This is CS50

CS50’s Introduction to Computer Science

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Lecture 1
Welcome!
Hello World
Functions
Variables
Conditionals
Loops
Linux and the Command Line
Mario
Comments
Abstraction
Operators and Types
Summing Up
Welcome!
■ In our previous session, we learned about Scratch, a visual programming

language.
■ Indeed, all the essential programming concepts presented in Scratch will be
utilized as you learn how to program any programming language.
■ Recall that machines only understand binary. Where humans write source code, a
list of instructions for the computer that is human readable, machines only
understand what we can now call machine code. This machine code is a pattern
of ones and zeros that produces a desired effect.
■ It turns out that we can convert source code into machine code using a very
special piece of software called a compiler. Today, we will be introducing you to a
compiler that will allow you to convert source code in the programming
language C into machine code.
■ Today, in addition to learning about how to code, you will be learning about how
to write good code.
■ Code can be evaluated upon three axes. First, correctness refers to “does the code
run as intended?” Second, design refers to “how well is the code designed?”
Finally, style refers to “how aesthetically pleasing and consistent is the code?”

Hello World
■ The compiler that is utilized for this course is Visual Studio Code, affectionately
referred to as , which can be accessed via that same url, or simply as *VS Code.*
■ One of the most important reasons we utilize VS Code is that it has all the
software required for the course already pre-loaded on it. This course and the
instructions herein were designed with VS Code in mind. Best always to utilize
VS Code for assignments in this course.
■ You can open VS Code at cs50.dev (https://cs50.dev/).
■ The compiler can be divided into a number of regions:
 Notice that there is a file explorer on the left side where you can find your files.
Further, notice that there is a region in the middle called a text editor where you
can edit your program. Finally, there is a command line interface , known as
a CLI, command line, or terminal window where we can send commands to the
computer in the cloud.
■ We can build your first program in C by typing code hello.c into the terminal
window. Notice that we deliberately lowercased the entire filename and
included the .c extension. Then, in the text editor that appears, write code as
follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
printf("hello, world\n");
}

Note that every single character above serves a purpose. If you type it
incorrectly, the program will not run.
■ Clicking back in the terminal window, you can compile your code by executing
make hello . Notice that we are omitting .c . make is a compiler that will look
for our hello.c file and turn it into a program called hello . If executing this
command results in no errors, you can proceed. If not, double-check your code to
 command results in no errors, you can proceed. If not, double-check your code to
ensure it matches the above.
■ Now, type ./hello and your program will execute saying hello, world .
■ Now, open the file explorer on the left. You will notice that there is now both a

file called hello.c and another file called hello . hello.c is able to be read
by the compiler: It’s where your code is stored. hello is an executable file that
you can run, but cannot be read by the compiler.
■ Let’s look at our code more carefully:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
printf("hello, world\n");
}

Notice that our code is highlighted using syntax highlighting.

Functions
■ In Scratch, we utilized the say block to display any text on the screen. Indeed,
in C, we have a function called printf that does exactly this.
■ Notice our code already invokes this function:

printf("hello, world\n");

Notice that the printf function is called. The argument passed to printf is ‘hello,
world\n’. The statement of code is closed with a ; .
■ A common error in C programming is the omission of a semicolon. Modify your
code as follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
printf("hello, world\n")
}

Notice the semicolon is now gone.

■ In your terminal window, run make hello . You will now be met with numerous
errors! Placing the semicolon back in the correct position and running make
 errors! Placing the semicolon back in the correct position and running make
hello again, the errors go away.
■ Notice also the special symbol \n in your code. Try removing those characters
and making your program again by executing make hello . Typing ./hello in
the terminal window, how did your program change?
■ Restore your program to the following:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
printf("hello, world\n");
}

Notice the semicolon and \n have been restored.

■ The statement at the start of the code #include <stdio.h> is a very special
command that tells the compile that you want to use the capabilities of library
called stdio.h . This allows you, among many other things, to utilize the
printf function. You can read about all the capabilities of this library on the
Manual Pages (https://manual.cs50.io).
■ It turns out that CS50 has its own library called cs50.h . Let’s use this library in
your program.

Variables
■ Recall that in Scratch, we had the ability to ask the user “What’s your name?” and
say “hello” with that name appended to it.
■ In C, we can do the same. Modify your code as follows:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
string answer = get_string("What's your name? ");
printf("hello, %s\n", answer);
}

Notice that #include <cs50.h> has been added to the top of your code. The
get_string function is used to get a string from the user. Then, the variable
answer is passed to the printf function. %s tells the printf function to
prepare itself to receive a string .
 ■ answer is a special holding place we call a variable. answer is of type
string and can hold any string within it. There are many data types, such as
int , bool , char , and many others.
■ Running make hello again in the terminal window, you can run your program

by typing ./hello . The program now asks for your name and then says hello
with your name attached.

