SPCS 105

POSTGRADUATE COURSE
M.A CHRISTIAN STUDIES

FIRST YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER

ELECTIVE PAPER - I

RELIGIONS IN INDIA

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS
M.A. CHRISTIAN STUDIES ELECTIVE PAPER - I
FIRST YEAR - FIRST SEMESTER RELIGIONS IN INDIA

WELCOME
Warm Greetings.

It is with a great pleasure to welcome you as a student of Institute of Distance

Education, University of Madras. It is a proud moment for the Institute of Distance education
as you are entering into a cafeteria system of learning process as envisaged by the University
Grants Commission. Yes, we have framed and introduced as per AICTE Choice Based
Credit System(CBCS) in Semester pattern from the academic year 2022-23. You are free
to choose courses, as per the Regulations, to attain the target of total number of credits set
for each course and also each degree programme. What is a credit? To earn one credit in
a semester you have to spend 30 hours of learning process. Each course has a weightage
in terms of credits. Credits are assigned by taking into account of its level of subject content.
For instance, if one particular course or paper has 4 credits then you have to spend 120
hours of self-learning in a semester. You are advised to plan the strategy to devote hours of
self-study in the learning process. You will be assessed periodically by means of tests,
assignments and quizzes either in class room or laboratory or field work. In the case of PG
(UG), Continuous Internal Assessment for 20(25) percentage and End Semester University
Examination for 80 (75) percentage of the maximum score for a course / paper. The theory
paper in the end semester examination will bring out your various skills: namely basic
knowledge about subject, memory recall, application, analysis, comprehension and
descriptive writing. We will always have in mind while training you in conducting experiments,
analyzing the performance during laboratory work, and observing the outcomes to bring
out the truth from the experiment, and we measure these skills in the end semester
examination. You will be guided by well experienced faculty.

I invite you to join the CBCS in Semester System to gain rich knowledge leisurely at
your will and wish. Choose the right courses at right times so as to erect your flag of
success. We always encourage and enlighten to excel and empower. We are the cross
bearers to make you a torch bearer to have a bright future.

With best wishes from mind and heart,

DIRECTOR

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M.A. CHRISTIAN STUDIES ELECTIVE PAPER - I
FIRST YEAR - FIRST SEMESTER RELIGIONS IN INDIA

COURSE WRITERS
Dr. James Ponniah Dr. Chandrasekar
Assistant Professor and Head i/c Associate Professor
Dept. of Christian Studies Dept of Philosophy
University of Madras Vivekananda College, Mylapore
Chennai - 600 005. Chennai - 600 028.

Mr. O.N. Krishnan Dr. Murugesan Arumugam

1848/8, Sangeetham Apts., Associate Professor,
Sixth Avenue, Anna Nagar West Centre for Comparative Religion and
Chennai - 600 040. Civilizations, Central University of Jammu &
Kashmir, Samba District
Jammu & Kashmir - 181143
Dr. Priyadharshana Jain Dr. P.K. Abdul Rahiman
Asst.Professor & Head i/c Asst.Professor & Head i/c
Dept of Jainology Justice Basheer Ahmed Sayeed Centre
University of Madras, for Islamic Studies
Chennai - 600 005. University of Madras, Marina Campus,
Chennai 600 005
Dr. Ayesha Zawahir Dr. Immanuel Ebenezar
C-72, Nelson Court B9 Second Floor, Rajni Lotus Aprtment
No. 51, Nelson Manickam Road 56-58 Periyar Nagar, Korattur
Aminjikarai, Chennai - 600029 Chennai 600 080.

EDITORS & COORDINATORS

Dr. James Ponniah Dr. G. Patrick
Assistant Professor and Head i/c Professor (Retd.)
Dept. of Christian Studies Dept. of Christian Studies
University of Madras University of Madras
Chennai - 600 005. Chennai - 600 005.
ISBN No: 978-81-19111-49-7

Year of Publication: 2022

Total No. of Pages: 196

Printed by: Publication Section, Institute of Distance Education IIDE), University of Madras,
Chennai - 600 005, Website:- www.ideunom.ac.in

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 M.A. CHRISTIAN STUDIES

FIRST YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

ELECTIVE PAPER - I

RELIGIONS IN INDIA

SYLLABUS

Unit:1

Religion in relation to philosophy, theology and morality - Belief in the religious experience
- The meaning of God in human experience - Faith and intuition - Significance of myths,
rites and rituals - Religion and society – Phenomenological Understanding of Religion –
Post-modern approach to religion.

Major Traditions of Hinduism

Unit:2

Role of Scriptures - Vedas, Upanisads - Six systems - Gita and teachings - Worship and
Rituals - Theories of varnasrama, vyavastha, karma and Moksa – Vaishnavism:
Understanding of God, and different rituals – Saivism: Understanding of God and different
rituals – Saiva Siddhanta – Tantrism - Saktaism

Buddhism and Jainism

Unit:3
Emergence, Salient Features and Teachings - Four noble truths and eight fold path - Buddha
and moral and religious practice - Silence, Ahimsa and Karunya - Emergence, Salient
Features and Teachings - Jain scriptures and doctrines - Sects of Jainism - Life of Mahaveera
and the Tirthankaras - Jain way of life: Ahimsa

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 Sikhism

Unit:4

Emergence, Salient Features and Teachings of Gurunanak - Religious practices of Sikhism

and influence of Sufism on Sikh religious tradition - Cardinal virtues: Truthfulness,
Contentment and True Wisdom.

Indian Islam

Unit:5

Indian IslamIslamic understanding of God – Islamic Philosophy – history of Indian Islam –

Rituals and rites related to Indian Islam

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•
 M.A. CHRISTIAN STUDIES

FIRST YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

ELECTIVE PAPER - I

RELIGIONS IN INDIA

SCHEME OF LESSONS

Sl.No. Title Page

1 Understanding Religion 001

2 Different Approaches To Religion 018

3 Vedas, Upanishads, Darshanas And Gîta 036

4 Major Indic Religious Traditions: Saivism, Vaishnavism,

Saktism and Tantrism 049

5 Buddhism 077

6 Jainism 099

7 Sikhism 118

8 Important Teachings of Sikhism 137

9 Indian Islam 152

10 Islamic Beliefs and Doctrines 170

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 M.A. CHRISTIAN STUDIES

FIRST YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

ELECTIVE PAPER - I

RELIGIONS IN INDIA

PREFACE

M.A. in Christian studies offered by the Institute of Distance Education of University

of Madras provides the students a unique opportunity to study Christianity through the
mainstream educational system of public university’s academic programmes and acquire
scientific and systematic knowledge of Christian scriptures, traditions, worldviews, practices,
history, ethics and so on. The primary aim of presenting these lessons to the Postgraduate
students of the Institute of Distance Education is to widen the sphere of systematic
awareness of the Christian religion. Such awareness, imparted through the curriculum of
academic programmes, will contribute to understand and appreciate a religion—in this
case Christianity—more scientifically.

This volume of lessons is for Paper V (Elective-I) entitled, “Religions in India” of

your MA programme in Christian Studies. This paper exposes the students to the concept
of religion in general and gives them an overview of the rich heritage of various living religious
traditions of India such as Buddhism, Jainism, major Hindu traditions of India, Sikhism and
Indian Islam and informs of their core teachings and essential practices. The first unit is
about the understanding of religion and discusses religion in relation to philosophy, theology
and morality and the meaning of God in human experience. It also focuses on the significance
of myths, rites and rituals and introduces them to various approaches in the study of religion

The main foci of the second unit are the major traditions of Hinduism. It introduces
the students to the Hindu scriptures such as Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad-Gita and their
role in Hindu religious traditions. It covers six systems of Indian philosophy and the theories
of Varnasrama, karma and Moksa. It also offers a brief exposition of various major religious
traditions of Hinduism such as Vaishnavism, Saiva Siddhanta, Tantrism and Saktism. Third
unit is about Buddhism and Jainism. It draws students’ attention to the origin, salient features

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and teachings of Buddhism such as four noble truths and eight-fold path and to the notions
of silence, ahimsa and karunya in Buddhism. It also discusses the emergence, salient
features and teachings of Jainism besides Jain scriptures and the sects of Jainism.

The fourth unit focuses on Sikhism and its origin and development. It provides an
overview of its salient features and familiarizes the students with the teachings of Gurunanak
and with the significant religious practices in Sikhism and discusses the influence of Sufism
on Sikh religious tradition. The fifth unit treats Islam in general and Indian Islam in particular.
It covers the core teachings of Islam that includes five pillars of Islam, its understanding of
God and Islamic Philosophy. Just as it explores the history of Indian Islam, it also focuses
on rituals and rites related to Indian Islam, besides Indian Sufi traditions. I wish you all a
happy time as you are set to start off the journey of learning about the rich religious traditions
of India.

Dr. James Ponniah

Head-in charge
Department of Christian Studies
University of Madras
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LESSON - 1
UNDERSTANDING RELIGION
1.1. Introduction
Religions have played significant role in the lives of human beings for a long time
across cultures and functioned as powerful forces throughout history. Sometimes they have
worked for good in some places and for bad in other places. They have been sources of
inspiration both for the most noble of acts and for the most ruthless brutality equally. They have
been the patrons – and the destroyers – of arts and cultures. Just as religions are central to
much of social and political history, they have been promoters of both peace and conflict in the
world and continue to be so in our contemporary times too. That being the significance of
religion in our world today, this lesson attempts to understand the phenomenon of religion in
that it would focus on its meanings, basic structures, contents (such as myths, rituals) and its
relationship to other disciplines such as philosophy and theology.

We will focus, in this lesson, on the understanding of religion in general that will help us
comprehend the religious traditions of India in a new way.

1.2. Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to

• Understand the meaning, functions and practices of religion

• Explain the various aspects of religion

• Gain knowledge about religion’s relationship with other disciplines such as ethics and
theology

Plan of study

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Objectives

1.3. Defining Religion

1.4. Etymological Meaning of Religion

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1.5. Religion as Interaction with Spiritual Beings

1.6. Religion as an encounter of the Numinous

1.7. Religious Experience as the Essence of Religion

1.8. Four Pillars of Religion

1.9. Myths

1.10. Significance of Myths

1.11. Religious Rituals

1.12. Significance of Rituals

1.13. Religion and Philosophy

1.14. Religion and morality

1.15. Religion and Theology

1.16. Recap

1.17. Keywords

1.18. Check Your Progress

1.19. Model Questions

1.20. References

1.3. Defining Religion

Religion is a very important aspect of human experience. It is very difficult to define

religion because it incorporates and at the same time transcends other aspects of life and
society. However we can grasp the meaning of religion by investigating and analysing it from
different perspectives. In the next paragraph we will study about the etymology of the word
‘Religion.’ The word etymology means, ‘study of the origin of words’ This section will help us to
understand the basis and root meaning of religion.
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1.4. Etymological Meaning of Religion

The etymological meaning of ‘religion’ comes from the Latin root ‘religio’ or ‘re-legare’
which means to bind together. It refers to relationship between a Divine Being and human
beings. In this sense the role of religion is to bind human beings with God. Hence etymologically
speaking, religion is that which establishing a binding relationship between the divine and the
human on the one hand, and among the humans themselves as believers of a particular divine
or supreme being. One may tend to think that religion is equivalent to a belief in a supreme
being. But that may not be the case always as there are religions such Jainism, Theravada
Buddhism and Bahaism which do not subscribe to a belief in Supreme Being. While the concept
of religion is taken to be an universal term used all over the world today, its usage gained
currency only from 17th century. According to Fitzgerald (2007), the concept of a religion is a
modern category emerging out of a specific set of historical condition from the second half of
the 17th century. Religion emerged and become a distinctive conceptual category in conjunction
with other categories like that of the secular in the Western context, the label ‘religion’ may or
may not have equivalence in many cultures. For instance, the word ‘den’ in Persian may translate
as ‘religion’ in English and the English word may be appropriate in the case of Zoroastrianism.
On the contrary, one may not find an equivalent word to ‘religion’ in Indian languages. For
instance, Sanskrit has no equivalent word for religion. The term that comes close to religion is
‘dharma’ which means to hold or to support. The use of word religion is considered to
be anachronistic in the case of ‘Hinduism’, which “is a modern West-imposed label for a plethora
of different groups, beliefs and practices across a large continent with some purely local
phenomena” (Hinnells 2005, 7).

In this regard, authors like Talal Asad argue how the notion of religion was further
developed during colonial period by western scholars not only to distinguish what they had
experienced as religion in their contexts from what it was not in non-western context but also
the western view of religion also impacted the way various religious traditions constructed
themselves as distinctive and new entities in western colonies. Further Chatterjee (1986) and
King (1999) discuss how the expansion of colonialism involved the enlightenment project through
which religion became part of the imperial project to proselytise and dominate the colonial
world.

While critical assessment of the way in which the terminology of religion came to be
employed and appropriated for different purposes in our contemporary period is necessary, it
is also important to describe and comprehend religion in its various forms and functions.
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1.5. Religion as Interaction with Spiritual Beings

Religious traditions provide their members with established, patterned ways of interacting
with spiritual beings. Such communication is often the centre of religious practice. Perhaps the
most widely practiced forms are petitionary prayer (prayer that contains a request), offerings
and sacrifices, purification and penance, and worship. Sometimes these are regular events,
and sometimes they are performed in times of special need, such as illness, drought, infertility,
or war—times when human beings find themselves especially dependent on or subject to the
forces of the universe that are beyond their control. At other times, religions have forms of
communion, such as the Christian Eucharist or meditation on the presence of a supreme
being. Reciting the name of the Buddha is the primary religious practice in Pure Land Buddhism,
and this practice has parallels among other religious groups, such as the Sikhs..

