levels in the other regions are lower than the national average (5.4).

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In general, fertility rates are high in Ethiopia due to the following major factors.
 Low levels of family planning practices, due to lack of awareness and religious beliefs;
Early marriage, particularly of females;
 Perception of high social and economic value of children; Low social status of women;
and
 Relatively high infant and child mortality (death) rates, which leads parents to produce
larger number of offspring, in compensation.
B. Mortality in Ethiopia:
Mortality is the measure of frequency of deaths in a population. Ethiopia has one of the highest
levels of mortality in the world (see the following Table). The main causes of such high
mortality are the effects of poverty, low living standards and poor access to health services.
Before studying the mortality characteristics of Ethiopia’s population, become familiar with the
following measures of mortality.
 Crude Death Rate (CDR): this is the total number of deaths occurring in a given year,
per 1000 people.
 Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): this is the number of deaths in a year among infants
under one year of age, per 1000 live births.
 Child Mortality Rate (CMR): this is the number of deaths in a year among children
between one and five years of age, per 1000 children between the same ages.
 Under-Five Mortality Rate: this is the number of deaths in a year among infants and
children between birth and five years of age, per 1000 live births.
 Maternal Mortality rate (MMR): this is the annual number of maternal deaths
occurring during pregnancy, child birth, or within two months after the birth or
termination of pregnancy, per 1000 women between 15 and 49 years of age (reproductive
age).
 Adult Mortality Rate (AMR): this is the number of deaths in a year among adults
between 15 and 49 years of age, per 1000 adults in the same age group.
 Age-Specific Death Rate (ASDR): this is the number of deaths that occur in a given
year per 1000 of the population in five-year age group.
 Life Expectancy: this is the average number of years a newborn baby is expected to live
if he/she is exposed throughout life to the prevailing pattern of age-specific death rates.

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  Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths among infants between the moment
of birth and the first birth day. Child mortality rate (CMR), on the other hand, is the
number of deaths among children between the exact ages of one and five, (i.e. from the
first birthday, up to but not including the sixth birth day). The under-five mortality rate,
however, includes both IMR and CMR, as it refers to the number of deaths of infants and
children between birth and the fifth birth day.
One of the targets of Ethiopia’s millennium development goal (MDG) is a two-thirds reduction
in infant and child mortality by 2015, to be achieved by way of:
 Upgrading the proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel.
 Increasing immunization against the six vaccine-preventable diseases.
 Upgrading the status of women through education and enhancing their participation
in the labor force.
Other significant factors include civil war, and recurrent drought and famine. Deaths of children
under the age five accounts for over half of all deaths in the country. The main causes of children
death are measles, malaria, malnutrition, and acute respiratory infections such as pneumonia and
influenza. However, despite all of the current factors that cause deaths in Ethiopia, mortality
rates have decreased because of improved medical technology and the population’s improved
access to health services. During the last two decades, crude death rate dropped from 20 per 1000
population in 1970 to 16.4 per 1000 in 1990 and then to 12 per 1000 in 2010. Similarly, the
infant mortality rate declined from 153 deaths per 1000 live births in 1970 to 110 in 1990 and
then to 77 in 2010 (see the following Table).
Unfortunately, however, many people now fear that such decreasing trend (and that of increasing
life expectancy) will soon be reversed due to the increasing prevalence of HIV/AIDS in
Ethiopia’s population. For 1999, estimates put the number of infected people in the country at 3
million. Now, ten years later, some experts are predicting increases in mortality rates and
decreases in life expectancy.

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4.4.4. Population Structure of Ethiopia
Age Structure: Age structure is the distribution of a given population into age groups. This
structure becomes clear after we group all of the people in that population by age. In other
words, age structure is the pattern that results from the distribution of members of a population
into different age categories.
Two important statistical tools for understanding age structure are
 Age groups and population pyramids
Age Groups: Although we can use different sets of numbers to define age groups, the most
widely used age groups are the five-year age groups 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, …, 60-64, 65+ and broad
age groups 0-14, 15- 64, 65+. In the broad age groups, age groups 0-14, 15-64 and 65+ are
known, respectively, as young age (the young dependent population), working age (the
economically active population) and old age (the elderly dependent population). The following
Table presents Ethiopia’s population age distribution. As you can see from the recent population
pyramid of Ethiopia shown in Figure 3.6a and from the data in the following Table, Ethiopia’s
population is predominantly young. It has persistently remained so, at least since 1970. On
average, about 45% of the population is young and economically dependent. Elderly people
account for about 3% of the total. This would mean only 52% of the population is economically
active and supports both itself and the rest of the population. Ethiopia has one of the largest non-
productive populations in the world. This is a direct result of the country’s high fertility rate.

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With such a large dependent young population, government expenditure for education, health,
shelter, food and other basic social services is very high. The only way that Ethiopia can release
this large amount of budgetary resources for more economically productive investments is by
reducing its dependency ratio.
Fast population growth, like that of Ethiopia and many other developing countries, produces a
youthful population dominated by children who are economically dependent. This age-structure
has the potential to increase the momentum of population growth as those numerous children
grow up and enter their reproductive years and have multiple children of their own. This
demographic instability of large, highly dependent and consuming, rather than effectively
producing, population’s cripples the socio-economic development process and can impede
sectorial planning. Moreover, unemployment and under employment tend to prevail due to
national economic issues.
Population Pyramid: It is the graphic representation of the age distribution of a given
population by sex. In countries where birth rates are high and death rates are also high, the
population pyramid has the form of a triangle. This pattern is typical of the population of
developing countries like Ethiopia, in which many children are born, but few reach old age. In
contrast, in the developed countries, with their lower birth rates and fewer people dying young,
the population pyramid is more rectangular, narrowing only near its top. In these countries, both
birth and death rates decline, with a result showing the number of people in each group at
equivalent state.

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In general, population pyramids of developing countries like Ethiopia have very broad bases,
showing the dominance of the young-age population. These pyramids become increasingly
narrower towards the top, advancing through the age groups, showing that the percentage of the
population becomes less and less in the upper age groups (65-69, 70-74, etc.).
 Age structure/composition is one of the most important demographic characteristics of a
population.
 Age information is often used to understand the sizes of school-age, labor-force, elderly,
and other populations.
 A population pyramid is usually employed to show the age distribution of a given
population by sex.
 The population pyramid of Ethiopia has a broad base that narrows towards the top as age
increases. This shape is typical of a population with high fertility rate.
As shown in the above Table, Ethiopia’s young-age (0-14 years) dependent population declined
from 49.8 percent in 1984 to 45.0 percent in 2007 but was still very large. In contrast, Ethiopia’s
old-age (65+ years) dependent population was very small - only 3.2% in the 1994 and 2007
Census. Although the proportion of the population of working-age group (15-64) has shown
modest increases over the course of time of the three census, it accounts for only a little more
than half of the total population. The population pyramid for Ethiopia demonstrates that the
country’s population as a whole has a high preponderance of young population, with a median
age of not more than 18 years. This is a typical feature of a rapidly growing population. The high
percentage for the young-age group in Ethiopia is the result of a high birth rate, while the small
percentage of the old-age group reflects a high mortality rate, which accounts for the low life
expectancy of the population of the country.
The Age Dependency Ratio (ADR) is the relationship between the working or economically
active population and the non-working population. The Age Dependency Ratio (ADR) is used to
show the magnitude of this dependency in a given population. This means that the dependency
burden, represented by the non-working population in the young and old age groups, on the
working-age population can be shown by the age dependency ratio. The formula for calculating
the age dependency ratio (ADR) is:

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The negative implications of heavy youth dependency in Ethiopia can be summarized as
follows.
 Even higher levels of fertility are likely to be reached when the youth group reaches
reproductive age.
 The capacity to save is highly constrained at both the household and the national level.
 Limited national resources must be diverted from investment and other developmental
activities in order to use those resources to provide services and meet the young peoples’
basic needs, such as food, housing, education, health care, etc.
 The demand for the nation’s employment opportunities will increase as the youth group
reaches working age; this results in a further high levels of unemployment.
In general, knowing about the age structure of a country’s population helps its policy-makers and
socioeconomic planners to predict for the future what sorts of goods and services might be
needed for how many people in which age group. As we have said, a large proportion of children
means growing demands for schools; a large number of people entering their child-bearing years
signals probable population growth; an increasing number of elderly people may strain pension
plans and health services.
The age structure of a population also affects its growth rates. A population that has been
growing rapidly will keep growing even when current birth rates slow down to replacement
levels. This is because, when the large child population reaches its reproductive years, it will
reproduce offspring, unless that reproduction is kept at replacement level. In fact, reproduction
will create an even larger new youth population. Thus, because the same thing is likely to happen
again when that new generation reaches its reproductive years, the danger of a rising population
spiral becomes higher and higher. For example, in Ethiopia, even if there were slight declines in
the average number of children that each woman has, (Total Fertility Rate) in future years, these
children will reproduce, producing more individuals than their own generation contains. Thus,
the population of the country will continue to expand.
Sex Structure
Sex is one of the basic demographic characteristics of a population. Sex structure is very
important for demographic analysis because it provides useful information about reproductive
potential, human resources, and so on. The sex structure of a population is shown by its sex ratio,
which is the ratio of male population to female population. Sex ratio is usually expressed as the

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number of males per 100 females in a population. A ratio greater than 100 shows a greater
number – called an excess – of males than females. The formula for calculating a sex ratio is:

The sex ratio of Ethiopia’s population increased from 99.4 in 1984 to 101.3 in 1994; and to
101.9, in 2007. The low sex ratio during the 1980s appears to be due to political unrest and civil
war. During those years, a large number of the male population was killed or was forced to
migrate to other countries to escape being killed or forcibly conscripted into the military.

In 2007, Ethiopia had an almost balanced (one-to-one) sex ratio, both in rural and urban areas.
The sex ratio for the whole country was 100.8. This meant that in the 2007 estimate, males
slightly outnumbered females. Earlier, 1999, estimates indicated slightly different sex ratios. In
rural areas, males slightly outnumbered females – the sex ratio was 101.2. In urban areas,
females slightly outnumbered males – the sex ratio was 98.5.
Regional sex-ratio data generally supported the preceding data for the nation as a whole,
showing slight variations. Male populations exceeded female populations in all regions except in
Addis, Tigray and the SNNPR. In Addis Ababa, whose population is nearly 100% urban and

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may be considered ‘representative’ of other urban centres of the country, the number of females
is considerably higher than the number of males. Sex ratios in Ethiopia are generally lower for
urban areas and higher for rural areas. This is primarily due to large number of females migrating
to urban areas.

