Physics Lecture - 20

By – Vikrant Pundir
 Radioactivity

1.) An atom is made up of three subatomic particles (electrons, protons

and neutrons).
2.) The positively charged protons and neutral neutrons are located in
the nucleus of the atom, while the negatively charged electrons are
located outside the nucleus, balancing the positive charge of the
nucleus to form an electrically neutral atom.
3.) The mass of electrons is negligible, so the entire mass of an atom is
located in its center (nucleus).
4.) For this reason, the sum of the total number of protons and
neutrons is called mass.
It is called the mass number.
Radioactivity
 Stable and Unstable Nucleus:-

1.) A repulsion force acts between the positively

charged protons collected in a small region like
nucleus, so there has to be presence of some
other force in the nucleus to maintain the
existence of the nucleus.
 Stable and Unstable Nucleus:-

2.) In case of normal (equal or almost equal)

neutron-proton ratio in the nucleus, this force
provides stability to the nucleus by keeping the
protons together.

3.) But if the number of neutrons increases more

than the number of protons in the reactant, then
this force cannot hold the protons together
strongly. As a result, unstable nucleus is formed.
 Radioactivity

1.) Radioactivity is a distinctive feature of Unstable Nuclei. There is a

tendency of self-continuous emission of invisible radiation and
subatomic particles (a, B, y) in temporary nuclei. Thus, they try to
achieve stability by dissipating their energy.
2.) The elements which exhibit the property of radioactivity are called
radioactive elements and the radiation and particles emitted by
radioactive elements are called radioactive substances.
Radioactivity
Radioactive elements in the periodic table
Radioactive elements in the periodic table
 Radioactive elements in the periodic table

1.) All the elements in the periodic table having atomic number
greater than 83 show the property of radioactivity. That is, all such
elements which have more than 83 protons in their nucleus, all their
isotopes are radioactive, which are called radioisotopes.
2.) Repulsion acting on them due to the large number of protons
destabilizes the nucleus.
3.) Elements in which the number of protons is more than 92 are
called Nuclei are so unstable that they are not commonly found in
nature., but have only been produced in the laboratory.
 Discovery of Radioactivity

French scientist Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity in uranium

and uranium salts in 1896 AD. At that time the radiation emitted by uranium and
uranium salts was called Becquerel Rays.
 Discovery of Radioactivity

1.) Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie, based on the study of radiation emission
by uranium, concluded that the emitted rays do not depend on the physical or chemical
state of uranium, but on its atomic structure. are dependent.

2.) This theory gave birth to a new branch of science called Atomic Physics. The term
radioactivity was first used by Marie Curie (Madame Curie).

3.) Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered 2 new elements named Polonium and
Radium in the process of research on pitchblende (uranium ore). For this achievement,
he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903.
 Type of Radioactivity

By emitting energy in the form of radiation, the temporary nuclei of radioisotopes

are converted into stable nuclei in a certain time, this process is called
transmutation. This process of nuclear decay and transmutation continues until a
non-radioactive element with a stable nucleus is formed.
 Type of Radioactivity

Types of radioactivity:-
1.) Natural radioactivity
2.) Artificial radioactivity
 Natural Radioactivity
1.) The temporary nuclei of radioactive elements decay automatically without any
human effort and convert into elements with relatively stable nuclei. This property is
called natural radioactivity.
2.) Natural radioactivity arises due to the instability of heavy nuclei. Example:
Elements like uranium, thorium, polonium, radium etc. show natural radioactivity.
3.) Uranium-238 naturally decays into thorium-234 and thorium-234 naturally decays
into protactinium-234.
Natural Radioactivity
 Artificial Radioactivity
When an element with a stable nucleus is bombarded with some specific particles ( A-
particles, protons, neutrons, deuterons) to artificially induce radioactivity, it is called
artificial radioactivity.
Applications of Artificial Transmutation
Radioactive Decay of Radioactive Disintegration
Alpha Decay
 Alpha Decay

1.) The nucleus of the new element produced by alpha decay is called daughter
nucleus. The new element is called an isodiapher of the original element because
the difference between the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
both the elements is the same.
 Alpha Decay

1.) The energy level of the emitted alpha particle is about 5 MeV (Millions
of Electron Volts) and its speed is about 5% of the speed of light.
2.) Due to the presence of 2 protons in alpha particle and absence of
electron, two units of positive charge (+2) is found on it.
3.) Due to this charge and heavy mass, alpha particles react rapidly with
their environment.
Alpha particles cause blisters and burns on the skin when they come in
contact with the human body.
Beta Decay
Gamma Decay
Gamma Decay
 Radioactive Rays