1.6. Religion as an encounter of the Numinous

The idea of religion as the individual experience was developed by German theologian
Rudolf Otto. In his book, The Idea of the Holy (1958), Otto argues that the experience of the
numinous (Latin numen, “spiritual power”) is the distinctive core of religiousness. Such
experience is marked by a sense of awe in the face of the mysterious other reality that
dramatically intersects our limited and vulnerable existence. According to Otto, it is this reality
that religious traditions symbolize by concepts such as God. The numinous can be experienced
as something fearful and alienating, but also as something comforting with which one feels a
certain communion or continuity. Religious ideas such as the wrath of God or the peace of God
express these different aspects of numinous experience. In Otto’s view, the capacity for such
awareness lies within each person, and it is the purpose of religious language and observance
to shape and elicit this awareness. In formulating this approach, Otto followed in the tradition
of earlier thinkers such as German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In
his book On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers (1893), Schleiermacher argued that
religiousness is only secondarily a matter of doctrine or morality; he claimed that it is primarily
a matter of intuitive feeling, an immediate experience that was prior to language itself, and a
sense of the infinite.

To know more on the notion of numinous refer:

http://religion.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-
9780199340378-e-88
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1.7. Religious Experience as the Essence of Religion

The main function of any religion is to offer the experience of the transcendence to its
members through various ways and methods. People long for and go in search of this experience
to many holy places. American philosopher and psychologist William James in his influential
book, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) attempted to study all the different forms
that religious experience can take, from extreme asceticism (practice of self-denial) and mystical
union with the divine, to modern techniques of positive thinking. He gave special attention to
conversion experiences, or life-changing encounters with spiritual forces. James documented
his study with hundreds of cases in which individuals reported that they had experienced contact
with something divine or transcendent and that their lives had been changed decisively. Many
of these episodes came in the form of a sudden and unsolicited consciousness of spiritual
unity or insight. They were mystical experiences and were ineffable (incapable of being described
in words). James also hypothesized the existence of a wider, subconscious dimension of the
self that could help account for the source of apparently supernatural visions, voices, and
revelations. The notion of collective unconscious, understood as the structures of the
unconscious mind shared among all human beings and often expressed through religious
symbols, was also described by the influential Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung.

(watch; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x_CaMif1iCI)

Religious experience differs from person to person because the time, place and value
system are different. So individuals may have religious experience, which could differ in degree
or quality. Let us enumerate two of the most important characteristics of a religious experience.

1.7.1. Religious experience involves an awareness of the transcendent

The common feature in most of the definition of the religion is the awareness of the
transcendent. The dimension and the definition of the transcendent might differ, but a religious
experience always involves the transcendent nonetheless. It is true that no cognitive content is
common to all description of religious experience. In fact it is described in different ways:
universe of all (F. Schleiermacher), Numinous or Holy (R. Otto), the holy Other (S. Kierkegaard),
Being beyond beings (P. Tillich), etc. Whatever the description or name is attributed to the
transcendent, there is something which goes beyond the individual in which or by which human
beings transcend their finite conditions.
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1.7.2. Religious experience demands total commitment

Religious experience deals with something to which people are willing to commit
themselves with utter loyalty and devotion. It involves not only an awareness of the transcendent
but also an awareness of it as ultimate and as demanding an ultimate commitment. It is a total
commitment to the whole universe. Tillich calls it the ultimate concern. Worship is in fact a
manifestation of this total and ultimate concern. This is called worship because it is a response
to the worth-ship of the object. In this sense, worship is at the very heart of religious experience.

For more on religious experience refer:

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religious-experience/ &
https://www.britannica.com/topic/religious-experience

1.8. Four Pillars of Religion

Phenomenologically speaking, religion as it is practised today is made of four important
components, popularly known as four C’s of religion. They are creed, cult, code and community.
Creed refers to the basic tenets of a religion to which its followers have to adhere to. It provides
us with the essential beliefs of a religious tradition and its understanding of God, its idea of
human beings, their relationship with God and their destiny. Creeds of a religion consolidate
the beliefs (orthodoxy), which demand total trust from its members and the codes of a religious
community expects total loyalty from them (orthopraxis). Creed leads to the ‘routinization’ (Max
Weber: routinization of Charisma) of beliefs and ideas of a religion through religious actions
called cult. Cult refers to the religious practices which attempt to enact creed in the life of its
believers through ritual actions. While they are obligatory in nature and performed on a regular
basis by the community at official places of worship, they are meant to lead the community
members to the experiences of God and bring about transformation in their lives. While there
are core rituals in every religion, which are called ‘sacraments in Christianity’ and samskara in
Hindu traditions, they are meant to offer salvation or liberation as promised by the creed and
often they accompany the followers at various critical moments of human life such as birth,
puberty, marriage and death. Hence they come to offer God’s grace and supernatural power at
such occasions. Though they are supposed to take the role of life-cycle rituals, they often
coexist with a range of life-cycle rituals in a given culture. The third important constituent of any
religion is code, namely, moral precepts which present the adherents not only with what is
morally obligatory and permissible but also with what is disallowed and prohibited. Codes
translate the creed into moral actions and firmly place the followers on sure and credible path
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towards liberation. Its prescriptions and proscriptions are meant to regulate followers’ moral
choices and actions and they are consciously cultivated to create and maintain the required
relationships of its followers both vertically and horizontally, namely, a harmonious relationship
with God on the one hand and human beings on the other. The fourth important aspect of any
religion is its community of believers. While religion exists for the sake of community of believers,
it is a latter that embodies a religion and makes it visible. It is creed, code and cult that bring
together the followers on a common platform and together they contribute to the making of a
religious community. Just as they constitute a religious community and create its identity as
torch bearers of religious traditions, they also set boundaries to their identity and demarcate
them as different from others. Since myths and rituals are integral part of cult and has received
lots of scholarly attention, we will now focus on them.

1.9. Myth
What is myth? Myth is the primordial from of the intellectual expression of religious
beliefs and attitudes. It has been said that myth “is primitive philosophy, the simplest
presentational form of thought, a series of attempts to understand the world, to explain life and
death, fate and nature, gods and cults.” Myth is broadly defined as a narrative concerning
fundamental symbols, which are constitutive of paradigmatic for human existence.

Myth is an offspring of emotion and its emotional background imbues all its production
with its own specific colour. Primitive man by no means lacks the ability to grasp the empirical
differences of things. But in his conception of nature and life all these differences are obliterated
by a stronger feeling, the deep conviction of a fundamental and indelible solidarity over the
multiplicity and variety of forms. The consanguinity of all forms of life seems to a general
presupposition of mythical thought. Through myth people not only explain their world but
symbolically represent it. Myth involves another way of seeing the world, a way which expresses
its coherence together with human emotional involvement and participation in it. Myths are
serious expressions of a relation to the world.

In myth humans assert their apprehension of what the stoics called ‘the sympathy of
the whole’ and of his part and participation in that whole. Myth is the emotion-laden assertion of
our place in a world that is meaningful to us, and that is in solidarity with it. Such a spontaneous
and non-rational assertion is a response to some degree of recognition that there is separation
of the individual, with his/her human consciousness, from the whole, and also a felt need to
reassert and thereby re-form the connection. Thus, the mythic stands outside - beyond - both
time and the empirical world.
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Mythical time is always present, and myth re-creates what it portrays, and it actualizes
what it tells. Standing outside of time, making present what is present, myth tells events of
itself, not a mere description of it. It makes past and future immediately present; it expresses
the human being’s solidarity with his/her world and reasserts that solidarity in the face of human
doubt. If myth is the language of a person who feels her/himself thoroughly one with the world-
being part of the world- it is also the first rupture in a person’s being, the first flight from reality
that makes the real unreal and detaches humans from their environment thereby becomes a
source of all poetry and all culture. It is the reiterated presentation of some event replete with
power. It is a celebration of a primordial reality rendered actively present to which the teller and
listener are related by emotional participation. Through it human beings are related to their
environment, to their ancestors, to their descendants, to the beyond, which is the ground of all
existence and to what is permanent beyond all flux.

1.10. Significance of Myths

Campbell points out to the four functions to demonstrate the significance of the myths:

First, myths help to open the world to the presence of mystery. It elicits a sense of awe
and wonder, even dread. Ghost stories and tales of wonder connect us with a deeply inherent
impulse to fear and to praise that which we cannot even name. Secondly, myth is cosmological.
Myth is cosmicization, i.e. making the world live-able. Myth establishes the cosmos and the
fundamental symbols by which a society orders its existence. Addressing the anxieties people
feel in the face of a threatening universe it gives shape to the world, explaining how things
came to be as they are Creation stones provide a sense of comfort in their description of how
order has emerged from chaos. Thirdly, Myth functions in a sociological manner to support and
validate a certain order. Myth serves to develop conformity; to mould the young. That is why
fairy tales are repeated from one generation to another, telling children what to do and what not
to do in order to be an accepted member of the community. This is essentially the sedative
function of myth. Myths are able to remind a clan, a tribe or a nation of the fundamental values,
providing dependable routines in times of crisis. Finally, function of myth is psychological. It
seeks to instruct the individual how to live human life amid the ever-changing circumstances of
growth. They also teach us how to survive and grow.

Myth, thus, constitutes the history of the acts of the super naturals and this is considered
to be absolutely true (because it is concerned with realities and because it is the work of the
supernatural). Myth is always related to the creation of the universe and the human being. It
tells how something came into existence, or how behaviour, an institution, a manner of working
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were established; this is why myths establish the paradigms for all significant human acts and
by knowing the myth one knows the beginning of things and hence can control, and manipulate
them at will. This is not a universal abstract knowledge but a knowledge that one experiences
ritually either by recounting the myth or by performing the ritual for which it is the justification.

For more on myth refer:

https://faculty.gcsu.edu/custom-website/mary-magoulick/defmyth.htm
http://www.sociologyguide.com/anthropology/myth.php

Check Your Progress – I

State True or False

1. The word ‘religion’ comes from ‘religio’ or ‘re-legare’ which means to bind together

2. The Sanskrit word dharma means to hold or to support.

3. Four pillars of a religion are idols, music, light and ritual.

4. The main function of any religion is to offer the experience of the transcendence to its
members

5. Myth is the primordial form of the intellectual expression of religious beliefs and attitudes.

1.11. Religious Rituals

Religion originates with the practice of cult or performance of various rituals. In general
a religious ritual may be understood as a symbolic action (ceremony) performed to obtain
divine blessing and social acceptance in a religious community. Rite and ritual is the complex
of gesture, word and symbols. Rite is in the acting out of feelings, attitudes and relationships.
Religious ritual consists of speech, gesture, song, sacramental meals, and sacrifice. “Religious
ritual is usually thought to comprise repletion, commitment, intention, pattern (especially of
movements), tradition (often by linkage with myth, which is regarded by some as supplying the
meaning for the ritual) purpose and performance”. Some religions rule that religious ritual
should be performed at special times in the lives of persons or communities; they also identify
those persons who are authorized to perform them. These rituals have a social significance in
a religious body and are governed by rules and regulations set down by the religious authorities
in that body.
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Rituals perform the function of preserving the identity of a religious community,

expressing its values and relating it to the divinity. The cultic act is a social or congregational
act, in which the group re-enacts its relationship to the sacred objects and, through them to the
beyond and in doing so reinforces its own solidarity and reaffirms its own values. In it relationships
of fellowship and of leader and followers are acted out, reasserted, and strengthened. How do
religious rituals in practice enable persons to commune with the divine and thus find fulfilment
in life? How do they offer persons and communities the courage they need to face up to life’s
daily challenges and hardships? Do rituals effect a transformation in a social milieu or do these
succeed in becoming the ‘opiate of the people’, making them forget their wretched condition?
In a word, do observance of religious rituals enhance the quality of life of human beings?

The answers to the questions asked about rituals suggest that rituals can be understood
in many different ways. Sometimes they are seen as actions that purify and sanctify the individual;
at other times they are seen as ‘rites of passage’, performed to mark the different stages in life
as mentioned earlier. These rites of passage practiced universally consecrate the crises and
situations in individual and collective lives. In such crises human beings are potentially exposed
to dangers involved in the contingency and powerlessness inherent in the human condition. All
these rites express what Martin Buber calls as ‘I-thou attitude toward the sacred.’ Some of the
rituals concern individuals in the performance of daily duties in daily life. Unfortunately, ritual
actions - often become sheer ritualism since the meaningfulness of ritual is buried under a
heap of prescriptions and accompanied by a language, which persons do not understand.
Rituals also have effects that are sociological. Their implications, e.g. eating or abstaining from
particular foods, are actions that effect inclusion in a society or exclusion from a group.

Religious ritual practice expressing attitudes and religious ideas conceptualizing beliefs
are influenced by its social milieu. Human beings will tend to enter into relationships with the
sacred in terms of the kinds of relationships, which have become second nature to them in
their society. Through rites, there is a relationship with the sacred object, among the members
and between members and leaders.