4.4.5 Impacts of Rapid Population Growth

As we have already discussed, the size of Ethiopia’s population has been growing very rapidly.
The population growth rate is much higher and is increasing much faster than the economic
growth rate and is growing beyond the carrying capacity of the country’s natural resources, such
as land, water, soil, forest, etc. These negative results of rapid population growth have caused
many environmental and socio-economic problems. For example, population growth causes
serious environmental degradation in the area where it occurs, including deforestation, pollution,
soil erosion, depletion of resources, etc.
Deforestation
What is deforestation? Can you mention some of the problems caused by deforestation? is
deforestation a problem in your locality?
Deforestation refers to the removal of forest cover of an area without adequate replacement. In
other words, it is the process of the indiscriminate destruction of the natural vegetation cover of a
forest area.
Forests are the lungs of the earth. They absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and exhale
oxygen. They also store energy from the sun, bind topsoil to land, and aid in climate control by
capturing and releasing water. They also provide a habitat for innumerable species of plants and
animals, serving as a global storehouse of genetic diversity.
The forest cover resource of Ethiopia has been declining significantly over time.
This is caused mainly by rapid population growth and the increasing population’s needs for
forest resources such as wood and land. Many people in the country wood for cooking, heating,
and lightning, as well as for houses and furniture. Similarly, the increasing demand for
agricultural and settlement lands is a major cause of forest destruction in the country. In
Ethiopia, there is a direct correlation between population density and deforestation – the more
people there are in an area, the more trees they cut down. New trees do not spring up to replace
the old ones.

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In Ethiopia, rapid population growth leads to deforestation mainly because of peoples’ increasing
needs for more:

 Wood
 agricultural land
 settlement land
 grazing land

Such deforestation has various negative consequences, both directly on the natural environment,
and indirectly on the socio-economic conditions of the people. Its direct consequences include
the following.

 It accelerates soil erosion.

 It destroys biodiversity.
 It affects rainfall by decreasing evapotranspiration.
 It results in shortages of wood supply.
 It affects the natural beauty of the affected areas.

Pollution

Pollution refers to any undesirable change in natural conditions of water, air, and other
components of the natural environment that has negative effects on the health and activities of
human beings and other living creatures.

In Ethiopia, rapid population growth leads to environmental pollution by increasing emission of

the amounts of pollutants such as:

 Sewage, solid wastes, and pollutant gases generated by households.

 Pollutant gases, liquids, and solid chemicals generated by expanded industries.
 Pollutant gases generated by the increasing number of automobiles.
 Agricultural pollutants, such as fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, etc.

4.4.6. Population Policy of Ethiopia

A population policy is a policy that is formulated and implemented by a government in order to
plan and control population growth, based on the economic, social, cultural, political, and
demographic conditions of the country. It is needed mainly to address population related
problems in a country.

 The population policies of countries can be broadly categorized into two groups as:
anti-natalist and pro-natalist policies.
 Anti-natalist population policy seeks to lower fertility rates, in particular, and
population growth rates, in general.

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  Pro-natalist population policy seeks to increase fertility rates, in particular, and
population growth rates, in general.
 Similar to most of the developing countries, the type of population policy used in
Ethiopia is basically anti-natalist. Such policies promote lowered fertility rates, in
particular, and lowered population growth rates, in general.
History of Population Policy in Ethiopia: In Ethiopia, population policies were given low priority
before the early 1990s. After the Derg regime, the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE)
adopted a national population policy in 1993. The policy was based on the awareness that large
population size and continued rapid population growth in Ethiopia can be an enemy of
development and can cause economic, social and environmental problems in the country.

Goals and Strategies of Ethiopia’s Population Policy

Ethiopia’s anti-natal population policy formulates several goals and strategies to regulate
population for the overall good of the country.

General objectives of Ethiopia’s population policy include:

 Closing the gap between high population growth and low economic productivity, through
planned reduction of population growth and increasing economic returns;
 Expediting socio-economic development processes through holistically integrated
development programs;
 Reducing the rate of rural-to-urban migration;
 Ensuring environmental protections;
 Reducing morbidity and mortality;
 Raising the economic and social status of women; and
 Improving the social and economic status of vulnerable groups, such as adolescents,
children, and the elderly.
Specific objectives of Ethiopia’s population policy include:

 Reducing the total fertility rate (TFR) of 7.7 children per woman in 1990 to 4.0 by the
year 2015;
 Increasing the prevalence of contraceptive use from 4.0 percent in 1990 to 44 percent in
2015;
 Reducing maternal, infant, and child morbidity and mortality rates, as well as promoting
the level of general welfare of the population;

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  Significantly increasing female participation at all levels of the educational system;
 Removing all legal and customary practices that prevent women from the full enjoyment
of economic and social rights, including the full enjoyment of property rights and access
to gainful employment;
 Ensuring spatially balanced population distribution patterns, with a view to maintaining
environmental security and extending the scope of development activities;
 Improving productivity in agricultural activities and introducing off-farm and non-
agricultural activities for the purpose of employment diversification; and
 Mounting effective country-wide population information and programs that address
issues pertaining to small family size and its relationship to human welfare and
environmental security.
Ethiopia’s Population-Policy Strategies
The strategies by which the goals and objectives of the population policy are to be attained
include the following.
 Expanding contraceptive distribution;
 Diversifying available contraceptive methods;
 Raising the minimum age of marriage for girls from 15 years to at least 18 years;
 Promoting breast-feeding as a means of birth-spacing;
 Implementing career counseling services in schools;
 Integrating women into the modern sector of the economy;
 Amending all laws “impeding, in any way, the access of women to all social, economic,
and cultural resources”;
 Amending relevant articles and sections of the civil code to remove unnecessary
restrictions to “advertisement, propagation and popularization of diverse contraceptive
methods”;
 Establishing teenage and youth reproductive health counseling centers;
 Increasing research in reproductive health; and
 Promoting the involvement of males in family planning.
The population policy of Ethiopia acknowledges that existing reproductive health service
delivery systems are limited in scope and that choice of family planning methods is limited. To

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correct these problems, it calls for an expansion of reproductive health service delivery, currently
available only through the limited formal health structure, to clinical and community-based
outreach services. It also recommends the involvement of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) in providing reproductive health services, including the widest possible choice of
contraceptives.
The policy also acknowledges a need to expand capacity for performing population research and
training family planning advisors. To implement these, it calls for family planning to be
integrated into the curricula of medical schools, nursing and health assistants’ schools, junior
colleges, and technical vocational schools.
The population policy also calls for the expansion of Information, Education, and
Communication (IEC), and community involvement in achieving the goals and objectives of the
policy. In general, the population policy covers all major ground that needs to be covered in
providing directives on the management of population growth in the interest of sustainable
development.

4.4.7. Urbanization
Urbanization is the process of population shifts from rural areas to cities, and the resulting
growth of urban areas. It is the process whereby large numbers of people leave countryside/rural
places and small towns in order to settle in cities and surrounding metropolitan/urban areas. A
nation is said to have become more urbanized as its cities grow in number, its urban populations
increase in size, and the proportion of its population living in urban areas rises.
The degree of urbanization varies throughout the world but generally reflects the wealth of
individual countries. The rich, industrialized countries tend to be the most highly urbanized,
while the poor countries tend to be the least urbanized. In the Netherlands, for example, 89
percent of the population is urban, compared to only 16 percent in Ethiopia. In most developing
countries, including Ethiopia, most rural migrants to the cities have bettered themselves in
comparison to their former standard of living in rural areas. However, the rapid growth of
population in urban centers of such countries has been causing serious problems such as
overcrowding, substandard housing, homelessness, inadequate municipal services, crime,
poverty, and pollution. Today, these characteristics mark the lives of many people in most urban
centers of the developing countries. Dealing with these conditions, especially in very large cities
like Addis Ababa, presents massive difficulties for governments.

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Urban settlements
Urban settlement: refers to town or city settlements. People in urban areas depend on non-
agricultural activities. In most cases, it is difficult to give an exact definition for urban centres.
Some of the criteria used to identify urban centres include the official status of urban settlement,
size of population, and occupation of the population.

Current Urban Challenges

The outcome of rapid urbanization in Africa is that they pose challenges to the growing cities.
Cities serve as major growth engines by providing opportunities for employment, education,
technology, etc. These conditions, in turn, transfer markets for industrial and agricultural

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products; consequently, urbanization leads to further expansion of the cities where by their
peripheral areas end up in changes of land use. The conversion of farm lands and watersheds for
residential purposes has negative results in food security, water supply and the health of the
people. The adverse effects of urbanization in Africa are absence of employment opportunity,
unreliable food security, shortage of water, scarcity of shelter and inefficient waste disposal, etc.
Urbanization is increasing in both developed and developing countries. Cities in most developing
countries are encircled by a number of problems.
Factors affecting urbanization in Ethiopia
Factors Contributing to Urbanization in the nation include: firstly, peoples’ need for better living
conditions this has been the major cause for the origin, growth and development of many of the
urban centers; secondly, people’s desire to come close to clustered settlements, many rural
Ethiopians have been motivated to move and settle in urban places where there are relatively
higher concentration of social services, industries, and employment opportunities.
In the history of Ethiopia, major factors contributed to the origin and development of most
urban centers
 The interconnection of the different parts of the country by all-weather roads, which
radiate from Addis Ababa.
 The five-year Italian occupation, which intensified the construction of roads, and the
development of small-scale industries and service giving institutions.
Most urban centers of Ethiopia have developed along major transport routes, which have
attracted people to these areas. Consequently, areas with greater transport route network have
larger numbers of urban settlements, and higher population densities.
Two main areas have relatively large concentrations of urban centers and urban population: the
Shewan and the Harerghe plateaus. Together, these regions account for more than 50 percent of
the urban population of the country. The major reasons for this situation are:
 Concentration of industries that results in relatively higher opportunities for employment.
 Concentrations of social services and facilities, such as schools, health institutions, water
supplies, electricity, transportation, etc that result in, relatively, better living conditions.
Urbanization in Ethiopia
Urbanization is a recent phenomenon in Ethiopia. It was introduced mainly after the late 19th
and early 20th centuries.

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Levels and Distribution of Urbanization in Ethiopia
In spite of the high rate of rural-urban migration in Ethiopia, the level of urbanization has been
very low in the country. Less than 3 percent of Ethiopia’s population lived in urban areas in the
1940s. This figure increased to about 8.5 percent in 1967 and then to 9.7 percent in 1970. The
three censuses of the country indicate that the percentage of urban population was 10.6 percent in
1984, 13.7 percent in 1994, and 16.1 percent in 2007.
Although these figures show that urbanization is increasing in Ethiopia, their absolute values also
indicate that the country’s urbanization is low, and that its urban population is one of the smallest
in the world. This indicator reflects the country’s status as a much undeveloped nation.
The other aspect of urbanization in Ethiopia is great variation in the distribution of urban
populations illustrated in the following Figure. According to the 2007 Census, the urban
population rate ranges from 10 percent in SNNP to 100 percent in Addis Ababa. Despite the fact
that Addis Ababa City Administration is entirely urban, its percentage share of Ethiopia’s total
urban population is only 23.1 percent. The largest share, about 28 percent, is living in Oromiya
Region. In contrast, Gambela region has the smallest share of the country’s urban population,
although more than one-fourth of the region’s population lives in urban areas.