1.) In the year 1902, Ernest Rutherford made intensive observation of

the radiation emitted from radioactive elements by passing them
through the electromagnetic field. On the basis of the behavior
displayed by the radiation, Rutherford divided it into the following
three categories-
Radioactive Rays
Radioactive Rays
Radioactive Rays
Radioactive Rays
 Theory of Radioactive Disintegration
1.) In 1903, Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Sodi, defining radioactivity as a
nuclear phenomenon, propounded the fact that. All radioactive changes take place
in the nucleus of an atom. He presented a theory about the radioactive process
and emission of radiation, which is called the theory of radioactive fission. Its main
points are as follows-
1. Nuclei of radioactive elements are unstable and liable to disintegrate at any
moment.
2. This fission is spontaneous and the rate of fission is not affected by external
factors like temperature, pressure, chemical combination etc.
3. During fission, a daughter element with physical and chemical properties
different from the parent element is formed.
4. At the time of fission, alpha and beta particles are emitted from the nucleus of a
radioactive element.
law of radioactive decay
 Half Life Period

The time in which the number of atoms present in a radioactive

element decays to half of its initial number is called the half-life
period of that element.

In the half-life period of a radioactive element, along with the

number of atoms, its activity also becomes half.
 Activation of radioactive material

Total decay rate of a radioactive substance is called its activity. The international
scale of measuring activation is Becquerel (Bq), but another scale Curie (CI) is also
used for its measurement.
1Bq = 1 decay per second
1 Curie = 1C = 3.7x10^10 Bq decays per second

The half-life period is represented by t1/2. The half-life period (t1/2.) of a radioactive
substance and its decay constant λ have the following relation-
t1/2 = 0.693/λ
 Average Life or Mean Life

The average age or mean age of a radioactive material is equal to the

total age of all its atoms and the quotient of their number. Average
age is equal to the reciprocal (1/2) of the decay constant of that
substance. It is denoted by (tau).
Average age (t) =
total age of all the atoms of the substance / number of atoms in the
substance
Mean life T=1/λ
Radioactive Displacement Law or Group Displacement Law
Radioactive Displacement Law or Group Displacement Law
 Radioactive Series

Such an ordered series of radioactive nuclei in which each member

(nucleus) has been formed due to radioactive decay of its previous
member (nucleus) is called radioactive series. There are 4 categories
of radioactive elements found-
1. Thorium series
3. Uranium series
2. Actinium series
4. Neptunium series.
Of these, the first three series are found naturally, while the
neptunium series is formed from artificial isotopes.
 Type Heading here

radioactive range first element last element particulate matter

1. Thorium series Thorium-232 lead-208 8a, 6B

2. Actinium series uranium-235 lead-207 10a, 7B
3. Uranium series uranium-238 lead-206 11a, 9B
4. Neptunium series plutonium-241 Bismuth- 209 9a, 6B
 Various applications of radioactivity

Due to the immense development of science,

radioactive isotopes are being applied in various
fields. The major uses of radioactive isotopes in
various fields like research, medicine, agricultural
industry etc. are as follows-
 Various applications of radioactivity

Research:-

1.) Carbon Dating(C 14): For age of Fossil fuels, Vegitation.

2.) U(238)-Pb(206)Dating: For knowing the age of Earth and old
Rocks.
3.) Rb(87) – Sr (86): To know the age of Minerals and Rocks.
4.) K(40) – Ar(40) : Geomorphics Rocks age.
 Various applications of radioactivity

Medical Field:-
1.) Tumer investigation: Arsenic – 74.
2.) Activeness of Thyroid gland : Iodine-131.
3.) T.B Investigation: Florine-59.
4.) B.P investigation: Sodium.
5.) To study formation of structure of organs: Tectinium –
99 m.
6.) Treatment of Cancer:- Cobalt – 60, Cesium- 137.
7.) Bone Disease treatment: Phosphorus – 32.
 Various applications of radioactivity

Agriculture
1.) To conserve food products for long time:- Gamma rays.
2.) To study the impact of fertilizers in plants: Carbon-14.
3.) To study the process of Photosynthesis: Phosphorus- 32.
 Various applications of radioactivity

Industries
1.) To study the thickness of metal sheet, and to study the condition
of oil pills:- Amerenium – 241.
2.) To study the leakage of Pipe lines:- Sodium -24.
3.) Nuclear fuel:- Uranium – 235.
4.) To identify the moisture in the soil, also used in the construction
of Houses and roads:- Callifornium – 252.