1.12. Significance of Rituals

Ritual is a form of communication to relieve the primordial charismatic experience of a
religion and its beliefs within a believing community. Rituals involve performance and symbolic
bodily actions, displayed in a tangible, visible way. They have the power to focus experience
and thus function to intensify the sense of the sacred. Rituals can be as simple as bowing
one’s head before a meal, chanting a certain phrase, or removing footwear. At the other extreme,
 11

they can involve intricate ceremonies performed by teams of priests and lasting several days.
Rituals reveal the sacred through specific symbolic actions and objects, including processions,
special clothing, and special sounds—for example chanting — or silences, masks, symbolic
objects, and Special foods.

Some religions give importance to rituals, while others assign them a lesser role. Where
ritual is central, there is usually priesthood. This is the case in the Catholic and Orthodox forms
of Christianity, as well as in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Shinto. Jews, Muslims and many Protestant
churches do not have priesthood as such, because they emphasize direct faith and consideration
of scripture (training which is required for rabbis, imams, and ministers). Thus, performance of
rituals gives way for the ‘division of labour’ within a religious community and emergence of
hierarchical structure. There are clergy or priests who perform the rituals and the laity who
have the right only to take part in it. Taboos are created to preserve order and to prevent
violation of specified roles.

Religions differ in their use of images and visualizations for rituals. Jews, Muslims and
puritanical forms of Protestantism prohibit images of deity in order to preserve the transcendence
and holiness of the divine. But images of holy persons or of the deity and important objects of
veneration in Catholicism, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity (where they are called icons), and
in most other religions.

For more on rituals refer:

http://www.sociologyguide.com/anthropology/symbolism-in-religion-and-
rituals.php
https://www.britannica.com/topic/ritual

1.13. Religion and Philosophy

Philosophy plays an indispensable role in the study and practice of religion. Religious
followers, like other human beings, operate with some understanding of who they are and what
they can and cannot do. Similarly, when they experience the divine, they evolve an understanding
of God, God’s relationship with the humans and the world. The latter is covered under a branch
of philosophy known as philosophy of religion which also hails from different schools of
philosophy that range from denying God’s existence and the role of religion to affirming God’s
presence as co-terminus with the reality. For instance, “naturalism” holds that reality can be
either completely or at least fundamentally described and explained by the physical sciences.
Naturalism rules out in principle any appeal to God or some nonphysical, transcendent dimension
12

of the cosmos. Theism on other hand states that all limited or finite things are dependent in
some way or another on one supreme being or ultimate reality, which is described in personal
terms leading to a personal relationship between God on the one side and the humans and the
world on the other as found in religions such as Judaism, Christianity Islam, Vaishnavism and
Saivism. In contrast to theism, there is another philosophical stance known as pantheism which
identifies God totally with all that exits and with all that there is. It considers all finite things as
parts, modes, limitations or appearances of the ultimate being.

Most fundamental to the philosophy of religion is the question about the existence of
God. There are three major group of arguments in philosophy that subscribe to God’s existence.
They are: Ontological arguments, Cosmological arguments and Teleological argument.
According to Ontological arguments, God’s existence is not contingent—God is not the sort of
being that just happens to exist or not exist. If there is a God, then God’s existence is necessary.
The way God is conceived in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions shows that necessary
existence is built into the concept of God. Cosmological arguments are based on empirical
data and involve a posteriori reflection on universe’s existence and relationship with the invisible
reality. This argument has two strands, one that holds that the cosmos had an initial cause
outside it, a First Cause in time. The other strand is based on the view that the cosmos has a
necessary, sustaining cause from instant to instant, whether or not the cosmos had a temporal
origin. The two versions are not mutually exclusive, for it is possible both that the cosmos had
a First Cause and that it has a continuous, sustaining cause. Teleological arguments, focusing
on the characteristics of the cosmos, point to the necessity of intelligent God-like purposive
force to account for the existence and destiny of the universe.

The problem of evil is another important topic that is invariably discussed in all the
books of philosophy of religion. It is David Hume who challenged that the problem of evil is a
proof against theistic God. He argued against God’s existence in the following way: If God is
willing to prevent evil but not able, then he is not omnipotent God. If God is able to prevent evil
but not willing, he is not a benevolent God. If God is both omnipotent and benevolent, there
should not be evil in the world. But there is evil in the world. Hence an omnipotent and benevolent
God does not exit. Different attempts have been made to respond to Hume. While some point
to the logical flaw in his argument, others have argued that the problem of evil cannot disprove
God’s existence though it may challenge the humans to revise their idea of good when it is
applied to God.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philosophy-religion/#GodsExis
 13

1.14. Religion and Morality

The word ‘morality’ finds its echo in another word ‘ethics’ Though these two words are
often used interchangeably in most of the books, philosophers (like Kant, Hegel, R.M. Hare
and Bernard Williams) have drawn various contrasts between the two at various times. But
etymologically, the term ‘moral’ comes from the Latin mos, which means custom or habit, and
it is a translation of the Greek ethos, which means roughly the same thing, and is the origin of
the term ‘ethics’. In contemporary literatures, the two terms are more or less interchangeable,
though ‘ethics’ has slightly more flavor of theory, and has been associated with the prescribed
practice of various professions (e.g., medical ethics, professional ethics etc..).

Religion and morality have been closely intertwined in religious traditions. For instance,
Euthyphro in Plato’s dialogue argues that justice and piety are closely related and piety to gods
require adherence to the paths prescribed by them. The relationship between religion and
ethics is stronger in theistic traditions as they often define what’s right and wrong by the rules
and laws set forth by their gods, which their respective religious leaders interpret within the
respective faith, such as Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, while non-theistic religious traditions
are less absolute. For instance, in Buddhism, it is the individual’s intentions and circumstances
that determine whether an action is right or wrong. It is true that most of the societies till date
use moral vocabulary that is deeply infused with the religious worldview. one of the ethical
frameworks that is common to religions is “legal paradigm,” This framework sees ethics as a
matter of following rules. The deity or a recognized authority sanctioned by the deity promulgates
the law that subjects have a duty to obey. Failure to obey typically results in sin or transgression
that would have consequences. Examples of the legal paradigm abound in religious traditions.
In Jewish tradition God delivered the law, or Torah, to Moses, in both written and oral form, on
Mt. Sinai. The Torah is the culmination of God’s legislation for humanity. That legislation began
with the prohibitions of Genesis 2:16–18 and includes the Noachide Law of Genesis 9:8–17.
The 621 commandments issued to the Israelites were codified by Rabbi Judah the Patriarch
into the Mishnah in the late second century CE. The Mishnah, with its commentary, became
the basis of rabbinic tradition. Perhaps, at the same time on the Indian subcontinent, the Laws
of Manu emerged as the pre-eminent manual of conduct for the Hindu tradition. Both the Manu
and the Mishnah draw on much older material that had itself been the subject of much
commentary over centuries. Both organize the daily practices of life within a larger cosmic
whole. Both begin with an account of the origins of the cosmos, the ranks and relations among
the peoples who inhabit the cosmos, and the basic order for living. Several centuries later, the
14

followers of Muhammad collected the traditions of the prophet, the hadith, as a foundation for
interpreting what the Qur’an, God’s final revelation to humanity, implies for the community of
the faithful. The Muslim is someone who submits to God’s will. Islam is the way of life made up
of the community of believers who have submitted to God’s will. Another important framework
of ethics that is common to many religious traditions is the paradigm of love. While love and
the commandments of love found in the Christian scripture of New Testament constitute the
basics of the Christian ethics, it is equally recognised as important in the bhakti tradition of
Hinduism, Sufi tradition of Islam and Kabbalah tradition of Judaism.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-morality/

1.15. Theology and Religion

Theology at its broadest is thinking about questions raised by, about and between the
religions. The name ‘theology’ is not used in all religious traditions and is rejected by some as
theology in the strict sense of the term not applicable to non-theistic traditions such as Jainism
and Mahayana Buddhism. Theology is also variously called ‘religious thought’, ‘religious
philosophy’. Some prefer to employ the idea of ‘religious wisdom’ for theology as wisdom is
perhaps the most comprehensive and least controversial term for what theology is about.
While wisdom may embrace describing, understanding, explaining, knowing and deciding
regarding matters of empirical facts, religious wisdom in particular encompasses values,
norms, beliefs and the shaping of lives, communities and institutions of different religious
traditions. There is a distinction made between religion and theology. Theology is concerned
with what people believe in, while religion refers to how people behave and conduct themselves
in accordance with their belief. Theology consists of what a person believes about God. Thus,
theology is more like a science, while religion is more like the practical application of the belief.
Theology analyzes the truth, while religion attempts to live it. Therefore, religion is practice,
while theology is knowledge. Some argue that there should be a unity between what one
knows about God, and how a person conducts his or her life. Hence, they do not subscribe to
theologians acquiring and imparting much intellectual knowledge about God but not living a
spiritual, or religious life. For others, one can be a brilliant theologian without being religious
and spiritual and such a view is more prevalent in the western countries.
 15

Check Your Progress – II

Fill in the blanks:

1. Religious ritual is a ______ action.

2. Rituals perform the function of preserving the of a religious community.

3. ________rules out in principle any appeal to God

4. According to _______, the problem of evil is a proof against theistic God.

5. ______is concerned with what people believe in, while religion refers to how people
behave.

1.16. Recap
In this lesson, we have learned about the etymological meaning of the word religion and
its different roles and functions. We have discussed the significance of four pillars of religion
that constitute a religious tradition and have focused on key concepts in religion such as religious
experience, numinous, myths and rituals. The lesson has furthered the learner’s understanding
of religion by explaining its relationship with philosophy, morality and theology. In doing all
these, serious attempt has been made to lay a strong conceptual foundation that would help
the students to understand Indian religions in a new light.

1.17. Keywords
Relegare – To bind together

Theism- Belief in a personal supreme being related to the humans and the world.

Ontological argument—subscribes to non-contingency of God’s existence.

Legal paradigm – a framework that sees ethics as a matter of following rules.

Hadith-serves as a foundation for interpreting what the Qur’an.

16

1.18. Answers to Check Your Progress

Answers to Check Your Progress I

1. True

2. True

3. False

4. True

5. True

Answers to Check Your Progress II

1. Symbolic

2. Identity

3. Naturalism

4. David Hume

5. Theology

1.19. Model Questions:

1. Define religion

2. Discuss the important of religious experience?

3. What is a myth?

4. Explain the role and function of rituals in religion.

5. Describe the relationship between philosophy and religion?

 17

1.20. References
Chatterjee, Partha, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse,
Zed Books, London, 1986.

Fitzgerald, Timothy, The Ideology of Religious Studies. New York: Oxford University Press,
2000.

Ford, David, “Theology” in The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. John R.
Hinnells (ed.), London and New York: Routledge, 61-80.

Hinnells , John R. 2005 ”Why study religions?” in The Routledge Companion to the Study
of Religion. John R. Hinnells, editor. London and New York: Routledge, 5-20.

Keith, Noel L. Religion: An Introduction and Guide to Study. 2d ed. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C.
Brown Book Co, 1967.

King, Richard, Orientalism and Religion: Postcolonial Theory, India and the Mystic East,
Routledge, London, 1999.

Majumdar, Ashok Kumar. Bhakti Renaissance. 1st ed. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
1965.

Rupke, Jorg. Religion: Antiquity and its Legacy. New York City: Oxford University Press,
2013.

Segal, Robert A. Myth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Sweetman, Brendan. Religion. New York; London: Continuum, 2007.

Thompson, Ian. Religion. New York; London: Longman, 1986.

18

LESSON - 2
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO RELIGION
2.1. Introduction
Religion has been one of the most enduring realties of the human world for ages. Unlike
other beings in the world, human beings enjoy the capacity not only to sense something beyond
and greater than them and to posit the existence of a supernatural power or a transcendental
power. They have also learnt to articulate their belief in words and actions that were passed on
from one generation to others. These words and actions, known as religion, had become the
subject of study for a while at least from 17th century. This lesson aims to describe some such
attempts and presents different approaches to religion.

2.2. Objectives
After reading this lesson, you would have learnt about

• How various disciplines contribute to understand the complex reality of religion

• The major contemporary approaches to the study of religion such as phenomenology,

sociology, and anthropology

• The variety of theories, perspectives and positions that help understand religion lived
out in different ways in different cultures

Plan of Study

1.1 Introduction

2.2 Objectives

2.3 Different Approaches to Religion

2.4 Phenomenology of Religion

2.5 Sociology of Religion

2.6 Anthropology of Religion and its Different Approaches

2.7 Recap
 19

2.8 Keywords

2.9 Check Your Progress

2.10 Model Questions

2.11 References

2.3 Different Approaches to Religion

To understand the complex reality of religion, various attempts have been taken by different
thinkers at different times and places. While these attempts are numerous, we focus in this
lesson three major group of approaches and theories. Main approaches are phenomenological,
sociological and anthropological approaches

2.4 Phenomenology of Religion

The terms phenomenon and phenomenology are derived from the Greek word
phainomenon which means that which shows itself, or that which appears. Phenomenology as
a branch of knowledge owes its origin to famous philosopher Edmund Husserl. Phenomenology
of religion is one of the major twentieth-century approaches to the study of religion. Most
fundamental common description of the term ‘phenomenology of religion,’ is that it is a systematic
study of the essence (meaning) and manifestations of the whole range of religious phenomena
of a particular religion under study. Since phenomenology of religion is a well-developed field
of study today that has a history of growth and trajectory, we cannot cover divergent views and
varying ideas in a lesson like this. Hence, based on the writings of such key proponents of this
field as Max Scheler, W. Brede Kristensen, Rudolf Otto, Gerardus van der Leeuw, C. Jouco
Bleeker, Mircea Eliade, and Ninian Smart, an attempt is made to provide the major characteristics
of phenomenology of religion.