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 UNIT FIVE

5. ECONOMIC GROWTH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Economic Activities
What is economic activity? What influences economic activity?

Humans have been involved in a number of activities in order to satisfy their diverse material
and spiritual needs. These activities, which are designed to satisfy the needs of human beings, are
known as economic activities. Economic activities are highly diversified in their nature and
characters; some are simple while others are complex.

Economic activity is the production, distribution and exchange of goods and services. Some
examples of these activities are hunting, fishing, farming, grazing, mining, manufacturing,
transportation, trade and others. In the world, there are numerous activities through which human
beings earn their livings. In order to live, a person must provide for his/her basic necessities such
as food, clothing and shelter. For this, people use elements of the natural environment, i.e.,
natural resources.

5.2 Classification of Economic Activities

What are the major classes of economic activities? Can we classify economic activities? If
yes, how?

The economic activities practiced in the world are grouped into five, namely primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary and quinary. Each type of economic activity is important to a society.
The distribution of jobs in a particular economic activity in a country may indicate the level of
development of the country.

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 Figure. Economic activities
5.2.1. Primary Economic Activities
What are the major primary economic activities practiced in your locality? What are the
main purposes of producing primary goods in your area?

Primary economic activities focus directly on the extraction of resources from the environment.
They involve the production of food stuffs and raw materials. These economic activities occur at
the beginning of the production cycle, where people live in close contact with the resources of
the earth. A few examples of primary economic activities include agriculture, fishing, forestry,
and mining. All of these jobs are dependent upon the natural resources of the earth.

Primary economic activities are characterized by the following. They are:

 Dependent on the natural environment;

 Related to the production of foodstuffs and raw materials through the exploitation of
the resources of the earth;

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  Influenced by the condition of the physical environment in one way or another.
The main types of primary activities include:
 Agriculture
 Forestry
 Fishing
 Mining.
The dominant primary economic activities of the world that support the lives of millions of
people are discussed below.

1. Agriculture

What is agriculture? Why is agriculture an important primary economic activity?

Agriculture is defined as the purposeful tending of animals and plants. Agriculture is the science
and art of cultivation of the soil and the rearing of livestock for either local consumption or
commercial purposes. It is one of the most important activities of human beings, because it
provides them with the most basic necessity; food. It is one of man’s oldest
activities, and dates back to the Neolithic period (10,000 years before present). Even today,
agriculture remains an important economic activity accounting for more than 15 percent of the
earth's cultivable land. Similarly, about 60 percent of the world's population gets its livelihood
from agriculture.

Agriculture, as a primary economic activity, aims at solving the basic problems of any society. It
provides foodstuffs for the population and raw materials for industries. Above all, it forms the
basic livelihood for the majority of the peoples of the world. For example, in Ethiopia about 85
percent of the population is engaged in agricultural activities.

The type of agriculture practiced in any area is influenced by physical and socio-economic
factors. The environmental factors like soil; climate, relief, etc. impose certain limitations on the
types of crops that may be cultivated and the type of livestock that may be reared. However, in
addition to such environmental factors, various socio-economic factors like farm size, type of
land tenure, capital availability, transport and marketing facilities, price, government policies,
etc. also influence farming patterns.

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Agriculture is important for a number of reasons. It provides: basic food supplies for the
population; raw materials like cotton, sugar cane, oil seeds, etc. to industries; export crops, from
whose sales industries infrastructure and the like may be established; and employment for the
population.

In agricultural activity, land is one of the basic means for production. The characteristic feature
of land as a means of production is that when properly used its productivity increases. Another
peculiarity of agriculture is that plants and animals are simultaneously means and objects of
labor. Moreover, agricultural production is seasonal in character, because of the fact that crops
ripen at varying stages and times of the year.

2. Forestry
What is forestry?

A forest is a mass of plants or a wooded area in which trees are the most common features. The
extraction of forest products for different purposes by people is called forestry. Forestry is
important for the production of wood, timber, gums, nuts, barks, etc. It is related to exploiting
forest products, which include gathering of fuel wood, production of timber and charcoal, and
construction of houses.

Today forest products are being used for various domestic and industrial purposes. The following
are the most important ones. Forest products are being used:

 for construction purposes;

 as a source of industrial raw materials;
 as a source of foodstuffs such as roots, leaves, fruits, barks, gums, stems, flowers, etc.
Also, indirectly forests are important because they check rapid runoff and consequently control
soil erosion. In addition, moisture from forest vegetation has a moderating effect on the climate
of the local environment. They also regulate the concentration of greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide, thereby regulating the temperature condition of the local environment. A forest
is also a habitat for wild animals, and the preservation of a forest ensures the preservation of
wild.

In Ethiopia, even though the importance of forest and forest product is little in earning foreign
exchange, their significance at local level is large. For instance, their contribution to the national

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economy in the form of GDP is about 2.5%. Most of the trees cut in Ethiopia today are used for
domestic purposes. This indicates that forest products are sold on the local markets at lower
prices. The commercial exploitation of forest resources in Ethiopia is still in its infancy stage.
This is mainly because of the following major factors;

 Rapid deforestation
 Low demand for timer
 Lack of modern lumbering technology
 Inaccessibility of natural forest
3. Fishery
What is fishing?

Fishing is a primary economic activity concerned with the catching and harvesting of fish, other
marine creatures, such as whales, seals, pearls, lobsters, crabs, prawns, molluscs, sponges and
seaweed. Fishing is one of the oldest occupations of humankind. At present a number of people
in some nations depend on fishing as the mainstay of their livelihoods, for example, Norway,
Iceland and Japan. But compared to other primary economic activities, fishing is not a very basic
economic activity.

Currently fishing as an activity provides employment opportunities for only a very small
percentage of people. Marine life provides a very minor source of food and non-food products.

Ethiopia has a number of lakes, reservoirs and rivers rich in fish resources. However, fishing as
an activity is at a low level of development. Due to the presence of a number of lakes, river and
reservoirs rich in fish resources, Ethiopia has great potential for fishing. However, at present
there is no reliable estimate due to lack of exhaustive and systematic (regular) stock assessment.
The total estimated potential yield calculated from the surface area for major lakes is 60,000 tons
per year. However, in the face of the above uncertainty the potential yield stood between 30,000
and 45,000 tons per year for the main water bodies.

At present in Ethiopia, more than hundred local fish species have been identified. The bulk of the
production is made of Tilapia, Bargus, Clarias and Labeo species. In the two southern Rift
Valley lakes, Chamo and Abaya, Nile Perch is caught in significant quantity. Nile perch is also
found in major riverine fisheries.

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Like for most of Africa, Ethiopia is riddled with poverty, economic stagnation and
environmentally unsustainable practices, all of which pose serious constraints to fisheries
development. However, ample opportunities exist for the sector to help reverse national
development challenges by making a significant contribution to poverty alleviation, economic
growth, better nutrition and ecological improvement. Factories, agriculture and sewage are the
sources of major pollutants affecting Ethiopian water bodies and their fisheries.

4. Mining
What is mining?

Mining is a primary economic activity concerned with the extraction of mineral-bearing

substances from the earth’s crust. It is closely linked to manufacturing, which is a secondary type
of activity. The earth’s crust is composed of rock containing minerals. A mineral is an inorganic
chemical element or compound found naturally in the crust of the earth.

Even though, most minerals are inorganic; there are also some organic minerals, such as coal,
petroleum and natural gas. Minerals are not evenly distributed on the earth’s surface. The
different types of minerals that people use for construction, jewelry making, and in industry
come from the mining sector.

Mining is important to the economy of Ethiopia. Currently, mining contributes to only 1.5 % of
GDP (USD 32 billion). Mineral occurrences are associated with the geologic process. The oldest
(Precambrian) rocks and the sedimentary (Mesozoic) rocks host most of the economic metallic
and nonmetallic mineral deposits in Ethiopia.

5.2.2 Secondary Economic activities

What is manufacturing? Is there any difference between manufacturing and industry?

Secondary economic activities include manufacturing, construction and power production.

Manufacturing activities take place in factories. It is the activity of making articles.
Manufacturing is the activity which turns raw materials into products by using labor, energy
and equipment, while industry refers to the place where manufacturing takes place. Also,
sometimes the word industry is used to many types of economic activities, for example, the
hotel industry, the tourist industry, etc. Therefore, to distinguish the activity of processing raw
materials from the other economic activities, we specifically use the term manufacturing.

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Manufacturing is a process of changing commodities to consumable forms. In this process there
is an addition of value. In other words, the value of commodities is more after the undergone
manufacturing. Manufacturing is, therefore, a higher-level economic activity than the production
of primary materials. Manufacturing uses machines, tools and labor to make things for use or
sale. The term may refer to a range of human activities, from handicraft to the use of high
technology. However, it is most commonly applied to the creation of industrial products in which
raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale.

Manufacturing activities are characterized by the following features:

 Dependency on raw materials that are obtained from the primary economic sector;
 Transformation of raw materials into finished and/or semi-finished goods;
 Most modern manufacturing industries need power, skilled manpower, huge capital and
modern technology;
 Most modern manufacturing industries are characterized by a high level of division of
labor;
 The production of end products that are ready for consumption or semi-finished goods that
serve as an input for other industries.
The development of manufacturing activities is measure of the development stage of countries.
In Ethiopia manufacturing industries are at a low level of development. Most of the
manufacturing industries are light industries i.e. industries that process consumer goods like
textiles, food, tobacco etc. Heavy industries that manufacture capital goods are very small.
Industrial development in Ethiopia is extremely backward. The contribution of the industrial
sector to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is only 11.7 percent over the recent period.

Ethiopian’s industrial base and economic development are the lowest even by African standard.
There are various constraints to the country’s industrial development. However, the potential for
industrial development is also enormous.

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Table 1.Challenges and opportunities of Ethiopian industry sector

Challenges Opportunities
Relatively cheap electricity charge in comparison to
High logistics and transportation cost other African countries
Limited research/study and action on Macroeconomic stability and rapidly growing
export incentives and market economy
Relatively cheap labor force & increasing number of
Low labor productivity trained employees
Access to wide market (large domestic market,
High cost of imported raw materials COMESA, AGOA, EBA opportunities, China
market etc.)
Limited compliance to the international Competitive incentive packages which include
requirements and market export incentives
Integrated Agro-Industrial Parks (one stop shopping
Underdeveloped rural infrastructure in the
for all the services, economies of scale, extension
potential areas services, development of common infrastructure)
Weak supply chain integration, market Global attention due to its remarkable economic
institutions and information system growth and credit worthiness
Low level of technology
5.2.3. Tertiary Economic Activities
What is a tertiary economic activity?