Conditionals
■ Another building block you utilized within Scratch was that of conditionals. For
example, you might want to do one thing if x is greater than y. Further, you
might want to do something else if that condition is not met.
■ In the terminal window, type code compare.c and write code as follows:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
int x = get_int("What's x? ");
int y = get_int("What's y? ");

if (x < y)
{
printf("x is less than y\n");
}
}

Notice that we create two variables, an int or integer called x and another
called y . The values of these are populated using the get_int function.
■ You can run your code by executing make compare in the terminal window,
followed by ./compare . If you get any error messages, check your code for
errors.
■ We can improve your program by coding as follows:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
int x = get_int("What's x? ");
int y = get_int("What's y? ");
 if (x < y)
{
printf("x is less than y\n");
}
else if (x > y)
{
printf("x is greater than y\n");
}
else
{
printf("x is equal to y\n");
}
}

Notice that all potential outcomes are now accounted for.

■ You can re-make and re-run your program and test it out.
■ Considering another data type called a char we can start a new program by
typing code agree.c into the terminal window. In the text editor, write code
as follows:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
// Prompt user to agree
char c = get_char("Do you agree? ");

// Check whether agreed

if (c == 'Y' || c == 'y')
{
printf("Agreed.\n");
}
else if (c == 'N' || c == 'n')
{
printf("Not agreed.\n");
}
}

Notice that single quotes are utilized for single characters. Further, notice that
== ensure that something is equal to something else, where a single equal sign
would have a very different function in C. Finally, notice that || effectively
means or.
■ You can test your code by typing make agree into the terminal window,
followed by ./agree .

Loops
Loops
■ We can also utilize the loops building block from Scratch in our C programs.
■ In your terminal window, type code meow.c and write code as follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
printf("meow\n");
printf("meow\n");
printf("meow\n");
}

Notice this does as intended but has an opportunity for better design.
■ We can improve our program by modifying your code as follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
int i = 0;
while (i < 3)
{
printf("meow\n");
i++;
}
}

Notice that we create an int called i and assign it the value 0 . Then, we
create a while loop that will run as long as i < 3 . Then, the loop runs. Every
time 1 is added to i using the i++ statement.
■ Similarly, we can implement a count-down of sorts by modifying our code as
follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
int i = 3;
while (i > 0)
{
printf("meow\n");
i--;
}
}

Notice how our counter i is started at 3 . Each time the loop runs, it will
 Notice how our counter i is started at 3 . Each time the loop runs, it will
reduce the counter by 1 . Once the counter is less than zero, it will stop the
loop.
■ We can further improve the design using a for loop. Modify your code as

follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
{
printf("meow\n");
}
}

Notice that the for loop includes three arguments. The first argument int i
= 0 starts our counter at zero. The second argument i < 3 is the condition
that is being checked. Finally, the argument i++ tells the loop to increment by
one each time the loop runs.
■ We can even loop forever using the following code:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
while (true)
{
printf("meow\n");
}
}

Notice that true will always be the case. Therefore, the code will always run.
You will lose control of your terminal window by running this code. You can
break from an infinite by hitting control-C on your keyboard.

Linux and the Command Line

■ Linux is an operating system that is accessible via the command line in the
terminal window in VS Code.
■ Some common command-line arguments we may use include:
■ cd , for changing our current directory (folder)
 ■ cd , for changing our current directory (folder)
■ cp , for copying files and directories
■ ls , for listing files in a directory
■ mkdir , for making a directory

■ mv , for moving (renaming) files and directories

■ rm , for removing (deleting) files
■ rmdir , for removing (deleting) directories
■ The most commonly used is ls which will list all the files in the current
directory or directory. Go ahead and type ls into the terminal window and hit
enter . You’ll see all the files in the current folder.
■ Another useful command is mv , where you can move a file from one file to
another. For example, you could use this command to rename Hello.c (notice
the uppercase H ) to hello.c by typing mv Hello.c hello.c .
■ You can also create folders. You can type mkdir pset1 to create a directory
called pset1 .
■ You can then use cd pset1 to change your current directory to pset1 .

Mario
■ Everything we’ve discussed today has focused on various building-blocks of your
work as a programmer.
■ The following will help you orient toward working on a problem set for this
class in general: How does one approach a computer science related problem?
■ Imagine we wanted to emulate the visual of the game Super Mario Bros.
Considering the four question-blocks pictured, how could we create code that
roughly represents these four horizontal blocks?
■ In the terminal window, type code mario.c and code as follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++)
{
printf("?");
}
printf("\n");
}

Notice how four question marks are printed here using a loop.
■ Similarly, we can apply this same logic to be able to create three vertical blocks.

■ To accomplish this, modify your code as follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
{
printf("#\n");
}
}
 }

Notice how three vertical bricks are printed using a loop.