2.4.1 Characteristics of Phenomenology of Religion

Though various views, insights and perspectives of phenomenology are applied to the
field of phenomenology of religion, we will only focus on the most basic and common ideas
employed to the study of religion as listed below.

1. Intentionality: intentionality refers to the property of all consciousness as

consciousness of something. All acts of consciousness are directed toward the
20

experience of something, the intentional object. Intentionality is a way of describing

how consciousness constitutes phenomena. In order to identify, describe, and interpret
the meaning of religious phenomena, scholars must be attentive to the intentional
structure of their data. In this regard, Douglas Allen observes: “For Otto, the a priori
structure of religious consciousness is consciousness of its intended ‘numinous object.’
Van der Leeuw’s phenomenological-psychological technique and Eliade’s dialectic of
the sacred are methods for capturing the intentional characteristics of religious
manifestations.”

2. Bracketing: Phenomenology of religion believes that it is only by bracketing and

suspending one’s ordinary preconceptions, unexamined assumptions and prior
judgments that one can become attentive to a much fuller disclosure of what manifests
itself as religious and how the religious manifests itself in experience. By suspending all
personal preconceptions as to what is real and insisting on the irreducibility of the
religious, phenomenologists attempt sympathetically to place themselves within the
religious ‘life-world’ of others and to grasp the religious meaning of the experienced
phenomena. The phenomenological bracketing entails the suspension of all such value
judgments regarding whether or not the holy or sacred is actually an experience of
ultimate reality. On the one hand, many phenomenologists argue that religious
commitment, a personal religious faith, or at least personal religious experience is
necessary for a scholar to be capable of empathy, participation, and sympathetic
understanding. On the other hand, other phenomenologists are of the view that such
personal religious commitments are bound to produce biased descriptions. A more
balanced view in this regard is that it is not a particular faith or theological position but
commitment to religious phenomena, manifested in terms of intellectual curiosity,
sensitivity, and respect, that is indispensable for participation, understanding and accurate
phenomenological descriptions. Such a commitment may be shared by believers and
nonbelievers alike.

3. Insight into essential structures and meanings: Phenomenology of religion also

engages in the intuition of essences, the method of free variation, and other techniques
for gaining insight into the essential structures and meanings of the phenomena.
Phenomenologists aim at intuiting, interpreting, and describing the essence of religious
phenomena. In this regard, Dougals Allen observes: “For some phenomenologists, an
‘essential structure’ is the result of an empirical inductive generalization expressing a
 21

property that different phenomena have in common. In the sense closest to philosophical
phenomenology, essence refers to deep or hidden structures, which are not apparent
on the level of immediate experience and must be uncovered and interpreted through
the phenomenological method.”

2.4.2 Different approaches of phenomenology of religion

1. Descriptive approach: phenomenology of religion is descriptive in nature.

Phenomenologists invariably classify their approach as a descriptive phenomenology
of religion. They claim to utilize a descriptive approach and see their classifications,
typologies, and structures as descriptive. This means that it does not engage in evaluative
judgments but seeks “accurate and appropriate descriptions and interpretations of
religious phenomena” which include sacred symbols, rites and rituals, prayers, art,
processions, ceremonies, festivals, vows, meditations and other religious exercises,
whether corporate or private.

2. Antireductionist Approach: Phenomenologists oppose reductionism. They do not

depend upon grand frameworks and impose uncritical preconceptions and unexamined
judgments on phenomena, in order to deal with phenomena simply as phenomena and
to provide more accurate descriptions of just what the phenomena reveal’. “More than
any other approach within the modern study of religion, phenomenology of religion
insists that investigators approach religious data as phenomena that are fundamentally
and irreducibly religious.”

3. Autonomous Approach: Phenomenology of religion believes in the autonomy of its

discipline and approach. It adopts a specific method of understanding that ‘is
commensurate with the religious nature of the subject matter.’ Though phenomenology
of religion is autonomous, it is not self-sufficient in the sense that it depends ‘heavily on
historical research and on data supplied by philology, ethnology, psychology, sociology,
and other approaches.’ But it always seeks to integrate the contributions of other
approaches within its own unique phenomenological perspective.

4. Comparative and systematic approach. Phenomenology of religion is a very general,

comparative approach and engages with classifying and systematizing religious
phenomena. It is through comparing a large pool of data covering a great diversity of
religious phenomena, phenomenologists gain insight into essential structures and
meanings. This empirical approach is claimed to be free from a priori assumptions and
22

judgments. Such an empirical approach, often described as ‘scientific’ and ‘objective,’

begins by collecting religious documents and then goes on to describe just what the
empirical data reveal.

5. Historical approach: Phenomenologists of religion claim their approach to be historical

not only because their approach cooperates with and complements historical research
but also because they consider that all religious data are historical which they deal with.
In fact, no phenomena may be understood outside their history. The phenomenologists
are aware of the specific historical, cultural, and socioeconomic contexts within which
religious phenomena appear.

For more one phenomenology of religion: watch

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eemsyixc2Yk

2.5 Sociology of Religion

Sociological approaches to religion, unlike theology, treat religion as a social reality and
deal with the mundane dimensions of religion. They apply sociological theories and methods
to study religious phenomena as found in the social world. Historically speaking there is a very
close tie between sociology and sociology of religion. Theories and methods that evolved in
the general field of sociology affected the development of sociology of religion. Hence, it is not
accidental then that the great “classic” theorists of general sociology, such as Comte, Durkheim,
Simmel, Weber, and Parsons, were also major exponents of the sociology of religion. Secondly,
there is a link between the age of enlightenment and sociological study of religion. New schools
of thought that emerged during enlightenment in 19th century found fault with religion for the
many ills of society. Philosophers like Bacon and Descartes thought of religion as an obstacle
to the progress of mankind. Thirdly, the beginning of sociology of religion can be traced within
the context of the rise of natural sciences in the second half of nineteenth century, most of
which were dominated by an evolutionary paradigm. Charles Darwin’s theory of natural evolution
was adapted to be evolve a general theory of social Darwinism. In this lesson, we will study
about the views of key sociologist of religion.

2.5.1 Karl Marx’s View on Religion

Karl Marx (1818-1883) view on religion lies in his critique of religion that focused on its
negative use as a means of moral and intellectual repression. According to Marx, capitalistic
 23

economy and the consequent exploitation of labour that subjugated humans to the products of
their own labour led to a condition of alienation of humans. This alienated humans, unable to
regulate their own world, turn to religion. This approach shifted the focus to a more materialist,
pragmatic critique of religion. Marx held that there is a parallel between religious and socio-
economic activity. He saw religion as a social product, emerging out of social relations. Religion
did not exist all by itself, independent of the social and economic forces. It became a means to
control the masses and an instrument in legitimizing injustice.

His idea of social relations stems from his understand of social reality. Marx divides
social reality into two different parts: the Base-structure and the Superstructure. Base structure
is constituted by the modes of production and the relations of production. The superstructure
consists of all the non-economic aspects of social life – political, legal, kinship institutions as
wells as all forms of consciousness like philosophy, art, science, religion, ideology and the like.
Marx used the term mode of production to refer to the specific organization of economic
production in a given society. A mode of production includes the means of production used by
a given society, such as factories and other facilities, machines, and raw materials. It also
includes labor and the organization of the labor force. The term relations of production refers
to the relationship between those who own the means of production (the capitalists or
bourgeoisie) and those who do not (the workers or the proletariat). According to Marx, history
evolves through the interaction between the mode of production and the relations of production.
The mode of production constantly evolves toward a realization of its fullest productive capacity,
but this evolution creates antagonisms between the classes of people defined by the relations
of production—owners and workers. In this struggle, religion would be used as an ideology by
the bourgeoisie in their favour. It means that superstructure instead of being dependent on the
base structure makes the continuation of the latter dependent on the former. This results in a
class-struggle and should lead to a conflict between the haves (bourgeoisie) and the have-
nots (the proletariat) and the overthrow of the base-structure. However, that does not happen
because religion helps to assuage the have-nots and legitimize the relations of productions.

In his work The Introduction to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, Marx wrote,
‘Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world. It is the opium of
the people’. The helplessness of the oppressed in their struggle against the exploiters led to a
belief in better life in heaven, a pie in the sky. The hope of a reward in life after death made
them accept their sufferings on earth. Escape is the essential thing that religion offered the
oppressed. While for those who are the owners of means of production, it offered an ideology,
24

a system that legitimized poverty, injustice and suffering as the will of God. Marx states thus,
‘The social principles of Christianity preach the necessity of a ruling and an oppressed class,
and all they have for the latter is the pious wish that the former will be charitable…The abolition
of religion, as the illusory happiness of the people, is required for their real happiness. The
demand to give up the illusions about its condition is the demand to give up a condition which
needs illusions.”

Religion is a manifestation of a false consciousness, an illusionary happiness. It preached

the existence of a hierarchical class structure and validated its unjust nature. A critique of
religion was necessary according to Marx, so as to make humans reason out, think, act and
shape their future independently. While an earlier religion supported the needs of a feudal
class in ruling the peasants, it later was challenged and replaced by the bourgeois class that
used religion for the same purpose, to make the masses submit. As long as religion could
make the masses accept the sufferings in this world with a hope that could be overcome in the
next life (through the theories such as Will of God and karma), the masses could be manipulated
by those who controlled religious institutions, alongside those who controlled the means of
production.

For more of Karl Marx on Religion:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ogj1B0NIevY

2.5.2 Emile Durkheim’s Views on Religion

Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), was less interested in finding the origins of religion than in
describing its function. Religion stands for the collective representation of a society. The collective
representation of a society exists within and beyond an individual. Religion, for him, is a projection
of the social values of society. It is real because its effects are real, even if the social origins are
disguised, and the explanation and beliefs for a religion are mere constructs. Powerful feelings
in believers indicates to Durkheim that this is so because they are symbols representing
something of great power. Durkheim suggests this can only be society itself since society is the
only thing powerful enough to command such feelings. When one worships the scared symbols,
people are worshiping society itself, uniting believes into a single moral community.

For Durkheim, the key feature of religion was not a belief in gods, spirits or the supernatural,
but a fundamental distinction between the sacred (things set apart, and forbidden, that inspire
feelings of awe, fear and wonder and are surrounded by taboos and prohibitions) and the
profane (things that have no social significance) found in all religions. ‘Sacredness’ was not
 25

inherent to these things, whether objects or rituals, but it was the attitude of respect towards
these things that symbolized it. Profane things being the opposite; belonging to the ordinary,
uneventful and practical routine of everyday life. According to him, the division between sacred
and the profane is not a moral one. The sacred can be both, good or evil, but it can never be
profane, and vice versa. The sacred arises from additionally that which affects the whole
community, while the profane is more a part of the private realm. A religion is not a mere set of
beliefs, it involves definite rituals or practices in relation to the scared and these rituals are
collectively performed by social groups. It is his study of totemism that illustrated the universal
distinction between the sacred and the profane.

Durkheim believed that the essence of all religion could be found by studying its simplest
form, in the simplest type of society- clan society. He used studies of the Arunta, an Australian
Aboriginal as an example. Arunta clans came together periodically to perform rituals involving
worship of a sacred totem- the clan’s emblem e.g. an animal or plant that symbolises the clan’s
origins and sense of belonging. For Durkheim, when clan members worship their totemic, they
are worshiping society, it inspires feelings of awe due to the power the totemic represents the
dependence of worshipers. In Durkheim’s view, regular shared religions reinforce the collective
conscience and maintain social interrelation. Taking part in shared rituals binds individuals
together, reminding them that they are part of a single moral community to which they owe
their loyalty. In this sense, religion also performs an important function for the individuals, by
making them feel part of something greater than themselves. Religion strengthens the humans
to face life’s trials and motivates them to overcome obstacles that would otherwise attempt to
defeat them.

For more on this topic:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M7Ljolx_urY

2.5.3 Max Weber

While Karl Marx held that religion is inherently opposed to social change, Max Weber
was of the view that religion was an effective cause of social change. His work The Protestant
Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is regarded as a classical study in the field of sociology of
religion. The main thesis of the book is that religious reasoning influence human actions. It
examines and establishes a cause and effect relationship between religious values and economic
interests. It contends that religious conceptions of the world hugely impact upon the economic
behavior of various societies. His thesis of relationship between religion and social change
26

was based on his scientific study of western societies. According to him, ‘Western capitalism
was motivated by two contradictory patterns of behaviour: one, a devotion to amassing wealth
beyond individual needs and two, by avoiding the use of wealth for personal pleasures or
enjoyment, both of which were the ethics central to the Protestant sects.’ For Weber, it is the
Protestants, particularly of a certain sect (Calvinism) who were the leaders of industry, possessed
more wealth and economic means than any other religious groups, notably Catholics. He pointed
to the differences in the two sects in terms of their levels of economic rationalism and general
patterns of behaviour which, in his view, was influenced by their religious beliefs.