The tertiary sector of the economy, (the service sector or the service industry) is the next type of
economic activity. The basic characteristic of this sector is the provision of services. It involves
the distribution and provision of goods and rendering services. The tertiary sector involves the
provision of services to other businesses as well as to the final consumers. Examples of tertiary
economic activities include education, legal services, medical services, trade, transportation
services, tourism, etc.

1. Trade
What is trade? Can you explain the significance of trade in a society? How many forms of
trade exist?

Trade is a tertiary economic activity. It is the process of buying, selling, or exchanging of

commodities. The earliest form of trade was bartering, which is the exchange of one article for
another of equal value. Trade is a process of exchange of products involving change in
ownership of commodities. The development of trade in a country depends on the development
of production activities. Trade basically arises when regions or persons complement one another

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with their products. A country carries out two types of trade. These are internal and external
trade.

The emergence of trade is related to the unequal distribution of resources that are essential to
satisfying human needs. It also resulted from specialization of skills, such as weaving,
metalwork, tannery, pottery, etc. Due to the variety of their occupations, people began to
exchange goods in the form of bartering. Later on, they started using metal, salt and paper money
as the medium of exchange. Differentiation of products, surplus of production, demand for
commodities, and differences in culture, adequate transport facilities and suitable world
conditions are the main bases of trade.

As the Ethiopian economy is an agrarian economy its merchandise (visible) export is determined
by agricultural products. According to the data from National Bank of Ethiopia/NBE/, for all
study periods the export structure of Ethiopia has been characterized by greater concentration of
few traditional exports such as coffee, oil seeds, and pulses and chat. Coffee dominates the total
merchandise export item of the country and accounts for 29.5% of visible export earnings.
Oilseeds accounting for 14.9 % take the second position followed by pulses 9.5 %, and chat 9.5
%.
2. Transportation
What sorts of transportation systems are available in your area? How do you explain the
usefulness of transportation in the world in general and in Ethiopia in particular?

Transportation is a service or facility by which persons, manufactured goods, and property are
physically carried from one location to another. Transportation is fundamental to civilization.
Transportation, it is usually said, is the lifeline or the blood vessel of an economy. This is why
we invariably see a well-developed transportation network in well-developed economies. The
role of transportation in socio-economic development is that it allows for: division of labor and
labor specialization, procurement of raw materials from various sources, dispatch of goods to
market places and personal mobility etc.

Transportation facilitates the movement of people, commodities, and mail. Nowadays, the types
and quality of transportation have made much progress. This has enabled people to travel longer
distances in shorter times than ever before. Also, the flow of ideas, beliefs and innovations has
become faster and wider.

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Over the year, faster means of transportation have been introduced, and now distances which
used to take days or months to cover can be covered in a matter of minutes or hours. The rapid
progress in transportation and other forms of communications have made places all over the
earth functionally closer to each other. Good transportation systems are needed to move goods
within a country and abroad. They are also essential to spreading the benefits of health care and
education.

There are many ways in which goods and people can be transported. In many areas of the world,
human porters and animals like horses, donkeys, camels, etc. are the main means of
transportation. These are, however, limited to local business. In international business
interaction, fast and efficient means of transportation are necessary because of the huge
quantities of commodities involved. These include land, water and air transport. The main
transportation systems are road, railway, inland waterways, oceans and airways. Each of these
has its own advantages and the ideal situation for a country is to have a network of
systematically coordinated transport links.

Activity

List and explain the advantages and limitation the different mode of transportation system.

The contribution of transportation to a country’s development is high. Its share of contribution to

the GDP of a country is incontrovertible, though the nature and extent of the contribution varies
from country to country. Transportation plays important economic, social and political roles
some of which are indicated hereunder:

 It creates job opportunity

 It promotes investment sector - on infrastructure development.
 Transportation plays a big role for both national and international trade.
 It serves as a source of income generation both for governments and the public;
 It contributes to the maintaining a country’s peace, political wellbeing and stability;
 Plays the role of linking rural areas and rural products to urban centers and helps in
 Increasing and interconnecting market outlets;
 Makes big contribution to the development of tourism, entertainment, sports and peaceful
 Relationship among people.

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Although the expansion of the transport sector is of tremendous economic, social and political
benefit, there are nevertheless some negative aspects to it. The fact that its energy consumption is
high, that it is foremost among the factors that contribute to environmental pollution, that it has
been classified among the world's killer diseases with regard to traffic accidents, and that it has
become a source of anxiety in terms of congestion constitute the negative side of the transport
sector.

3. Communication
Which form of communication is the most modern communication system?

Communication is the process of conveying messages to others. An effective communication

system plays a vital role to: accelerate the pace of development, enhance closer social
integration, and to promote the basic aim of economic activities. Some of the communication
services that are commonly used in Ethiopia include radio, television, internet, satellite, print
publications, fixed and mobile telephones, and post offices.

The word communication involves the transmission of words and messages from one place to
another. The following are the major types of communications:

 Mail: This includes the distribution of letters, pakages as well as money.

Example: Postal services

 Telephone: is a telecommunications device that transmits and receives sound, most

commonly the human voice. Telephones are a point-to-point communication system
whose most basic function is to allow two people separated by large distances to talk to
each other. Example: Mobile phone, land line telephone.
 Radio: It is one of the most important means of communication. All over the world,
information is transmitted using radios, with the help of electromagnetic waves.

 Television: It is a means of communication used to transmit messages using both images

and sounds. Nowadays, it is possible to receive information and entertainment via TV
from any corner of the world with the help of satellites.

 Internet and other modern communications tools: by using satellites and other
electronic equipment like the computer and telephone, new methods of communication
have been introduced to the world. Some of them include fax, e-mail and internet.

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 4. Tourism
What is tourism?

UNWTO (2002) defined tourism as

"Tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes.’’
Tourism is one of the largest and most important industries in the world in terms of employment
creation and generation of foreign revenue. As a worldwide export category, tourism ranked
fourth in 2013, after fuels, chemicals, food, and ahead of automotive products.

Tourism is a collection of activities, services and industries that delivers a travel experience, and
they include transportation, accommodations, eating and drinking establishments, retail shops,
entertainment businesses, activity facilities and other hospitality services provided for
individuals or groups travelling away from home.

Tourism is a source of both job opportunities and income. It is known as a ‘smokeless industry’.
The main tourist attractions include natural and human-made features. The following are some of
the reasons for tourism:

 Site-seeing;
 conferences;
 Sport activities, such as skiing, mountaineering, boating, yachting, fishing, hunting,
swimming, etc;
 Health purposes – for example to secure fresh air and sunshine and sometimes to bathe in
hot springs etc;
 Research;
 Religious ceremonies.

Features that encourage the development of a tourist industry include:

 Good weather conditions;

 beaches, scenery (scenic attractions) or physical landscape features;
 Services, such as bathing, boating, recreation, hotels, restaurants, etc.
 Accessibility (transport facilities);

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  Interesting features (historical sites, parks, etc).
As one of the developing countries, Ethiopia and its tourism is becoming an important sector
contributing a great deal towards the social, cultural, and economic development aspects of the
country. Though tourism development is still unsatisfactory, international tourist arrivals in
Ethiopia have shown a considerable growth. Likewise, the contributions of tourism income to
GDP as well as export earnings are growing in recent years.
Major Tourist attraction sites of Ethiopia
Historic Attraction sites
i. The Obelisk of Axum: preserves an ancient history of the era of the Axumite powerful empire
having trade links as far as India and China. Visitors will enjoy the sites of these monolithic
obelisks and many more wonders surrounding their history, notably the Bath of the Legendary
Queen of Sheba and archeological findings that depict the way of life of the Axumite period that
reigned from pre-Christ times up until the 11th century AD.
ii. The Churches of Lalibela- the UNESCO has named the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela as
the 8th wonders of the world. Lalibela presents the site of a chain of rock carved out 11th century
churches with astonishing architectural designs and interior decorations. Ahistorical myth
narrates King Lalibela; on his own (with the help of angels) completed the construction of the
churches. After his death the king has been designated as an Ethiopian saint.
iii. The Castles of Gondar- built in the mid-17th century together with the surrounding
centuries-old churches depict yet another sophisticated architectural wonders. The Castles are
found in the city of Gondar, which has been the seat of government following Axum and
Lalibela.
iv. The Walls of Harar- built in the early 16th century, the walls are designated after the city of
Harar. The Walls have 5 arched gates inviting to the city's popular basketworks, 164 variety of
fruits and colourfully decorated costumes of Hararie women.The city of Harar is considered as
the 4th holy city of Islam.
Natural Attraction sites
i. The Blue Nile Falls- locally known as Tississat, meaning 'water that smokes' presents a
spectacular water fall with an intense gash from more than forty-five meters (150feet) peak,
producing rainbows across the gorge. The area is also inhabited with fascinating wild lives and
birds.

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ii. Simien Mountains- Simien mountains are home of Ethiopia's highest peak Ras Dashen with
the height of 4,620 meters above sea level. With the assistance of a professional guide, the area is
ideal for mountain trekking. The endemic Walia Ibex and the Gelada baboon are also found here.
iii. The Rift Valley Lakes- Ethiopia is one of the countries that the Great Rift Valley system
traverses. The Valley embraces the beautiful chains of lakes with abundant wildlife and variety
of birds. The Rift Valley comprises famous natural parks known as Abijatta-Shalla, Nechisar,
Mago and Omo national parks. Each national park presents a unique feature for bird-watching,
trekking and wild life scenery.
iv. The National Parks: Being a land of diverse geographic settings and rich natural resources,
National Parks in Ethiopia, present spectacular visiting opportunities for tourists that are keen on
admiring and enjoying.

Figure. Tourist sites in Ethiopia

5.2.4. Quaternary Economic Activities

What are the major quaternary economic activities practiced in your locality?
The quaternary sector may realistically be seen as an advanced form of service activity involving
specialized knowledge, technical skills, communication ability, or administrative competence.

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These activities include education, research, development, financial services and government
activities. These are the activities performed in office buildings, elementary and university
classrooms, hospitals and doctors’ offices, theatres and television stations. They are activities
primarily concentrated in large urban places and require higher levels of education than the other
sectors. This section also includes other pure services, such as the entertainment industry.

5.2.5. Quinary Economic Activities

What are quinary economic activities? Is there any difference between quaternary and
quinary economic activities?