■ What if we wanted to combine these ideas to create a three-by-three group of
blocks?

■ We can follow the logic above, combining the same ideas. Modify your code as
follows:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++)
{
printf("#");
}
printf("\n");
}
}

Notice that one loop is inside another. The first loop defines what vertical row is
being printed. For each row, three columns are printed. After each row, a new
line is printed.
■ What if we wanted to ensure that the number of blocks to be constant, that is,
unchangeable? Modify your code as follows:

int main(void)
{
 {
const int n = 3;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++)
{
printf("#");
}
printf("\n");
}

Notice how n is now a constant. It can never be changed.

■ As illustrated earlier in this lecture, we can make our code prompt the user for
the size of the grid. Modify your code as follows:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
int n = get_int("Size: ");

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)

{
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++)
{
printf("#");
}
printf("\n");
}
}

Notice that get_int is used to prompt the user.

■ A general piece of advice within programming is that you should never fully
trust your user. They will likely misbehave, typing incorrect values where they
should not. We can protect our program from bad behavior by checking to make
sure the user’s input satisfies our needs. Modify your code as follows:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
int n;
do
{
n = get_int("Size: ");
}
while (n < 1);
 for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++)
{
printf("#");
}
printf("\n");
}
}

Notice how the user is continuously prompted for the size until the user’s input
is 1 or greater.

Comments
■ Comments are fundamental parts of a computer program, where you leave
explanatory remarks to yourself and others that may be collaborating with you
regarding your code.
■ All code you create for this course must include robust comments.
■ Typically each comment is a few words or more, providing the reader an
opportunity to understand what is happening in a specific block of code. Further,
such comments serve as a reminder for you later when you need to revise your
code.
■ Comments involve placing // into your code, followed by a comment. Modify
your code as follows to integrate comments:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
// Get size of grid
int n;
do
{
n = get_int("Size: ");
}
while (n < 1);

// Print grid of bricks

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++)
{
printf("#");
 printf("#");
}
printf("\n");
}
}

Notice how each comment begins with a // .

Abstraction
■ Abstraction is the art of simplifying our code such that it deals with smaller and
smaller problems.
■ Looking at your code, you can see how two essential problems in our code are
get size of grid and print grid of bricks.
■ We can abstract away these two problems into separate functions. Modify your
code as follows:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int get_size(void);
void print_grid(int n);

int main(void)
{
int n = get_size();
print_grid(n);
}

int get_size(void)
{
int n;
do
{
n = get_int("Size: ");
}
while (n < 1);
return n;
}

void print_grid(int n)
{
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++)
{
printf("#");
}
 }
printf("\n");
}
}

Notice that we have three functions now. First, we have the main function that
calls two other functions called get_size and print_grid . Second, we have
a second function called get_size which includes the exact code we had to
accomplish this task prior. Third, we have another function called print_grid
that prints the grid. Because we abstracted away the essential problems within
our program, our main function is very short.

Operators and Types

■ Operators refer to the mathematical operations that are supported by your
compiler. In C, these mathematical operators include:
■ + for addition
■ - for subtraction
■ * for multiplication
■ / for division
■ % for remainder
■ Types refer to the possible data that can be stored within a variable. For
example, a char is designed to accommodate a single character like a or 2 .
■ Types are very important because each type has specific limits. For example,
because of the limits in memory, the highest value of an int can be
4294967296 .

■ Types with which you might interact during this course include:
■ bool , a Boolean expression of either true or false
■ char , a single character like a or 2
■ double , a floating-point value with more digits than a float
■ float , a floating-point value, or real number with a decimal value
■ int , integers up to a certain size, or number of bits
■ long , integers with more bits, so they can count higher than an int
■ string , a string of characters

■ You can implement a calculator in C. In your terminal, type code

calculator.c and write code as follows:
 calculator.c and write code as follows:

#include <cs50.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
// Prompt user for x
int x = get_int("x: ");

// Prompt user for y

int y = get_int("y: ");

// Perform addition
printf("%i\n", x + y);
}

Notice how the get_int function is utilized to obtain an integer from the user
twice. One integer is stored in the int variable called x . Another is stored in
the int variable called y . Then, the printf function prints the value of x +
y , designated by the %i symbol.
■ As you are coding, pay special attention to the types of variables you are using
to avoid problems within your code.

Summing Up
In this lesson, you learned how to apply the building blocks you learned in Scratch to
the C programming language. You learned…

■ How to create your first program in C.

■ Predefined functions that come natively with C and how to implement your own
functions.
■ How to use variables, conditionals, and loops.
■ How to use the Linux command line.
■ How to approach problem-solving for a computer science problem.
■ How to integrate comments into your code.
■ How to approach abstraction to simplify and improve your code.
■ How to utilize types and operators.

See you next time!