According to him, unlimited accumulation of wealth, a distinctive feature of western

capitalism was the result of certain moral or value-orientation. It is certain interpretation of
Protestantism that had shaped some of the motivations responsible for the creation of the
capitalist regime. He found out that Protestant Calvinists were more likely to assume
entrepreneurial roles and take up work in large-scale modern organizations than Catholics or
Lutheran Protestants. The latter were happy to remain in their traditional occupations such as
farming, small-scale artisans or professions such as law and administration. Calvinism followed
the ethics of hard work and pursued the goal of increasing production and trade. It emphasized
the individual rather than collective responsibility in economic life. For the Calvinists, it was the
doctrine of the ‘calling’ and of ‘predestination’ that created the will power necessary to generate
the above capitalist spirit.

Calvinists believed in this-worldly interpretation of the doctrine of predestination. It meant

that their life of calling should be lived as if salvation is already attained here on earth through
their successful individualistic economic life. Individual’s life should be a statement of God’s
blessings received in their individual life and displayed through success in capitalistic business.
It meant each one’s wealth is a visible sign of the invisible blessing and calling received from
God. This view called upon believers to work hard and accumulate wealth by saving it rather
than spending it on frivolous pleasures. These aspects of the doctrine of calling, individual
hard work and accumulation of wealth (capital)—which were found among the Calvinists
contributed to capitalistic economic growth. Thus protestant ethic gave rise to the spirit of
capitalism and contributed to the success story of capitalistic economy in western nations.

For more of Weber on religion:

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 27

Check Your Progress – I

Fill in the Blanks

1. Phenomenology as a branch of knowledge owes its origin to_____________

2. Consciousness of something in phenomenology is known as ______________

3. ________ wrote the book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

4. According to _______ religion is the opium of the people

5. _____ made the distinction between the sacred and profane.

2.6 Anthropology of Religion and its Different Approaches

Anthropological approach of studying human societies as integrated wholes, considers
religion as a part of culture. Each culture is unique in its own way and each culture can be
studied and described. The recent thinking is that the world can be viewed in multiple ways
and, therefore, the representation of culture cannot become monological, authoritative and
bounded. Thus, the anthropological perspective of religion is the way its practitioners see the
world, interpret and see themselves different from others.

John Lubbock, an English anthropologist, made an early attempt to combine

archaeological evidence of prehistoric people, on the one hand, and anthropological evidence
of primitive people, on the other, to trace the origin and evolution of religion (Encyclopedia
Britannica Online). In this scheme, in the beginning there was absence of religious ideas and
development of fetishism, followed by nature worship, and totemism (a system of belief involving
the relationship of specific animals to clans), shamanism, anthropomorphism, monotheism
(belief in one God), and finally ethical monotheism. This has foreshadowed, other forms of
evolutionism, which were to become popular later. In the late nineteenth century with the
influential works of Max Muller, W. Robertson Smith, Edward B. Tylor, Marrett, and Sir James
G. Frazer, anthropological study on religion grew at a fast pace. These scholars were first to
suggest that tribal religions might be amenable to study, following the rules of scientific method,
and to posit specific methodological procedures for the comparative analysis of religious beliefs
and practices. All of them sought to understand religious belief and practices at most fundamental
or basic level.
28

The anthropology of religion owes a great debt to Emile Durkheim who put forward the
concept of sacred, profane orders, and the so-called supernatural and natural categories,
which have proved to be more beneficial in better understanding the concept of religion. A
strong impetus to subsequent application of Durkheimian theory is found among the British
structural-functionalists, such as Radcliffe-Brown, E.E. Evans-Pritchard, Meyer Fortes, and
Melford Spiro, etc., who also made significant contributions towards understanding religion.
They primarily focused on the religion of tribal groups. However, many of the contemporary
exponents of anthropology of religion like Clifford Geertz, Melford Spiro, Victor Turner, Sherry
Ortner, Mary Douglas and Stanley Tambiah have devoted bulk of their attention to local variants
of major world religions – Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity and the impact of the
world religions in developing countries like Java, Indonesia, Morocco, Sri Lanka, South Africa,
Nepal, and Burma, instead of the religions of isolated tribal groups. Contemporary ethnographers
concentrate on examining religious diversity in complex societies rather than providing further
documentation for uniformity in tribal religions.

Anthropology of religion as a growing field of knowledge has evolved different perspectives

and approaches to decode the reality of religion as understood, lived out and practiced in
different cultures and ethnicities. In this section, we will study them.

2.6.1 Evolutionary Approach

Like so much else in anthropology, the study of the religious notions of primitive people
arose within the context of evolutionary theory. Besides their evolutionary assumption about
religion, the followers of evolutionary theory show overwhelming Eurocentric biases. But it is
true that they made valuable contributions to the study of religion. Most of the nineteenth
century anthropologists derive assumptions about religion from the Judeo-Christian heritage
and from their own religious experiences within that tradition. E.B. Tylor, expounds in his book,
Primitive Culture, that animism is the earliest and most basic religious form. Out of this evolved
fetishism, belief in demons, polytheism, and, finally, monotheism is derived from the exaltation
of a great god, such as the sky god, in a polytheistic context. He defines religion in such a way
that all forms of it could be included, namely, as ‘the belief in Spiritual Beings’. He firmly states
that religion is a cultural universal, for no known cultures are without such beliefs. Belief in
spirits began as an uncritical but nonetheless rational effort to explain such puzzling empirical
phenomenon as death, dreams and possessions. Herbert Spencer advocated ancestor worship,
a relatively similar system to Tylor’s animism.
 29

For Sir James Frazer human thought is best understood as a progression from magic to
religion to science. By publishing his two-volume book titled The Golden Bough, he attempts to
construct a universal theory of magic, religion and science. According to Frazer, magic is the
primordial form of human thought. He further postulates early man was dominated by magic,
which viewed nature as ‘a series of events occurring in an invariable order without the intervention
of personal agency’. These magicians, according to Frazer, believed in nature and developed
imaginary laws, which are of course, not real. However, in course of time the more intelligent
members of the society, in the state of disillusionment, conceived of spiritual beings with powers
superior to man, who could be induced by propitiation to alter the course of nature to his
advantage. According to Frazer, this was the stage of religion. Later on, this was seen to be an
illusion and men entered the final, the scientific stage of development. Magic, according to
Frazer, is based on the principle of contagion or on ‘sympathy’ or the notion of imitation, said to
be the earliest form. In more advanced societies, Frazer contends, magic eventually is replaced
by religion, and both are finally replaced by science.

2.6.2 Functionalist Approach

Various forms of functionalism in anthropology—which focus on social patterns and

institutions with reference to their functions in the larger cultural context— have proved
illuminating for wider understanding of religion. This has helped to discover interrelations between
differing aspects of religion as it connects various institutions. Functionalism emphasizes on
the interrelations between the various elements of a social system, and, therefore, pays less
attention to evolutionary origins and the notion of “survivals” – the continuation of primitive
elements in a culture. Society is seen as a self-regulating system in which religion, economic
organization, and kinship form parts of an organic whole. The realm of the sacred is defined by
the attitude people have towards it – rituals are sacred if they are performed with reverence
and awe. Numerous functional aspects of religion include providing explanation or comfort;
sanctions on social, economic and political norms and institutions; and aiding ecological
adaptation and unifying the social group. Anthropologists like Malinowski, Evans-Pritchard,
Radcliffe-Brown, etc., who approached religion from functionalist perspective provide explanation
that satisfies human needs and solidarity of the group. Malinowski, for instance, in his work on
the Trobriand Islanders emphasizes on the close relationship between myth and ritual. He puts
forward the idea of psychological functionalism, religious acts fulfilling the psychological need
and satisfaction. A mortuary ritual, for instance, is intended to release the soul and prevent it
from returning to haunt the living. Like Frazer, he distinguishes magic from religion which aims
30

at something beyond itself. Its object is not performance of the rite. In magic the end is the
efficacious magic itself. Evans-Pritchard observes that while emotions, desires, and impulses
undoubtedly play a part in religion, the performance of a religious or magical act need not
automatically produce the psychological effects, as Malinowski supposes. He argues in Azande
religion that witchcraft has to be understood in social context. In this sense, he agrees with
Durkheim but disagrees with the notion that religion is illusion.

Radcliffe-Brown provides an account of Andamanese religious beliefs and ceremonies.

He asserts that the Andaman Islanders’ main supernatural beings are spirits of the dead,
associated with the sky, forest, and sea, and nature spirits, which are thought of as
personifications of natural phenomena. Applying Durkheimian analysis he presents an organic
picture of society; religion integrates society and rituals bring in solidarity of the group. Many
anthropologists followed this stream of approach which however slowly has died out with the
criticisms from the newer theorists. In India M.N. Srinivas’ study of society and religion among
the Coorgs is an outstanding contribution to the study of religion in functionalist perspective.
He very innovatively integrates social structure with religion which he finds it operating at different
levels – local, regional, peninsular and all India. Drawing the difference between Indological
and sociological approach, he adopts the latter for a meaningful treatment of religion in relation
with the social structure of the Coorg. He demonstrates that various rituals organised at family,
patrilineal joint family (okka) and village levels bring in solidarity and unity among different
social segments.

2.6.3 Structuralist Approach

Rejecting functionalist approach as being too light in interpreting mythology, Levi-Strauss’

new “structuralism” posited a universal logical pattern to the human mind and in this perspective,
religion is of a totally different phenomenon in nature. He has been relentless in his search for
the universal structures of human thought and social life. He points out that although
anthropologists have tried studying mythology it has not been successful as myths are still
widely interpreted in conflicting ways: as collective dreams or as the basis of ritual. Mythological
figures are considered as personified abstractions, divinized heroes, or fallen gods. He further
laments that study of mythology has been reduced to either an idle play or a crude kind of
philosophical speculation. His formalistic structuralism tends to reinforce analogies between
“primitive” and sophisticated thinking and also provides a new method of analyzing myths and
stories. Taking cue from structural linguistics, in particular the work of Ferdinand Saussure,
 31

Levi-Strauss has sought to reveal a grammar of the mind, a kind of universal psychology with
a genetic base, which gives rise to social structures. He explains that myth is language: to be
known, and to be told; it is a part of human speech. He further elaborates saying that in order
to provide its specificity we must be able to show that it is both the same thing as language,
and also something different from it. He interestingly analyses myth with Saussure’s distinction
between langue and parole, one being the structural side of language, and the other the statistical
aspect, langue belonging to a reversible time, parole being non-reversible. Just as there are
limits to linguistic variation, so there are certain basic innate patterns of culture based on a
series of binary oppositions. Thus, all societies distinguish between the raw and the cooked,
the raw standing for nature (and women) and the cooked for culture (and men). Myths reveal
common story lines that can be used to understand the limited number of ways in which human
beings interpret the world. The structural analysis of myth, which is a pioneering work of Levi-
Strauss in anthropology, has influenced many scholars in the 21st century. Levi-Strauss contends
that primitive religious systems are like all symbolic systems, fundamentally communication
systems.

In Indian context Dumont takes the structuralist perspective of religion manifested in the
worship of village deities. He finds the opposition between ‘purity’ and ‘impurity’ and
interdependency of both the values in the religious thoughts. The ‘purity’ is strongly associated
with vegetarian food offered to the Sanskritic gods and ‘impurity’ associated with non-Sanskritic
gods and other spiritual beings that receive the offering of non-vegetarian foods. The purity is
superior to impurity, and these values have transcended to form the basis of caste system.

2.6.4 Symbolic Approach

Evans-Pritchard first recognized the symbolic aspect of religion, and this has inspired
several anthropologists to approach religion through symbols, the meanings given by the
participants to the elements of religion and rituals, and interpretations that anthropologists can
offer. Victor Turner, Mary Douglas and Clifford Geertz are the important anthropologists that
have contributed for our understanding of religion from symbolic perspective.

Victor Turner’s work on the Ndembu rituals provides a highly detailed and enormous
work on Ndembu religious life which consists of rituals falling under these two categories – Life
cycle crisis ritual and ritual of affliction. His work shows that the Ndembu society is greatly
marked by different ceremonies replete with symbolic meanings in every act and performance.
Along with that his powerful analytic concepts of ‘structure’ and ‘anti-structure’ in analyzing the
32

Ndembu society brought about new dimension in looking at rituals and its symbolic relevance
in ritual context. In this regard, through his idea of communitas, he explored new dimensions
on Van Gennep’s idea of rites of passage consisting of a pre-liminal phase (separation), a
liminal phase (transition), and a post-liminal phase (reincorporation).

According to Mary Douglas, there is an enormous literature on religion in the modern

world, but little guidance on how to relate its understandings to the other branches of social
thought. Douglas emphasizes that the idea of the dangerous and powerful sacred is formed by
living together and trying to coerce one another to conform to a moral idea. The sacred can be
engraved in the hearts and mind of the worshippers in more than one way. It represents the
society, as experienced; it is divine order, and what distorts it is unholy and polluting. Human
body is the most appropriate symbol of the society; functioning of bodily parts represents the
social order and disorder. For her, symbols fit well with the empirical experience of group and
individual into a consistent whole. She also worked extensively in understanding about symbols.
She says that symbol has meaning from its relation to other symbols in a pattern, the pattern
gives the meaning. Therefore, no one item in the pattern can carry meaning by itself isolated
from the rest. She further puts forward that a basic question for understanding natural symbolic
systems will be to know what social conditions are the prototype for the one or the other set of
attitudes to the human body and its fitness or unfitness for figuring godhead. What are the
limits within which the disdain of organic processes can be used as an idiom for social distance?
Douglas also has tried to show that dimensions of social life that govern the fundamental
attitude to spirit and matter. According to her, symbolic acts accurately convey information
about the intentions and commitment of the actor. She declares that anthropologists are in the
habit of using ritual to mean action and beliefs in the symbolic order without reference to the
commitment or non-commitment of the actors. Symbolic approach is one of the most popular
approaches used by anthropologists to study about human religious behaviors.