Quinary economic activities are generally considered to be a sub-set of quaternary activities and
are those that involve high-level decision making and scientific research skills. It is also a sub-
division of the tertiary sector representing the special and highly paid skills of top business
executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, and the like.
These people find their places of business in major metropolitan centres, in and near major
universities and research centers.

5.3 Natural Resources

Can you list some of the materials that people use from their environments? What do we
call the materials that people use from the environment to meet their needs?
Resource: Anything, which is useful man, or can be transformed into a useful product or can
be used to produce a useful thing, can be referred as ‘resources’. Any material which is part of
earth and satisfy human need and add value is called as resource Example: rocks, minerals,
soil, rivers, plants & animal

 Natural resources occur naturally within environments

 NR is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity and geo diversity existent in various
ecosystems
Natural resources occur naturally within environments when those environments exist in their
natural forms, relatively undisturbed by people. A natural resource is often characterized by the
amount of biodiversity that exists in various ecosystems. Natural resources are derived from the
environment. Many of them are essential for human life, while others are used for satisfying our

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wants. Natural resources include fertile soil, clean water, minerals, wildlife, vegetation, and
energy sources. People use all these resources to improve their lives.

5.3.1. Importance of Natural Resources

1. Natural Vegetation
What are the direct and indirect uses of natural vegetation?

When you observe your surroundings, you may see different types of plants. Some of these
plants might have been planted by people and others might have grown naturally. Those which
grow naturally are known as natural vegetation.

The term natural vegetation refers to the original cover of plants of a region resulting from
normal conditions of climate, soil, drainage and other natural conditions. The vegetation of a
region can be modified to a marked extent by people, because of agricultural or urban
development. The following are the direct and indirect uses of natural vegetation.

The natural vegetation in Ethiopia is a most important source of raw materials for the
construction and furniture industries. Among the most common woods that are used for these
purposes are juniperus (tid), podocarpus (zigba), Aningeria (kerero), Arundineria (kerkaha), olea
(weira), wanza, tikur inchet and bamboo.

Bamboo is one type of natural vegetation. In the world there are over 1,200 different species of
bamboo forest. The highland bamboo species is one of the types of Ethiopian bamboo. This
species grows naturally in the ecological zone of the country that is between 2200 – 3500 meters
above sea level.

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Alpine bamboo has traditionally been used as a material for making fences and water pipes, as
well as a variety of handicraft, items. The culms are used by cottage industries for woven and
plaited products such as basketry, mats, and other decorative items.

Ethiopian highland bamboo also has been used for manufacturing industrial products such as
parquet flooring, window blinds, and curtains. It is also useful for bio-energy.

2. Wild Animals
What are wild animals? Have you ever seen wild animals?
Wildlife includes all wild living creatures, large or small. Mammals, birds, fish, reptiles,
amphibians and insects are regarded as wildlife. These animals are important for many reasons.
Among the most common important functions of wild animals for human beings are the
following.
 Source of food
 Source of industrial raw materials
 Scientific and educational purpose
 Maintaining the balance of nature
 Add beauty to the environment (aesthetic value)
 Source of individual and national income
3. Minerals
What are minerals used for?
A mineral is an element or a combination of elements. It is either inorganic or organic chemical
elements or compounds found naturally in the crust of the earth. Minerals are useful in many
ways. The major uses of minerals are as follows:
 Minerals are raw materials for a variety of manufacturing establishments. For
example, iron, copper and tin are used in the production of many types of
manufactured goods.
 Some minerals are sources of energy that is used to run machinery. Examples: coal,
petroleum and natural gas.
 Some minerals are used for making fertilizers. These include minerals like phosphates,
sulphur, potash, and nitrates.

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  Some minerals are used directly as materials in building construction. Such minerals
include limestone, marble, granite, clay, etc.
 Some minerals are used for both aesthetic and ornamental purposes. For example,
silver and platinum are used in the minting of coins as well as for other industrial
purposes. Diamonds, gold and some others are useful ornamental minerals.
4. Soil
What is soil? What are soils used for? What are the parent materials of soil?
Soil is a natural resource consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses. It is
composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and environmental
processes that include weathering and erosion. Soil differs from its parent rock due to
interactions between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and the biosphere. It is a mixture
of mineral and organic constituents that are in solid, gaseous and liquid states. The following are
the major uses of soil:
 Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the primary nutrient base for plants. The
types of soil used in agriculture vary with respect to the species of plants that are
cultivated.
 Soil resources are critical to the environment and food production. Soil provides minerals
and water to plants. Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and
drought. Soil cleans the water as it percolates through. Soil is the habitat for many
organisms.
 The biological component of soil is extremely important for the carbon sink. Even in
desert areas, bacteria, lichens and mosses capture a significant amount of carbon by
photosynthesis. Restoring the world’s soils could offset some of the huge increase in
greenhouse gases which is causing global warming, while improving crop yields and
reducing water needs.
5.3.2 Classification of Natural Resources
How are environmental resources classified? What is the difference between renewable and
non-renewable resources?
Natural resources can be categorized in to different categories based on different criteria.
 On the basics of origin:
 Biotic resources E.g: Wildlife, Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, etc.

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  Abiotic resources E.g.: Gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.
 On the basics of abundance and availability:
 Exhaustible resources E.g: Coal, petroleum, mineral rocks, etc.
 Inexhaustible resources E.g.: Solar energy, atomic energy, wind energy, tidal energy,
etc.
 On the basics of renewability:
 Renewable resources E.g : Sunlight , air , wildlife , etc.
 Non – renewable resources E.g : Fossil fuels , Uranium
 On the basics of recyclability:
 Recyclable resources E.g : Ore of aluminium , copper etc , minerals used in
natural form
 Non – recyclable resources E.g : Fossil fuels and Uranium
In the content of renewability, natural resources can be categorized as follows:
1. Renewable resources: are types of resources that can be replaced as they are used. They
can be replaced naturally or grown fairly quickly. Forests, water, soil, plant and animal life
all can be renewable resources if people manage them carefully. The renewable resources
are replaceable in character since they are able to reproduce themselves. For example,
forest is a renewable resource that can produce timber and other forest products year after
year if it is carefully and scientifically managed.
2. Non-renewable resources: As their name suggests, non-renewable resources cannot be
replaced once they have been used. The most important example of non-renewable
resources are the fossil fuels like, coal, oil and natural gas and minerals. These resources
are generally non-replaceable in character.
Resources are not evenly distributed throughout the world. There is a great disparity in the
distribution of natural resources. This unevenness in the distribution of natural resources has led
to the notion of the “have and have nots” nations, although the total resource quantities of the
world have not yet been adequately determined.
Throughout the world, people cut more and more trees and mine more minerals. This has led to
the occurrence of environmental problems. Sometimes, resources are misused, as a result their
quantities become smaller and smaller. This process is called environmental degradation. To

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overcome this problem, renewable and non-renewable resources should be wisely or sustainably
used.
Now a day a number of people believe that the earth’s resources are being over used and
sometimes misused. If this situation continues uncontrolled, many of the resources will be lost or
will deteriorate. Unless something is done quickly, we will face disasters. In order to overcome
this problem, people in many parts of the world practice different resource-conservation
measures. Such practices help to maintain the volumes of resources and make them last longer.
5.3.3 Natural Resources of Africa and its Politics
As some sources indicate, Africa is a naturally endowed continent. Its landmass possesses huge
reserve of different kinds of minerals including precious gem stones such as diamond and gold,
and petroleum. Its varied topography makes the continent rich in terms of climatic resources and
biodiversity. The geology of the continent is also a cause for the presence of various soil types
with varying degree of fertility. Water resources are abundant in forms of rivers, lakes and
swamps, though there are still many areas with serious shortage of water. The world’s second
largest population of the continent is also a source of huge human power. Africa’s tropical
location also makes it potentially conducive for the continent to possess tremendous solar energy.
However, all these resources do not seem to serve the cause of the continent’s development.
Instead, they are becoming causes of conflicts and war.

5.3.3.1 Natural Resources of Africa

1. Mineral resources
Africa’s geology consists of various types of rocks and fuel oil. This makes the continent rich in
mineral resources. Geographically, Northern Africa is rich in petroleum resources. West and
Central Africa are also major regions with huge petroleum reserves. Metallic minerals and other
gem stones are abundant in Southern Africa.

As some estimates indicate, Africa has 90% of the world’s cobalt and platinum, 50% of the
world’s gold, 98% of the world’s chromium, 70% of the world’s tantalite, 64% of the world’s
manganese and one-third of the world’s uranium. The DRC alone has 70% of the world’s coltan
(ore of Tantalum) and more than 30% of the world’s diamond reserve. Guinea is the world’s
largest exporter of bauxite (ore of aluminum). North African countries constitute one of the

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world’s major centres of oil production. Libya, Algeria and Nigeria are among Africa’s leading
producers of crude petroleum. Algeria has a huge reserve of natural gas, as well. North Africa is
also rich in phosphate deposits and production, Morocco being the world’s leader in its output.
Coal, iron ore, uranium, platinum, lead, zinc, and cobalt are also available in Northern Africa,
though to a lesser extent.

Significant amount of oil reserve is also found in Western and Central Africa. With Nigeria being
Africa’s top petroleum producer. Other important oil-producing countries of the region include
Angola, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo. These regions also possess some of the world’s
most significant sources of cobalt, manganese, potash, bauxite, and copper. Guinea alone has
about one-third of the world’s reserves of bauxite. Other minerals of significant economic
importance in the regions are iron ore, gold, diamond, tin, uranium, phosphate, columbite,
and titanium. Likewise, Southern Africa is one of the world’s richest source of gold, diamond,
and several other rare metals. Among the countries of the region, the republic of South Africa
alone has the largest and most diverse mineral economy. As a result, the country is a leading
producer of gold and uncut (raw) diamonds. Zimbabwe is also an important producer of gold.
Botswana and Namibia produce significant amount of diamond. Chromium, cobalt, antimony,
uranium, lithium, nickel, manganese, asbestos, platinum, titanium, and vanadium are also
important minerals produced in southern Africa.

2. Agricultural Resources
Agriculture is the backbone of many African countries. Apart from being the main source of
foodstuffs and employment, the sector is a dominant source of agricultural outputs that enter into
world market. Africa’s physical diversity has made the continent an ideal environment for the

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production of certain agricultural products that are vitally demanded in the world market. The
continent is rich in terms of certain tropical crops such as coffee, cocoa, tea, sugarcane, rubber,
palm oil, sisal, cotton and ground nuts. The economy of many African countries is primarily
agricultural. They are dependent on the exportation of these tropical crops. Crop production
absorbs much of the continent’s labour force; and the exportation of crops contributes a lot to the
GDP of the exporting countries.

Table 2. Major crops in Africa

Africa's
Crop Leading producers in Africa
Global share
Ghana, Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria, Liberia,
Cocoa 53%
Togo, Cameroon
Cote D'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya,
Coffee 20%
Cameroon, Tanzania, DRC, Angola
Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Mozambique,
Tea 13%
Zimbabwe, Congo, Mauritius
Palm oil Nigeria, Ivory Coast, and Zaire 16%
Sugar cane Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia 7%
DRC, Ghana, Cote D'Ivoire, Cameroon
Rubber 6%
Gabon, Sierra Leon, Kenya and Tanzania
Sisal Tanzania, Kenya and Madagascar 29%
Sudan, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Mali, Congo
Cotton 7%
and Egypt
Ground nuts Nigeria, Senegal and Zaire 29%
3. Water Resources
Though the provision of clean water is a critical problem in many countries of Africa, the
continent is still rich in terms of water resources. Thousands of rivers that altogether comprise
the four major drainage systems of Africa flow over the vast landmass of the continent. The
rivers that drain many areas of the continent include some of the world’s greatest rivers namely
Nile, Congo, Niger and Zambezi. There are also many lakes, a lot of which are concentrated in
the Great East African Rift Valley, a site also containing varied biodiversity.

The rivers and lakes have tremendous potential in terms of fishing, hydroelectric power
generation, irrigation, and mineral extraction. The rivers and lakes of Africa, as well as the
adjacent seas and oceans make the continent rich in terms of fish resources. Major grounds for
marine fish such as tuna, sardines, and hake are found some distance off from West African
coasts stretching from Morocco to Senegal, and Angola to Namibia. The Nile, Niger, Congo, and

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Senegal rivers and Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, Malawi, and Chad are also major sources of
freshwater fish. Nile perch is the most common freshwater fish targeted in angling. Morocco,
Egypt, South Africa, Ghana, and Nigeria were the top African countries in total fish catch in
1999. Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Senegal, and Libya exported the most fish in the same
period. Morocco is also leading in fish processing industries, producing more canned fish, fish
oil, and fish meal than any other African country.

Africa’s many large rivers provide the continent with a vast hydroelectric power potential,
Which, in fact, has scarcely been exploited. Several major dams including the Aswan High Dam
on the Nile River, the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River, and the Kariba Dam and Cabora Bassa
Dam on the Zambezi River have been constructed since 1960. In Ethiopia, the major rivers of the
country mainly rivers Tekeze and Ghibe have already been dammed for this purpose. The
country has also inaugurated a new dam construction project on the Abay river recently.

Irrigation is another potential to be exploited from Africa’s rivers and lakes. As these water
bodies contain fresh water, they can potentially be exploited for agricultural purposes. As many
areas in Africa are rainfall deficient, the rivers and lakes that form the drainage systems of the
continent can be used for the production of agricultural products. For instance, the Nile River
supports the lives of millions of people in Sudan and Egypt by providing irrigable water to these
countries. Similarly, the Awash River in Ethiopia makes such a benefit available to the people of
this country. There are many irrigation schemes along the Awash River basin including the Upper
and Lower Awash agro-industries and the different sugar cane plantations in the region.
However, the huge irrigation potential of many rivers and lakes in Africa is not yet fully
exploited. Despite such available potential, decline in agricultural productivity is a common
phenomenon in many African states. As a result, the continent often suffers from recurrent
famine.

4. Human Resources
Africa is the world’s second most populous continent. According to the 2009 World Population
Data Sheet, the continent is a home for about 1 billion people. Of this number 41% is under 15
and 3% above 65 years of age. The rest 56% is in the productive age. This makes the continent
rich in terms of human resource potential. This indicates, firstly, the fact that about 56% of the
total population is currently actively productive: and, secondly, the future potential of labour is

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relatively high since the 41% population of under 15 would soon join the labour force. Yet, we
can say that the human resource potential of the continent has never been exploited to its full
extent. In simple words, it fails to contribute to the development of the continent since much of
the labour force, including the economically active, are unemployed or idle and even
underemployed.

5.3.3.2 Resource Utilization and Conflict Management

Africa is naturally endowed with varied resources that could potentially contribute a lot to the
continent’s development. However, the degree of exploitation of these resources is practically
insignificant. The huge mineral potential of the continent is untouched. The water resources are
untapped. Even in areas where the extraction of minerals is better developed, the resource is
becoming more of a cause of conflict than of a socio-economic development. As you might have
heard from different sources of information, Africa is the only continent that is well characterized
by political unrest, conflicts, civil war and related humanitarian crisis including huge
displacement of people. As a matter of fact, the continent is considered as the world’s largest
refugee camp since millions of Africans live in refugee camps as a result of displacement for
reasons of conflicts and civil war.

The major source of conflict in many resource exploitation areas of Africa is related to
inappropriate use and allocation of resources. If we consider many of the conflicts and civil wars
in Africa, their causes are deep rooted in resource allocation and utilization. In most of the cases,
governments fail to provide better opportunities for the residents of the areas where resources,
especially minerals, are being exploited. To add fuel to the problem, many governments do not
even make the inhabitants of resource extraction areas beneficiaries of the exploited resources.
Thus, while many Africans live in extreme poverty expensive resources get tapped and exported
to rich countries. This causes conflict. In demand of having their opportunities fulfilled, peoples
of such areas confront their governments. When the government fail to properly address the
issue, the conflict intensifies and people die ultimately, the case worsens and civil war occurs.
The conflicts that have made Africa an extensive battle field of civil wars are in one way or
another associated with unfair utilization and allocation of resources. The Civil wars in Southern
Sudan, Liberia, Democratic republic of Congo, Angola, and Rwanda are fought because of
inappropriate resource utilization and allocation, besides seeking political power.

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5.4 Economic Systems
What is an economic system?

An economic system is the means or structures in a society within which decisions about what to
produce, how and when to produce goods and services and where to allocate them are made and
implemented. The way a society makes economic decisions may closely reflect the pattern of its
culture. It also talks about the society’s politics, religion, and even its approach to family.

To achieve economic growth and development, different countries use different approaches or
systems. That means economic problems can be solved in various ways. Here are the major
economic systems practiced in the world:

 Traditional economic system

 Free market economic system
 Command economic system
 Mixed economic system
5.4.1 Traditional Economy
What are traditional economies? Can you cite a primitive people who still live in traditional
economies (especially in Africa)? Do we have such communities in Ethiopia? What are the
basic features of a traditional economy?

It is an economic system in which primitive people produce just to feed their households with
very little goods or services left over for sale or exchange in the market. Production is geared
towards subsistence and basic survival. The system employs simple, backward and traditional
means (techniques) in the process of food production.

Market and money are of little importance, and trade is mainly by a barter system. Thus,
exchange of goods is limited. Answers to the “for whom” and “how much” questions are fixed
by custom, habit, religion, or law in traditional cultures. Example, the Bushmen of the Kalahari
Desert have rules for sharing their kills among the hunters and their families. The largest share
usually goes to the best hunter. In this way, the best hunters survive when games are secured.

5.4.2. Market Economy

What is market economy? What is the role of the government in a market economy? How is
market economy different from traditional economy? What are the weak and strong sides of
market economy?

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Market economy is an economic system in which individuals, rather than government, make the
main decisions regarding economic activities and transactions. Individuals are free to make
economic decisions concerning their employment, how to use or accumulate capital, what
expenditures to make, and whether to use their resources now or to save them for later
consumption.
In a market economy, the basic economic questions are answered by the interplay of buyers and
sellers. There is no overall planning, as there is with command economic systems. The guiding
principle of market systems is self-interest. Sellers want to sell at the highest prices. Buyers want
to buy at the lowest prices. The bargains that buyers and sellers make, therefore, give the answers
to the questions.
It is important to know that there is no pure free-market economy in the world. Governments
interfere in organizing market economy in many ways and for many reasons. Most governments
play an important role in dealing with problems of inflation and employment. They are also
concerned with providing education for the society, strengthening national defense, controlling
prices of power supply and food, and imposing taxes.
The main proponents of free-market economies believe and forward a number of advantages of
free market economies, such as encouraging individual responsibility for decisions. They also
believe that economic freedom is essential to political freedom.
Free-market economies are also criticized. Opponents believe that a free-market economy cannot
ensure basic social values such as alleviating poverty or ensuring equitable income distribution.
It may also permit the accumulation of wealth and strong vested interests that could threaten the
survival of political freedom.
Generally, market economy is characterized by:
 Private property.
 Economic freedom.
 Prices that are determined by the law of supply and demand.
 Decentralized decision making.
5.4.3. Command Economy
What does “command economy” mean? Which countries of the world still follow command
economic systems? What are the unique features of command economy?

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In a command economy, the government makes decisions about production and consumption.
This implies that the government decides what to produce, how to produce and for whom to
produce. Also the government’s own all factories, land, housing, etc. The command economic
system still exists in some countries, such as North Korea, Cuba and China. It is characterized
by:
 a master plan for supply and price.
 the government develops and enforces plans.
 goods and services are distributed through government agencies.
State ownership of resources actually reduces personal incentive, effort and initiative. At best, in
a command economic system, the basic economic questions are answered by a group of planners.
They have the power to make economic decisions for the society as a whole. However, this type
of economy is fading away in the world.
5.4.4. Mixed Economy
What are the roles of government and private sectors in mixed economic system?
In this type of economic system, both government and private sectors play an important role in
answering the “what”, “how’ and “for whom” questions concerning society as a whole. In the
mixed system, the government may not only own and run key industries, means of transport,
power, and water supply, etc., but it also intervenes to prevent monopolies and ensure free
competition. In addition, it might influence prices of agricultural products, rather than allowing
them to be influenced by market forces. It might also offer incentives (tax relief, grants,
exemptions or penalties) to encourage particular activities (e.g., tree planting).
Most countries of the world have mixed economies (for example, France and Sweden). Some are
close to command economy while others rely more on market economy. In a mixed economy,
there is competition between the government and the private sectors. Sometimes, those that are
unable to compete soon die away.
Traditional economic systems make decisions the way they have always been made in the past.
Command systems permit a group of planners to answer the basic economic questions. Market
systems rely on exchange and a network of prices to determine issues of what, how, for whom,
and how much, while mixed economy is characterized partly by free-market.