Dissatisfied with earlier approaches, Geertz proposes religion as the part of the cultural
system. For him, a symbol means any object, act, event, quality or relation that serves as a
vehicle for a conception. His conception of religion rests on the notion that people act basically
according to the systems of meanings that they have and the job of anthropologist is to interpret
these meanings and provide for their description. The system of meanings engages continuous
dialogue between the meanings acting upon people and people’s actions upon meaning – the
cultural system shapes and gets shaped by the people. He says, “For an anthropologist, the
importance of religion lies in its capacity to serve, for an individual or for a group, as a source
 33

of general, yet distinctive, conceptions of the world, the self, and the relations between them,
on the one hand—its model of aspect—and of rooted, no less distinctive “mental” dispositions—
its model for aspect—on the other. From these cultural functions flow, in turn, its social and
psychological ones.” The functional and symbolic approaches have dominated the
anthropological study of religion in the late twentieth century as researchers have become
increasingly concerned with the concept of meaning.

For more on this topic:

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Check Your Progress II

State True or False

1. Anthropological approach does not consider religion as a part of culture.

2. According to Tylor, animism is the earliest and most basic religious form.

3. James Frazer wrote the book titled The Golden Bough

4. Levi-Strauss cannot be associated with “structuralism”

5. Mary Douglas considers human body as the most appropriate symbol of the society

2.7 Recap
In this lesson we have studied three different theoretical approaches to the study of
religion. They are phenomenology of religion, sociology of religion and anthropology of religion.
While phenomenology of religion studies religions as they present themselves to human
consciousness, sociology of religion focuses on the way religions operate in the society.
Anthropology of religion’s main effort has been to study religions as part of culture and to
understand its practices and functions that differ across space and time.

2.8 Keywords
Phainomenon—that which shows itself from itself.

Functional approach — sees society as a self-regulating system in which religion forms parts
of an organic whole

Structuralism—A search for the universal structures of human thought and social life
34

Symbolic approach—An attempt to understand religion through symbols and the meanings
given by the participants to different elements of religion.

2.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

Answers to Check Your Progress I

1. Edmund Husserl

2. Intentionality

3. Max Weber

4. Karl Marx

5. Emile Durkheim

Answers to Check Your Progress II

1. False

2. True

3. True

4. False

5. True

2.10 Model Questions

1. Explain the main characteristics of phenomenology of religion

2. Describe the different approaches of phenomenology of religion

3. Write an essay on any two major thinkers of sociology of religion

4. Write a note on Mary Douglas’s views on religion

5. Write an essay on any two major approaches of anthropology of religion

 35

2.11 References
Barton, Michael (ed.). Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion. London:
Tavistock, 1973.

Bowie, Fiona. The Anthropology of Religion. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

Boyer, Pascal. Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought. New
York: Basic Books, 2001.

Csordas, Thomas. “Asymptote of the Ineffable: Embodiment, Alterity, and the Theory of
Religion,” Current Anthropology 42 (2004): 1–23.

Douglas, Mary. Purity and Danger. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966.

Douglas, Mary. Natural Symbols, 1st edn. New York: Pantheon, 1970. Durkheim, Emile.
The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life [1912], tr. Joseph Ward Swain. London:
Allen and Unwin, 1915.

Flood, Gavin. Beyond Phenomenology: Rethinking the Study of Religion. London: Cassell,
1999.

Frazer, James George. The Golden Bough, 1st edn, 2 vols. London: Macmillan, 1890. 2nd
edn, 3 vols. London: Macmillan. 3rd edn, 12 vols. London: Macmillan, 1911–15.

Geertz, Clifford. “Religion as a Cultural System,” in Anthropological Approaches to the

Study of Religion, ed. Michael Barton. London: Tavistock, 1973, pp. 1– 46.

Geertz, Clifford. Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. New York:
Basic Books, 1988.

Moran, Dermot. Introduction to Phenomenology. London: Routledge, 2000.

Ryba, Thomas. The Essence of Phenomenology and its Meaning for the Scientific Study of
Religion. New York: Peter Lang, 1991.

Tylor, Edward Burnett. Primitive Culture, 1st edn, 2 vols. London: Murray, 1871.

Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism [1904–05/1920], tr. Talcott
Parsons. London: Allen and Unwin, 1930.

Weber, Max. The Sociology of Religion [1922], tr. Ephraim Fischoff. Boston: Beacon Press,
1963.

Wilson, Bryan R. Religion in Sociological Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1982.
36

LESSON - 3
VEDAS, UPANISHADS, DARSHANAS AND GITA
3.1. Introduction
In this lesson, we will learn about the scriptural traditions of India such as Vedas,
Upanisads, Darshanas, and Gita. These texts embody the ancient wisdom narratives of the
people living in the subcontinent for centuries and are considered as sacred books across
India.

3.2. Learning Objectives

After studying this lesson, you will be able to explain the following:

• The scriptural traditions of India

• Bhagavad-Gita and Teachings

• The Six Systems

Plan of Study

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Learning Objectives

3.3 Thematic Introduction

3.4 Brief Overview of Hindu Scriptures

3.5 Bhagavad-Gita and Teachings

3.6 The Six Systems of Indian philosophy - Darshanas

3.7 Check your Progress I

3.8 Summary

3.9 Key Words

3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.11 Model Questions

 37

3.3 Thematic Introduction

Hinduism as we know is a complex and a pluralistic phenomenon. Its scriptures and
philosophical traditions contain messages that are meaningful and relevant for the whole of
humanity. This lesson draws our attention to this corpus of religious teachings and philosophical
ideas. Learning this lesson will help the students acquire right knowledge about the important
teachings in Hinduism.

3.4. Brief Overview of Hindu Scriptures: Vedas and Upanishads

There are basically two types of sacred writings that constitute the Hindu scriptures.
They are Sruti and Smriti. Sruti refers to that which is heard and Smriti refers to that which is
remembered or memorized. Sruti basically means Vedas. The word, Vedas, originate from the
Sanskrit word, ‘Vid’ which means ‘to know.’ The wisdom of the Sruti literature is evocative of
the profound depth of ancient Hindu seers who led solitary lives in the woods where they
developed a consciousness that enabled them to ‘hear’ or cognize the truths of the universe.

There are four samhitas (collections) of hymns that include the term Veda in their titles:
the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. “The term Veda is often used to refer
specifically to these four samhitas or collections, but it may also refer to these four samhitas
along with the texts that were appended to them: the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the
Upanishads.” Of all four Vedas, Rig Veda is the oldest collection of hymns. The Yajur Veda and
Sama Veda contain much material from the Rig Veda, though organized differently. The fourth,
the Atharva Veda, is focused more on rites for health, financial success, and children. “As with
many other religious texts throughout the world, there are different views about the origins of
the Vedas. Within the Hindu tradition itself the view is that the Vedas are not the product of
human composition. Some Hindu sources describe them as the linguistic representation of the
sounds that create and sustain the cosmos; other Hindu sources describe them as the creation
of a god.” One of important corpus of Vedic literature known for its deep philosophical insights
is known as Upanishads, whose etymology refers to the act of sitting before a teacher. There
are 108 extant Upanishads, of which 10 are most important: lsa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka,
Mandukya, Taitiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka.

Smriti literature refers to “memorized” or “remembered” scriptural texts. Smriti consists

of Itihasas (means ‘epics’), Puranas (means ‘Story of Olden days’), agamas and shastras.
They are more popular with Hindus, because they are easy to understand as their ideas are
38

explained through symbolism and mythology. They contain some of the most beautiful and
exciting stories in the history of religion and world literature.

Of Smriti literature, the most famous ones are the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.

• The Ramayana - The Ramayana is one of the most popular of Hindu epics, composed
by Valmiki around 4th or 2nd centuries BC with later additions up to about 300 CE. It
depicts the story of the royal couple of Ayodha - Ram and Sita and a host of other
characters and their exploits.

• The Mahabharata - The Mahabharata is the world’s longest epic poem written about 9th
century BC. It deals with the power struggle between the Pandava and the Kaurava
families, with an intertwining of numerous episodes that make up life.

• Bhagavad Gita, which forms part of Mahabharata is one of the most well known of the
Hindu scriptures. It is also called the ‘Song of the Adorable One, and was written about
the 2nd century BC. It forms the sixth part of the epic Mahabharata. It contains some of
the most brilliant theological lessons about the nature of God and of life. You will study
some of the important teachings of the Bhagvad Gita in the following pages.

Scriptures play important roles in the life of Hindus. Firstly they impart to its followers a practical
knowledge about the way of life. They impart to them the very art of living. Secondly the
Scriptures also give them knowledge about the world. Finally and most importantly, they offer
paths to salvation, known as Moksha in Indian religious traditions.

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3.5 Bhagavad-Gita and Teachings

The Bhagavad-Gita is one of the most famous scriptures of contemporary Hinduism. It is
a Vaishnava scriptural text and is part of the famous epic, Mahabaratha. The latter belongs to
the scriptural corpus of Smirti (that which is remembered) and is distinguished from Sruti (that
which is heard)—which refers to four Vedas. Set in the context of a war, which is symbolic of
the battlefield of daily life, Bhagavad-Gita is the dialogue between the student Arjuna and his
divine charioteer Krishna. It captures the conflicts faced by people in their earnest search for
the truth of life.
 39

In spite of the very high standards of living, surrounded by comforts and the latest
developments of our current times, humans seem to be unhappy and uncomfortable. Most
people long for a transformation not only in the standard of living but also in the quality of life.
The significance of the Bhagavad-Gita lies in the pointers it sets for living such a life of spiritual
quality. It presents us with important values and insights for leading a life of equanimity and
detached commitment that will draw us closer to our spiritual goals. In the section below we will
deal with the central message of the Bhagavad-Gita’s teachings.

3.5.1 Nishkama Karma

The heart of the Bhagavad-Gita’s teaching is nishkama karma, which literally means
“desireless action,” that is, acting without egoism, without selfish desire (or kama). To this end,
the Bhagavad-Gita gives a twofold advice. Firstly, all work, whether pleasant or unpleasant,
should be performed with the sense of duty. This implies that all work by itself is neither high
nor low, but the preferences of the ego evaluate all work according to its whims. It is at this
stage that human beings seek for a comfortable life devoid of ethical discipline. The sense of
duty teaches us to disregard the false values, which the ego has attached to life and work. This
negation of the ego and its values is also the transcendence of the ego itself. This helps us to
realize another characteristic that is needed for any seeker wishing to grow in spiritual oneness
with God, namely, freedom from limited vision. In other words, according to the teachings of
the Bhagavad-Gita, universality of outlook is another important characteristic of the spiritual
seeker.

Secondly, by not caring for the fruits of our actions or by being unattached to them, we
are asked to cultivate the virtue of detachment. According to the Bhagavad-Gita those who
work with various selfish motives are people of small or limited visions and understanding.
Such people do not understand the sanctity of work. In order to grow in spiritual wisdom the
devotee must practice Karma-Yoga. The Bhagavad-Gita defines Karma-Yoga as dexterity in
action:”Yogah Karmasu Kausalam.” The Bhagavad-Gita extols this attitude in these words:
“The wise possessed of this evenness of mind, abandoning the fruits of their actions, freed for
ever from the fetters of life, attain that state which is beyond all evil.” Bhagavad-Gita 2:51.

3.5.2 Karma Yoga

The one who practices Nishkama Karma practices Karma Yoga. Karma Yoga is
consecration of all actions and their fruits unto the Lord. Karma Yoga is performance of actions
dwelling in union with the Divine, removing attachment and remaining balanced ever in success
and failure.
40

Karma Yoga is selfless service unto humanity. Karma Yoga is the Yoga of action, which
purifies the heart and prepares the heart and the mind for the reception of Divine light or
attainment of Knowledge of the Self. The important point is that one must serve humanity
without any attachment or egoism.

The Bhagavad-Gita teaches that karma binds when it is done with a selfish motive, with
the expectation of fruits. But when action is done without the expectation of fruits, it is liberating.
The seeker is called to act as an instrument in the hands of the Lord, as a participant in the
cosmic activity of Nature, without expectation of fruits. Such karma will not bind human beings
to the cycle of death and rebirth. Karma then becomes Karma Yoga. The most important
teaching of the Bhagavad-Gita is – Work unselfishly as an instrument in the hands of the Lord.
Surrender the actions and their fruits to the Lord. That will free human beings from the bonds
of karma and bring peace.

The Bhagavad-Gita thus offers a very important teaching to humanity. If humans follow
the teaching of selfless service then the world will become a better place to live in. The greatness
of Hinduism lies in the wide range of teachings it gives to the world. As we saw in the above
passages it presents us with very practical ways of living a good life devoted to God and
people. That is only one side of Hinduism. The religion is also known for its well established
philosophical systems. ln the next section we will make a study of six systems of Indian
philosophy.

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00hsvx4
https://www.ancient.eu/Bhagavad_Gita/

3.6. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy

In the Indian understanding all Philosophy is Darshana. The word Darshana means
vision. The main reason for calling it a vision is because it presents to us a vision to life. Indian
philosophy not only captures and describes the ultimate purpose of life but also offers a practical
method of living. It is for this reason that it has been called as a vision.
 41

3.6.1 Orthodox and Heterodox

Depending on the acceptance or non-acceptance of Vedic authority, the systems of Indian

philosophy are divided into two types of schools - Orthodox and Heterodox. The Orthodox
schools accept Vedic authority. Orthodox schools are the Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Samkhya, Yoga,
Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta. These orthodox systems developed side by
side at intellectual center of which good number are all over the country even during the
Upanishadic period. Each system has its unique characteristics. The Heterodox schools are
Charvaka, Jainism and Buddhism.

In the following sections we will study about the six orthodox systems.

3.6.2 The Six Systems at a Glance

It is impossible to ascertain which among the six systems is the oldest since all of them
have cross-references to each other. The six Indian systems are

• Gautama’s Nyaya

• Kanada’s Vaiseshika.

• Kapila’s Samkhya

• Patanjali’s Yoga

• Jaimini’s Purva Mimamsa

• Badarayana’s Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta

The six different systems of Indian philosophy have common ideas. All systems accept
the existence of a real and immortal soul, distinct from the material body. They believe in the
transmigration of soul from one body to the other i.e. the concept of life-death cycles. All
systems except Purva Mimamsa aim at the practical achievement of salvation. They believe in
jivanmukti (liberation of life from the life-death cycle) achieved by knowledge and not death.
We will now study about each of them in detail.

1. Nyaya Philosophy

Nyâya was composed of two parts: adhyâtma-vidyâ, or metaphysics, and tarka-úâstra,

or rules of debate, often simply called logic. The oldest existing book on Nyaya is the “Nyaya
42

sutra” by Gautama. It is based on the theme of knowledge and logical analysis. Perception,
inference, comparison and testimony are accepted as the means of knowledge. Nyaya accepts
the plurality of souls. When this inherent, permanent and unconscious soul comes in contact
with sense organs it acquires intellectual and emotional qualities. Only by deep logical analysis
based on philosophical knowledge and dissolution of doubt and ignorance, human beings can
be liberated from the life-death cycle.

Nyâya Sûtra begins with the following aphorism: “It is the knowledge of the true character
of the following sixteen categories that leads to the attainment of the highest good.” They are:

1. Pramana - Means to acquire knowledge.

2. Prameya - Object of knowledge.

3. Samshaya – Doubt

4. Prayojana - Purpose.

5. Drastanta – Illustrative example.

6. Sidhanta: Conclusion

7. Avayava- Constituents of a syllogism

8. Tarka - Hypothetical argument.

9. Nirnaya - Ascertaining the truth.

10. Vada - Discussion.

11. Jalpa - Disputation.

12. Vitanda - Refutation.

13. Hetvabhasa - Fallacy in the cause

14. Chala-Guile

15. Jati - Casuistry

16. Nigrasthana- Vulnerable point of opponent’s statement.

 43

Nyaya believes in the existence of a supreme God who initiates the process of world
creation. Gautama defines liberation as the absolute freedom from pain. In liberation there is
no feeling of bliss because soul does not have the inherent characteristics of cognition. In this
state of liberation there is activity but no selfish activity in which pleasure and happiness are
present but Pain is absent.

2. Vaiseshika Philosophy

Nyaya and Vaiseshika are considered sister philosophies. The earliest book of Vaiseshika
(vishesha means particularity) is the ‘Vaiseshika Sutra” by Kanada. Vaiseshika proposes the
atomic nature of the world i.e. the world consists of invisible eternal atoms earth, water, light
and air), which are incapable of further division,

The system categorises all objects of valid knowledge or padartha into six:

• Dravya (Substance)

• Guna (Quality) possess real objective experience

• Karma (Action)

• Samanya (Generality)

• Visesa (Particularity) inferred

• Samavaya (Inherence)

According to Vaiseshika reality consists of substances which possess qualities and there
are nine such substances namely earth, water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind.
Kanada does not mention God but the later commentators felt that God produced the
unchangeable atoms.

3. Samkhya Philosophy

Samkhya is considered to be the oldest among the philosophical systems dating back to
about 7th century BC. Kapila, the author of “samkhya Sutra”, is considered to be the originator
of this system. The “Samkhya Karika” of Ishwarakrishna is the earliest available text on Samkhya
dating back to about 3rd century AD. Samkhya’s name is derived from the Sanskrit root word
Samkhya which means enumeration.
44

The Samkhya system proposes the theory of evolution (prakriti-purusha) that is accepted
by all other systems. The purusha (soul) of this system is unchanging and is a witness to the
changes of prakriti. Hence the Samkhya system is based on dualism wherein nature (prakriti)
and conscious spirit (purusha) are separate entities not derived from one another. There can
be many purushas since one person can attain enlightenment while the rest do not, whereas
prakriti is one. It is identified with pure objectivity, phenomenal reality, which is non-conscious.

Prakriti possess three fundamental natures or gunas. They are as follows:

(1) The pure Sattva

(2) The active Rajas

(3) The coarse and heavy Tamas.

Sattva accounts for thought and intelligibility, experienced psychologically as pleasure,

thinking, clarity, understanding and detachment. Rajas accounts for motion, energy and activity
and it is experienced psychologically as suffering, craving and attachment. Tamas accounts for
restraint and inertia. It is experienced psychologically as delusion, depression and dullness.
The conscious Purusha excites the unconscious Prakriti and in this process upsets the
equilibrium of the various gunas.

Samkhya is essentially atheistic because it believes that the existence of God cannot be
proved. Prakrti, the cause of evolution of world, does not evolve for itself but for Purusha- the
ultimate consciousness. The self is immortal but due to ignorance (avidya), it confuses itself
with the body, mind and senses. lf avidya is replaced by vidya (knowledge), the self is free
from suffering this state of liberation is called Kaivalya. Yoga is the practical side of Samkhya.

4. Yoga

The word yoga has a variety of meanings; it means method, yoking or conjunction of the
individual and the supreme soul. Yoga is the methodical effort to attain perfection through the
practical control of different physical and psychical elements of human nature. It gives the
methods by which the body and the mind can be made to achieve vidya and hence jivanmukthi.
Patanjali’s Yogasutra is regarded as the main source of codification of yoga.

Yoga’s physiology is based on a network of about 7000 Nadis (small nerves). According
to Yoga the human body consists of two parts, the upper body (torso, arms and head) and the
 45

lower body (legs and feet). The centre of the human body lies at the base of cerebro-spinal
(Brahmadanda or Merudanda) column. This Merudanda has six plexus (chakras) which are
the invisible to the human eye but are visible through yoga. The body is considered to be the
instrument for the expression of spiritual life. In this system the physical world is not treated as
unreal, instead methods to overcome the hindrances caused by the manifest world are given.
There are eight such methods that consist of five external aids and three internal aids

External Aids:

• Yama: abstention

• Niyama: observance

• Aasana: posture

• Pranayama: breath control

• Pratyahara: withdrawal of senses

Internal Aids:

• Dhaarana: contemplation

• Dhyana: fixed attention

• Samadhi: concentration

Yama and Niyama are the ethical preparations necessary for the practice of yoga. Aasana
means posture. The perfect aasana is such that the body has beauty, grace strength and
hardness. The next is breath control (pranayama) which patanjali mentions as an optional
measure since serenity of mind may be attained by cultivation of virtues or by regulation of
breath.

Withdrawal of the senses and shutting of the mind to external influences (pratyahara)
helps humans in introspection. These five are considered to be accessories to yoga Dhaarana
is fixing the mind (chitt) on a particular spot. Dhyana is the resultant state of undisturbed mind.
Samadhi is the condition to be passed through before attaining jivanmukthi.
46

5. Purva Mimasa

Purva Mimamsa is earlier (purva) to Uttara (later) Mimamsa in a logical sense. By the
Sutra period the Vedas were beginning to lose their glory. Hence some scholars began to
reanalyze the Vedas in order to defend them and justify Vedic ritualism. Mimamsa means to
investigate Dharma (duty) as given in the Vedas.

The Purva Mimamsa is practical than speculative. Jaimini is the founder of the Purva
Mimasa system. His Mimamsa Sutra was composed probably in 4th century B.C. According to
Purva Mimamsa, Moksha or liberation takes place in heaven. Purva Mimamsa gives a way to
heaven but not freedom from Samsara (daily life). Since the way to liberation is defined and it
is set as a goal, Purva Mimamsa goes beyond being a commentary on the Vedas to being a
Darshana. lt was the later philosophers of this system who brought about the change. The
Purva Mimamsa gave importance to sacrifices and rituals.

6. Uttara Mimasa

Uttara Mimamsa of Badarayana is also called Vedanta Sutra or Brahma Sutra. It deals
with the Brahman doctrine. Uttara mimamsa is the development of the speculative side. It
consists of 555 sutras, each with two or three words.

The Vedanta Sutra has four chapters. The first deals with the theory of Brahman and its
relation to the world. The second chapter discusses the objections raised by other systems
against this view. The third chapter discusses the methods by which Brahma Vidya (knowledge
of God) can be attained. The fourth chapter deals with the results of Brahma Vidya.

The sutras themselves are unintelligible and leave the interpretation to the reader and
hence there are many commentaries on the Vedanta Sutra. The chief commentators are
Shankara, Ramanuja, Madhava, Nimbraka and Vallabha. Shankara’s and Ramanuja’s are the
most important of the commentaries. Shankara’s Vedanta is called Advaita and Ramanuja’s
Vedanta is Vishistadvaita.

We have made a study of the six systems in Hindu Philosophy. In the following section
we will study about the worship forms and rituals in Hinduism, which is important in order to
understand the basic practices of the Hindus.
 47

For more on six systems in Hindu Philosophy refer:

https://www.philosophybasics.com/general_eastern_indian.html
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-india/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddJg3gzYEb8

3.7 Check your Progress I

State True or False

1. The Bhagavad-Gita contains the dialogue between the student Arjuna and his divine
charioteer Krishna.

2. Tamas is the power of darkness, form and materiality.

3. Yama means abstention

4. Uttara Mimasa is variously called Vedanta

5. Ramanuja’s Vedanta is called Vishista Advaita

3.8 Summary
Hinduism represents a broad spectrum of beliefs and practices, which are very profound
and metaphysical. Hinduism, which is famously described as ‘way of life’ provides human
beings with a holistic view of life through its scriptures.

3.9 Key Words

Sruti: that which is heard

Varna: means classes or groups in human society’

Ashram: means orders or stages of life.

Karma: effect of one’s action

Marga: means of liberation

48

3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress I

1. True 2. True 3. True 4. True 5. True

3.11 Model Questions

1. Explain in an essay the six systems in Hindu Philosophy

2. Write a short note on the concept of scriptures in Hinduism

3. Write a short note on Vedas and Upanishads

4. Write an essay on Bhagavad Gita

3.12 References
Bhargava, P.L. India in the Vedic Age. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing, 1971.

Das, Veena. Structure and Cognition: Aspects of Hindu Caste and Ritual. 2nd ed. New
York;Delhi;: Oxford University Press, 1982.

Dumont, Louis. Religion, Politics and History in India: Collected Papers in Indian Sociology.
[Ecole Pratique Des Hautes eìtudes, Sorbonne. 6. Section]. Vol. 34. The Hague;Paris;:
Mouton, 1971.

Hutton, J. H. Caste in India: Its Nature, Function, and Origins. Cambridge: University Press,
1946

Jacobs, Stephen. Hinduism Today. London;New York;: Continuum, 2010.

Knipe, David M. Hinduism: Experiments in the Sacred. 1st ed. San Francisco, Calif:
HarperSanFrancisco, 1991.

Majumdar, R.C. and A.D. Pusalker. (eds.). The history and culture of the Indian people.
Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1951.

Pargiter, F.E. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass, 1997.

Rinehart, Robin. Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice. Santa Barbara,
Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2004.

Zinkin, Taya. Caste Today. London; New York;: Oxford University Press, 1962.
 49

LESSON - 4

MAJOR INDIC RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS: SAIVISM,

VAISHNAVISM, SAKTISM AND TANTRISM
4.1 Introduction
This lesson introduces students to the history, core teachings and central practices of
Indic religions such as Saivism, Vaishnavism, Saktism and Tantrism. This also looks at religions
as dynamic, ongoing forces that give meaning and direction to human lives and shape the
collective experience of human beings in diverse socio-historical settings. This lesson does
not aim to make judgments about what is right and wrong, but rather sets out to aid the
development of knowledge and understanding of the broad sweep of these religious traditions.
The purpose of the lesson is to develop student’s understanding of these living religions with a
major emphasis on their brief historical background, sacred scriptures, beliefs, practices,
bondage, liberation and different schools.

4.2 Objectives
• To introduce the students to learn Saiva, Vaishnava, Sakta and Tantric religious traditions
existing in the country.

• To help the students to understand, interact and appreciate the beliefs and practices of
other religions.

• To enable the students to comprehend common factors in these religious traditions.