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5.5 Concept and Indicators of Economic Development
What are the tools used to measure development? How do we classify countries at different
levels of development?
Indicators of development are measures, to a certain level, of development in a given country.
The main indicators of development in the world include:
 GDP
 Per-capita income
 Standard of living
1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
What is the GDP?
GDP refers to the total value of goods and services produced in a country over a period of time.
It can be calculated by either adding up the value of all goods and services produced, or the
expenditure on goods and services at the time of sale, or producers’ incomes from the sale of
goods or services. However, measuring GDP precisely is quite cumbersome. This is partly
because every country has an unofficial economy that is often called a black economy that
includes businesses that are not reported to government. Furthermore, GDP measures a country’s
economic activity regardless of who owns the productive assets in that country. For example, the
output of Holland-owned companies based in Ethiopia is considered part of Ethiopia’s GDP
rather than part of the Holland GDP. The amount of GDP an economy has as well as the major
sectors of contributors to the GDP of a country are important indicators of development.
Another term, Gross National Product (GNP) is also used to measure a nation’s wealth. GNP
refers to the total annual flow of goods and services in the economy of a nation in monetary
value. It includes income from within and outside of the state.
2. Per-Capita Income
How can the per-capita income of a country be measured?
It is another indicator of development. It is strongly related to the GDP. Of course, as a measure
of peoples’ quality of life it is indicative of their standard of living.
This one refers to the average amount of money that an individual is expected to have as a result
of the state’s GNP. It is computed by dividing the GNP of a country by the total number of its
people. As it is a crude measure, per capital income does not tell who exactly gets how much.
However, it indicates how much each individual in a state can potentially get if the total GNP of

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the state is evenly distributed among all people. The Gross National Product (GNP) is the total
value of goods and services produced by a country in a year, including incomes secured from
abroad, through varied activities. Per capital income can be calculated as

Example

Suppose gross domestic product (GDP) of a country for a given year is $50 billion, total
population is 25 million, income earned by foreigners from the domestic economy is $100
million, and income earned by nationals from abroad is $250 million. What is the percapita
income for the country?

In the same way as the GDP, per-capita income for developed countries is very high and
growing. This is the result of ever-increasing GDPs that are based on diversified urban industrial
and commercial economies. Developing countries, on the other hand, have low per-capita
incomes, whose bases are primary economy that lack diversification.

In the same way as the GDP, per-capita income for developed countries is very high and
growing. This is the result of ever-increasing GDPs that are based on diversified urban industrial
and commercial economies. Developing countries, on the other hand, have low per-capita
incomes, whose bases are primary economy that lack diversification.

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 3. Standard of Living
Why is living standard considered the best measure of development?
Living standard is perhaps the best measure of the quality of life of a given society. It is directly
related to both the GDP and per-capita income. This is because, as the latter get higher, the
former improves, and vice versa. Developed countries have high and constantly growing living
standards, while people of the developing world are characterized by low living standards.
This is the threshold of material security measured by the availability of resources for an
individual, family, or society. It is the best measurement of the quality of life of people in a given
society. The standard of living that people have in a state is directly related to both GDP and per
capita income. Hence, in economies we say that where we have higher GDP and per capita
income, people have better standard of living. Contrary to this, people in countries with low GDP
and per capita income have low standard of living.
These three factors are strictly interrelated to one another. Thus, a higher GDP means higher per
capita income. Likewise, a higher per capita income means better living condition. In well
developed economies, there is high GDP, per capita income and standard of living.
The developed countries are the world’s richest nations. This is because their economy is urban-
based, industrial and specialized in commercial activities, supported by sophisticated technology
and infrastructure. Less developed countries include the bulk of the world’s countries, which are
found in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. They have traditional economic systems, largely based
on agriculture, mining or a combination of both.
The least developed countries, as their name implies, are the poorest nations of the world. By all
standards, these countries have the most backward economic and social systems. Hence, mass
poverty is a common feature of the majority of the populations of these countries.
5.6 Sustainable Economic Development
Development is a process by which members of a society increase their personal and institutional
capacities to mobilize and manage resources to produce sustainable improvements in their
quality of life.
The most recent definition of development: Development – represents the whole package of
change by which an entire social system moves away from a condition of life perceived as
unsatisfactory towards a situation or condition of life that is materially and spiritually better
(Todaro and Smith, 2009: 16).

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Development in any society must have at least the following three objectives:
 To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining goods, such
as food, shelter, health services and clothing.
 To raise living standards and levels of income, employment, education and attention to
cultural and human values.
 To expand the range of economic and social choices.

What does sustainable development mean?

According to the World Commission of Environment and Development (1987), “Sustainable
development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
In other words, sustainability implies that future growth and overall quality of life are critically
dependent on the quality of the environment. To destroy the environment in the pursuit of short-
term economic goals, jeopardizes present and especially future generations. This is the level of
extraction that could be maintained without lessening future levels.

Figure 1.Components of sustainable development

That is why sustainability is a current paradigm for thinking about a future in which
environmental, societal and economic considerations are balanced in the pursuit of development
and improved quality of life. Sustainable development has three components, The area of
overlap in the figure above (i.e., the intersecting and shaded part of the three circles at the center)
represents human wellbeing. As the environment, society and economy become more aligned,
the area of overlap increases, and so does human wellbeing.
Generally, in order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection must constitute
an integral part of the development process, and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
Eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in living standards in different parts of the world are

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essential goals for achieving sustainable development and meeting the needs of the majority of
people.
5.6 Economic Organizations of the World and Globalization
Can you name economic organizations that serve at a global level? How do they contribute to
the economic development of nations across the world? What influences and pressures are
created by these global organizations upon the developing countries?
Three key institutions serve as economic organizations of the world. They are the World Bank,
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). All three
organizations trace their origins to the end of World War II (1939-1945), when the United States
and the UK decided to set up new organizations and rules for the global economy. Since then,
these three economic organizations have played a large role across the world. The following
subsections highlight each of them.
1. World Bank
What roles are played by the World Bank in developing countries? Can you cite some
examples from Ethiopia?
The World Bank is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It was established in 1944. It
grants loans to member nations for the purpose of reconstruction and development. Officially, it
is called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). The World Bank is
the largest known private development bank. It operates internationally and has its headquarters
in the United States in Washington, D.C. It makes large loans to governments of developing
countries to finance projects intended to strengthen the economies of these nations. The World
Bank finances projects such as building roads, dams for power generation, and industries.
Beginning in 1968, the bank also focused on low-cost loans for health, education and other basic
needs of the world’s poor.
2. International Monetary Fund (IMF)
What makes the IMF different from the World Bank?
The IMF was established in the same year as the World Bank (1944) with the aims of
encouraging exchange stability, eliminating exchange controls, promoting international monetary
cooperation, and expanding world trade. In other words, the IMF makes loans so that countries
can maintain the values of their currencies and repay foreign debt. Countries accumulate foreign
debt when they buy more from the rest of the world than they sell abroad. They then need to

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borrow money to pay the difference, which is known as balancing their payments. After banks
and other institutions will no longer lend them money, they turn to the IMF to help them balance
their payment positions with the rest of the world. The IMF initially focused on Europe, but by
the 1970’s it changed its focus to the less developed economies.
Both the IMF and the World Bank usually impose certain conditions for loans and require what
are called structural adjustment programmes from borrowers. The programs are based on a
strategy that is geared towards promoting free markets, including privatization (the selling of
government enterprises); deregulation (removing rules that restrict companies); and trade
liberalization (opening local markets to foreign goods by removing barriers to exports and
imports). Finally, the strategy also calls for shrinking the role of government, reducing taxes, and
cutting back on publicly provided services.
3. World Trade Organization (WTO)
How does the WTO differ from the World Bank and the IMF? Do you support or oppose
the WTO? Why?
The World Trade Organization is an international body that promotes and enforces provision of
trade laws and regulations. It has the authority to administer and put in place new and existing
free trade agreements, to oversee world trade practices, and to settle trade disputes among
member states.
5.7 Economic Growth and Development in Ethiopia
5.7.1 An Overview of Economic Growth and Development Trends in Ethiopia
When we refer to our topic, Economic Growth and Development Trend in Ethiopia, there has
been an encouraging trend since 1996. This fact has been released by Welfare Monitoring
surveys as follows.
 In rural areas, the literacy rate increased from 18% in 1995/96 to 31% in 2004/05.
 At country level, gross enrollment ratio at primary grades level has increased from
37.4% in 1996 to 79.8 in 2004/05. Although still relatively high, primary dropouts in
rural areas declined from 18.5% in 1996 to 13.6% in 2004 at secondary level from
29.3% to 16.5%. The proportion of households that are very far away from schools. i.e.,
10 km in the case of primary school) has fallen substantially.
 The proportion of rural population living more than 20 km from a health facility has
fallen from 20% of household, in 1996 to 13% in 2004.

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  Consistent decline in malnutrition over time is being shown in both rural and urban
area. The rate in urban areas fell from 58% in 1996 to 30% in 2004; and in rural areas
fell from 67% to 48%.
 About 92% of rural households are less than 5 kms away from the closest source of
drinking water while it is much better in urban area. More than 82% could get access to
drinking water in less than one-kilometer distance.
 About 42% of rural households are now less than five kilometers away from the closest
all-weather road. The trend over time also indicates that availability of all-weather
roads within five kilometer radius has been increasing etc.
In general, Ethiopia has started to have an economic growth at an average 11%, which is
appreciable. PASDEP has contributed much to enhance all the achievements made for the last
five years, the new Growth and Transformation Program (2010- 15) will promote and lead to
increased success within the coming five years.
5.7.2 Major Features of Ethiopian Economy
How can you characterize the main features of Ethiopian economy?
The nature, performance, and growth of each sector were discussed in detail. Here in this unit,
only their basic features are given as we examine the main characteristics of Ethiopia’s economy.
Try to integrate the information between the two units.
This section highlights the major sectors of the Ethiopian economy:
 agricultural
 industrial
 distributed (service)
The agricultural sector, which is the dominant sector in many aspects, has performed
unsatisfactorily for the last forty or fifty years due to multifaceted determining factors. Although
various developmental strategies have been adopted since the early 1960s, their performance has
been low. Even in the fiscal years of and 2002/03, 2003/04, 2004/05, 2005/06, 2006/07, 2007/08,
the GDP share of agriculture was 44.9%, 47%, 47.4%, 47.2%, 46.3%, 44.6%, respectively. This
apparent decline was due to problems of weather changes, is the main factor on which Ethiopian
agriculture depends. However, reforms instituted after 2002 have promoted the sector
significantly.

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Table 3.Sector share for GDP
Share in GDP (%)
Fiscal year Sector 2008/0 2009/1
2006/07 2007/08
2005/06 9 0
Agriculture and allied
47.0 46.0 44.6 43 42
activities
Industry 13.0 13.0 13.0 13 13
Service/distributive sector 40 41.0 43.4 45 46
GDP 100 100 100 101 101
Agriculture’s main products are food crops, cash crops, industrial crops, fruits and vegetables,
flowers, and animal products.
Agriculture had been the leading sector followed by the service sector until 2007/08. But, after
2008/09, the service sector emerged as the dominate/leading sector mainly due to the natural
factors and economic factors. One of the lower capital and space required at the initial period.
Table 4. Service sub-sector growth performance

Among the various service sub-sectors, trade, hotels and restaurants had remarkable overall
growth spanning the years shown in Table. Banking and insurance follows showing an average
growth rate performance of 18.5 percent from 2006/07 through 2009/10. Education ranks third
with an average growth rate of 16.5 percent.
The industrial sector ranked third in its contribution to Ethiopia’s GDP. Its growth was small
(13.0%) in comparison to that of the agriculture and service sectors. This could be attributed to
the short history of industrialization in the country. Its growth has been modest, not exceeding 7
percent for the last four decades, except during the years 1997/98 to 2009/10.

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The industrial sector consists mainly of large and medium-size industries, small-scale and
handicraft manufacturing, and the construction sub-sector.
Table 5. Industry subsector growth performance

The industrial sector employs about 10 percent of the country’s active labor force. The main
products include textiles, food stuffs, beverages, cement, leather and leather products, metallic
and non-metallic products, wood, and paper and pulp. Among the industrial sub-sectors, mining
and quarrying has shown a tremendous growth performance accounting 44.2 percent of the
industrial sector’s growth performance. It is followed by large and medium-size manufacturing’s
and construction.
Regarding the links between the various economic sectors, the forward and backward linkages
between agriculture and industry have not been very strong. However, recent development
programs launched in 2002 and later have practiced the country’s industrialization process
should rely. This is why the current government adopted the developmental strategy called
Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI).
ADLI’s top-level goals are to ensure:
 economic growth through a rural-center development strategy
 improved living standards for rural and urban dwellers
 effective education services
 expansion of preventive and primary health care facilities

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Table 5.4 shows the growth performance of all of Ethiopia’s economic sectors from 2000/01
through 2009/10. The service sector had the greatest growth, followed by agriculture.
Table 6 Growth performance by sector

5.7.3 Challenges and Prospects of Socio-economic Development in Ethiopia

5.7.3.1. Present socio- economic features of Ethiopia
What does the present socio-economic feature of Ethiopia look like?
There are various indicators of development employed to compare the level of development
countries or regions. The following are widely/frequently used in the Ethiopian context.
 GDP or GNP (Gross Domestic Product/Gross National Product) per capita.
 Illiteracy rate
 Infant mortality rate
 Expected life expectancy
 Population growth rate
 Percentage of population who have access to clean water
 Level of infrastructural development, etc.
Based on the above indicators, Ethiopia’s present socio-economic features are treated as follows.
1 GDP per capita: It is believed that Ethiopia’s GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the
world. PASDEP’s target has achieved a growth rate of Ethiopia’s GDP per capita status
will join the middle in group countries with in the coming five years (2010-2015). The
current status of Ethiopia’s GDP per capita is estimated to be US $344 per annum (source:
wikipedia, the free encyclopedia).
2 Literacy rate: Like many of the less developed countries, the illiteracy rate in Ethiopia has
been high. The literacy campaign that had under taken before 1991 contributed much to the
ongoing task to eradicate illiteracy. Since 1996, the illiteracy rate has decreased by 50%.

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 Welfare Monitoring Surveys Undertaken so far exhibits a sharp rise in gross school
enrollment that considerably confirm the decline of illiteracy rate in the country. The
current literacy rate of Ethiopia is said to be 42.7% in the year 2009 (Source: wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia).
3 Infant Mortality Rate: Like in many developing countries, IMR in Ethiopia has been high.
The UNDP 1997 census reveal that Ethiopia’s infant mortality rate was 111/000 which
even above the average of sub-sharan countries (97/1000). The recent development
strategies adopted to achieve growth and sustained development, has target to lower down
the IMR to 47/1000 with in the coming five years.
4 Expected life expectancy: the life expectancy of any country is the reflection of varied social,
economic, psychological and other factors. In most developing countries life expectancy
does not exceed 55 years. Likewise, in Ethiopia, it was 43 about ten years ago due to the
prevalence of HIV impacts. The recent strategies adopted both in the primary health care
services and supply of HIV/AIDS medicines extensively, the expected life expectancy in
Ethiopia has reached to 55.8 years in 2009/10.
5 Population growth rate: Rapid population growth with an average rate per annum has been
one of the many threats to Ethiopia’s development pace. Estimates or surveys reveal that
38,000 people are added to the population each week incurring high costs of providing
additional services. Addressing this issue GTP the continuation of PASDEP has designed
to slow the rapid population growth by applying spacing of births through health service
institutions and extension package services
6 Percentage of population with access to clean water: for many decades lack of access to
clean water has been our people’s serious problem. Most illness caused both in urban and
rural areas are related to unsafe water.
7 Based on the surveys made by a welfare monitoring organization, a greater proportion of rural
population had been very far away from sources of drinkable water. Mothers and daughters
were travelling long distances to fetch for water. By this; 32% of rural people get their
water from unclean rivers and lakes and about 42% from unprotected well or spring. Only
14% used a protected water/well and 10% had access to a public tap water. In the last ten
years, the establishment and rehabilitation of water supplies in rural and urban areas have
been changing the picture.

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8 Level of infrastructural development: This indicator of development includes a vaguely of
elements that promote the living standard of people. In our context; we here by examine
the road networks, electric power supply, rehabilitation/ resettlement of pastoralists, access
to health services and strengthen the urban-rural link.
In the last ten years under PRP (Poverty Reduction Programme), SDPRP (Sustainable
Development for Poverty Reduction Programme) and PASDEP (Plan of Action for Sustained
Development to End Poverty), significant measures have been made to change the picture and
attain the millennium development goals. This is expressible by the:
 Expansion of the road network with a target of constructing almost 20,000 kms of new
road by 2010 (90% them in rural areas)
 Expansion of construction works for 514 towns and rehabhitation works for 228 towns to
improve the living condition for the urban poor.
 Access to health services improving. The proportion of population living more than 20
km from a health facility has fallen from 20% of households in 1996 to 13% in 2000.
Over half the rural population is now less than 10 km from either a health post or clinic.
 Electricity use is concentrated almost entirely in urban area. According to surveys, 989
percent of rural households and 24 percent of urban households do not use electricity.
This situation has changed by reducing the problem by 17% in the year 2004/05. The
target is to lower the problem by 50% in the year 2009/10.
A special effort is under way to change the lives of the pastoralists who depend on grazing herds
of cattle, camels and goats. These people are concentrated mostly in the dry lowland areas of
Afar and Somali regions. In education, a network of informal community-based schools and
teaching arrangements are being made. Special programs with improved veterinary services,
marketing and early warning systems are under process. Water points adjacent to range areas for
dry season utilization and small scale irrigation projects are underway.
The ultimate goal of all economic planning and execution is growth followed by development.
Achieving economic development has been a serious issue in many countries, especially in the
developing countries. Different programs and strategies have been adopted and pursued, but
often their goals have not been achieved or else have not been sustained. This has been the case
in our country since the early 1960s.
5.7.3.2 Challenges to Ethiopia’s Socio- Economic Development

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What are Ethiopia’s challenges to achieve development?
For about half a century, successive Ethiopian governments have launched economic
development programs to reduce, if not to end, poverty. However, income poverty is widespread.
Some 31 million people live below the poverty line, and between 6 and 13 million people are at
risk of starvation every year. Also many people lack consumption access – which means that
they are unable to purchase basic necessities, often for extended periods of time.
Despite improvements in the past few years, sustainable long-term growth remains a challenge.
For example, the full potential of the most basic sector - agriculture - has not yet been realized.
Our overall growth performance has not yielded the hoped-for reduction in poverty.
The different factors hindering Ethiopia’s progress (challenges) are interconnected and in
combination constitute a “poverty trap” that prevents the country from breaking out of poverty.
These factors are:
 Rapid population growth and the concomitant addition of 2 million persons per year is
a major barrier to poverty reduction. For instance, this growth puts tremendous strains
on Ethiopia’s resource base and the government’s ability to deliver services.
 Land-fragmentation: more than 50% of Ethiopia’s small land holders have less than 2
hectares, which deters the use of modern agricultural input and large-scale farming
techniques.
 Environmental degradation has caused frequent droughts.
 Very low productivity
 Low income
 Low levels of investment
 Dependence on unreliable rainfall
 Structural bottlenecks
 Lack of good governance and commitment to accomplishing tasks
 Low infrastructure coverage: although there have been significant improvements during
the past 10 years, the level of infrastructure coverage remains remarkably low when
compared to elsewhere in the world, as shown in the Table.

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Table 7. Distribution of main indicators of infrastructure availability

5.7.3.3 Prospects for Ethiopia’s Socio- Economic Development

What prospects for socio-economic development do you see for Ethiopia?
There has been encouraging progress in recent years in improving some basic aspects of life in
Ethiopia. Since 1996, the literacy rate has increased by 50%, the rate of malnutrition has fallen
by 20%, the share of the population with access to clean water has risen to 38% and there has
been a steady decline in the reported incidence of illness. Nonetheless, human development
indicators in Ethiopia still remain at low levels compared with global indicators. For example,
Ethiopia’s maternal mortality, is 673 per 100,000, in 2005/06, which is the highest in the world.
The way to overcome these challenges is to sustain the economic growth achieved in the last few
years. Maintaining the priority of such growth is essential to finally having a lasting impact on
poverty. This growth process is also essential for financing the necessary social investment for
human development.
Estimates show that a growth rate of about 8% per annum would have to be sustained to reach
the Millennium Development Goal (MDG). This rate would require a great deal of revenue.
Existing revenues are insufficient for financing the proposed MDG growth in essential health,
education, infrastructure and other services. Therefore, the government requires a massive
increase in tax revenue (particularly from the unproductive consumption sector) to achieve the
required economic growth of about 6 to 8% per year that is required for meeting the goals of the
Growth and Transformation Programme (GTP) period (2010-2015).
Furthermore, Ethiopia’s strategy must be based on its most abundant resources: labor and the
country’s favorable climate (for instance for flowers and other crops).
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In sum, progress is needed on every possible front including:
 proper utilization of agricultural potential;
 much more rapid development of the modern sector;
 exploitation of niche markets and opportunities wherever they present themselves;
 expansion of exports: in particular, diversifying exportable items to widen the economic
base, reduce susceptibility to shocks and, in the long term, to reduce the prevailing
dependency on foreign aid;
 promotion of better links between markets and producers to enable business to take
place and to allow people easier access to essential services;
 promotion of capacity building regarding the work force’s education and skills.
slowing the existing rapid population growth; and
 proper utilization of the potential of Ethiopia’s women, who constitute about 48.9
percent of the population.

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