Plan of Study

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Objectives

4.3 Saivism

4.4. Vaishnavism

4.5 Saktism
50

4.6 Tantrism

4.7 Recap

4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.9 Model Questions

4.10 References

4.3. Saivism
4.3.1. A Brief Historical Background to Saivism

Siva was worshipped in the ancient times in various parts not only of the Indian
subcontinent but elsewhere also. In ancient India Siva was a popular deity, who was worshipped
both in the north and the south and both by the Vedic and non-Vedic people. The Pasupathi
seal, discovered from Mohenjo-Daro, gives us reason to believe that the seated yogi depicted
in the seal might have been a form of Siva. Siva was also associated with various fertility and
sacrificial cults in ancient India. The ancient Vedic people worshipped Him originally as Rudra
and later identified Him as Siva, one of the Tirumurthi or the gods of Hindu trinity (Brahma,
Vishnu and Siva). There is also a deep connection between Siva and the ancient tradition of
yoga. He is also described in the religious literature available to us as the source of all art forms
including dance and music.

Lord Siva became more popular during the later Vedic or Puranic period, mainly due to
the popular devotional movements initiated by his most devoted followers from Southern India
and the tantric cults which aimed to seek liberation from bondage. The Svetasvatara Upanishad
reflected the growing sentiment among people, by identifying Siva as the Brahman, or the
Supreme Self. Various Saiva sects emerged on the scene, having their own sets of rules and
rituals for the worship of Siva and for attaining liberation. Popular among them were the Pasupata
and Adi Saiva sects. Lakulisa is credited with the revival of Saivism around 1st century AD.
Among the rulers, the Kushanas and the Barasivas and some Gupta kings were responsible
for patronizing the worship of Siva and construction of temples in his name. In the south the
sixty-three Nayanmars were responsible for spreading Saivism among the rural masses. On
the literary front, Abhinava Gupta contributed to the growing popularity of the Trika tradition in
Kashmir region, which became popular as Kashmir Saivism. Emergence of Agama sastras, a
separate body of literature entirely devoted to Saivism, and the resurgence of several Tantric
and Sakti cults also established Siva as the most prominent deity of ancient Hindu pantheon.
 51

4.3.2. The Sacred Scriptures of Saivism

The ancient people had collected their scriptural works and called the collection as Vedas.
All those that held the Vedas authoritative were called orthodox, and those that did not accept
them as the source of truth were called heterodox. Saivism claimed and had been accepted to
be orthodox. The Agamas themselves express that they are entirely consistent with the teachings
of the Veda, that they contain the essence of the Veda, and must be studied with the same high
degree of devotion. The greatest contribution of Thirumular, besides giving the tenets of Saiva
Siddhanta, is the emphasis on the Agamas, highlighting their importance and contents. The
Agamas play a vital role in this system. For the first time in Tamil, he enlists the Agamas
among the scriptural authorities. He says that twenty-eight Agamas were revealed by Siva to
twenty-eight celestials.

Further Thirumular says that the Vedas and Agamas both are true, and word of God.
Vedas are considered as general in its nature while the Agamas are particular or the special
one. When difference is found between the two on examination by the ordinary men the great
ones perceive none. Sri Nilakanta the famous commentator in the Brahma Sutra says that he
finds no difference between the Vedas and the Agamas. He says that the Veda itself is Sivagama.
The Svetasvatara Upanishad (400 - 200 BCE) is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic
philosophy of Saivism. One of the most important texts of Saivism in Tamil is Pannirutirumurais
(Twelve Sacred Books) of Nayanmars.

4.3.3. The Beliefs and Practices of Saivism

4.3.3.1. God

The supreme God of Saivism is Lord Siva. The Sanskrit word Siva means auspicious,
pure, kind and gracious. In English it is written both as Siva and Shiva. Ancient Hindu scholars
such as Sankaracharya interpreted the name variously as the Pure One, or One who is not
affected by the Gunas of Prakrti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas) or One who purifies everyone
when His name is uttered. According to Swami Chinmayananda, Siva means One who is
eternally pure or One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and
Tamas. In Tamil, the word Siva means to be red. As the principal deity of Saivism, Siva is
known by such epithets as Mahadeva (Great God - maha = Great + deva = God), Mahesvara
(Great Lord - maha = Great + isvara = Lord), and Paramesvara means the Supreme Lord. His
followers worship Him by uttering his 108 or 1008 names. There are at least eight different lists
of the Siva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing his many names. The list is taken
52

from the Book 13 (Anusasanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered to be the standard

version. List of Siva’s 10000 names ( dasa-dahasranama) is the Mahanyasa. Satarudriyam
popularly known as liturgy to Siva (Sri Rudram Chamakam). Lord Siva is the supreme Reality.
He is eternal, formless, independent, omnipresent, one without a second, beginningless,
causeless, taintless, self-existent, ever free, ever pure. He is not limited by time. He is infinite
bliss and infinite intelligence. Lord Siva is the God of love. His grace is infinite. According to
Saivism, God is neither Rupi nor Arupi nor Ruparupi, (neither soul nor matter). It recognizes
that all Rupa and Arupa are only forms of matter which is objective to our senses, and God can
never be objective to us, and cannot possess any of these material forms or bodies. God is the
illimitable and He is ever free from samsara and is perfect in peace, and immortal. Sambandhar
says that it is significant that while was not asked to give up reason, we are only reminded that
mere argumentation or excessive inquiry will not take us far and he sings as follows:

Do not, by arguments and examples, indulge

In excessive enquiry. Our Lord is a blazing light
Ye who wish to be rid of great sorrow, live with
Your mind fixed on Him.
Come, Ye holy ones, unto the Lord.

Sambandhar believes that God is the subject of one’s own spiritual experience and there
is not much use in employing logical methods of proof. For Appar, it is equally emphatic and
says that the cosmological, physico-psychic and other so-called proofs are thus only in the
nature of analogy. It must be clearly remembered that God has no material existence which
can be the subject matter of our experience with the five senses. There are two concepts of
the Ultimate Reality the Transcendental and the Determinate. The transcendental is called by
various names such as Nishkala. Parabrahman, Parameswara etc. This is called the
Svarupalakshana. This is beyond all thought, speech and action, but of its own grace, highly
advanced souls are allowed to have spiritual experience of its existence and union. Appar
says that one cannot simply prove the existence of God with physical objects but one can
experience Him by the Divine Grace.

4.3.3.2. The Fivefold Functions of God

God’s grace is a gift and manifested in His attitude to human being. Out of infinite grace,
God confers five benefits on the souls to enable them to escape from the grip of anava and to
 53

attain moksha. They are called panckrityas (the fivefold function). The fivefold function is;
Srsti, Stiti, Samhara, Tirodhana and Anugraha, these are widely known as Creation, Preservation,
Destruction, Obscuration and Bestowing Grace. The first four have their nature of culmination
in the last.

Siva is the Lord of universe and knowledge. The efficient cause as directing the material
cause may itself be said to be the material cause, but this is only a mode of speech with little
value; for in this sense, even the potter is the material cause of the pot. From the atom to the
great fire-ball, the sun, from the minutest molecule to the mountainous volcano, everything is
moved by the force of God. This is well stated in Thiruvacakam as follows:

Thou art the Heaven; Thou art the Earth;

Thou art the wind; Thou art the Light;

The Body Thou; the Soul art Thou;

Existence, Non-existence Thou;

Thou art the king; these puppets all Thou

Dost make move, dwelling within,

That each one says; ‘Myself and Mine.’

What shall I say? How render praise?

The Saivite makes a further inference that Siva who is the creator, protector and destroyer
of the world should have omniscience, omnipotence, infinite grace and infinite freedom; for
without these qualities, it is not possible to do the three functions. The second sutra of the
Sivajnanabodham brings out that the three-fold function includes two other functions of God.
They are obscuration of the self’s freedom and grant of release to the self. Therefore, God
does the fivefold function of creation, sustenance, dissolution, obscuration and bestowal of
grace.

4.3.3.3. Soul

1. The Sat and Asat Relationship of Soul

The Saivite believes in the existence of a countless number of souls, each being are
eternal and ultimate. A special feature of Saivite theory of the soul is that it is a strange blend
of sat and asat. In other words, soul takes part in the nature of things with which it happens to
54

be associated at the moment. Umapati Sivacarya says that when it is deeply implicated in
anava, it is asat and when the soul enjoys in the sunshine of divine grace, it is sat. Just as the
eye is neither light nor darkness, the soul is neither sat nor asat, neither God nor matter. It is
neither changeable like maya, nor unchanging like God. The association of soul with sat and
asat is like though pure as it drops as it from the clouds, water changes in blue and value with
the nature of the land on which it flows. Similarly, though intrinsically pure, the soul is shaped
by its association with sat and asat.

2. The Classifications of Soul

According to Saivism, the souls have been classified into three ways. A more familiar
classification of souls is into Sakalas Pralayakalas and Vijnanakalas. The first refers to those
who are subject to all the three bonds of Anava, Maya and Karma. The Pralayakalas who are
freed from maya which has been dissolved during cosmic rest. They will have to work out
anava and karma in a fresh world. The Vijnanakalas who are to be freed from anava alone.
They reside in worlds created by suddha-maya. The souls are classified on the measure of
perfection, such as; the Paramuktas (the completely liberated); the Jivanmuktas (those liberated
while yet in the embodied state); the Adhikaramuktas (those with a craving for power which
naturally prevents the higher state).

The soul passes through five stages of consciousness (Avasthas) are called as the
jagra (self-consciousness), Swapna (dreamy consciousness) Sushupthi (Sub-consciousness)
Thuriya (Pure consciousness) and Thuriya Atheetha (cosmic consciousness) and each of these
stages has three varieties the base, medial and the superior. The final stage is the soul’s
conscious of bliss at the feet of God. According to Thirumular, due to the impurity of soul, the
pervasive (vibhu) of atma appears as atomic. But the malas that envelope the soul are no part
of the soul since it is pure. If the souls were in essential features that they could never be cast
away and release would forever become impossibility. The soul in its essential nature is form of
Siva stands greatly hampered and conditioned by association with mala and when the restrictions
of malas are removed then the soul assumes its resplendent divine form.

4.3.3.4. World

Maya is the substrate of the universe, its material cause. The term maya signifies the
principle from which the world evolves and into which it returns. The word maya is derived
from Tamil word ‘MAYA.’ ‘The first letter of Tamil word ‘MA’ means involution, the second letter
 55

of Tamil word ‘YA’ means evolution. Formless, indestructible and eternal, it is a distinct and
ultimate principle; it does not owe its existence to any other thing. Unlike the Vedantin who is
unable to describe it as neither real nor unreal, Saivite considers it real and objective. The soul
needs energy for exercising its cognitive and cognitive abilities. This energy is supplied by
maya. Besides supplying the energy, maya also furnishes the tools for using the energy through
the physical and mental powers, an environment to live in and objects to enjoy. The handiwork
of maya includes tanu (worlds), and bhoga (objects of enjoyment).

1. Nature, Kind and Function of Maya

Maya is an unintelligent, primordial matter which, at first, is without name or form. It is

also eternal like Pati and pasu. It is the stuff out of which worlds are created, as also bodies,
minds, and environments. It affects all souls through its various powers which pervade all its
evolutes. It binds the sakalas, souls of the third order very closely, and provides them with
infinite varieties of bodies, instruments and environments. It clings to souls so long as the
primary mala i.e. anava clings to them. Maya, unlike anava, is a source of partial illumination
and hence serves as a lamp to souls lost in the darkness of anava. If the products of maya are
used for our liberation, maya will not bind us. Maya binds only when its products are used for
selfish and sensuous enjoyment. In fact, to rid of anava and karma, souls have to get embodied
and undergo experience in the world. Hence, the soul needs material world, body etc. It is on
account of the useful part that maya plays in enabling souls to gains release that maya is
considered to be not wholly evil. Maya helps to remove anava even as fuller’s earth is used to
remove dirt; it is dirt removing dirt.

4.3.3.5. The Bondage and Liberation

The bondage of soul is characteristically described as utter darkness and ignorance in

Saivism. Saivism believes that there are three malas. They are anava, karma and maya.
Anava mala is the primary mala which, through eternity, has remained with the soul, as though
it is naturally connected. The other two malas begin to come and join the primary mala later
on. Hence, avava mala has been called sahaja (natural), and the other two akanatuka (those
which joined later). The inherent and infinite Divine Grace performs the fivefold action
(pancakritya) to redeem the soul from the bonds of mala which is the principle of darkness.

In the initial stage of liberation of soul from the bondage starts with the realization of soul
that is the thirty-six tattvas are different from it. Subsequently it realizes that they are the
56

modifications of maya and so could be comprehended once the nature of maya is understood.
The Divine Grace operates through maya adds a body to the soul, a mind to know the body,
and a life in the world to enjoy the karma and get rid of the impurities. This is just like the
washer man mixing fuller’s earth with dirty clothes and beating them clean upon a stone. The
Jiva bound by mental impressions is like the ore from a mine. The ore has to be melted
repeatedly in a furnace to get rid of its dross, and thus, be made pure and effulgent. Then, it
rises above pasajnana (knowledge gained in and through the evolutes of prakrti).

In the next stage, through the Grace, the soul gets freed from anava and realizes its true
nature as cit, and then it sheds egoism. This leads to an understanding that its actions are due
to the influence of pasa. Then it abides in the firm faith that the Lord will liberate. At the next
stage the soul perceives Siva everywhere. The next step, it feels the influence of Siva and
becoming assimilated with Divine Grace. Liberation comes to the soul when it surrenders to
the Divine Grace. The final stage of transcendental felicity is God-love. R. Ramanujachari
explains that the spiritual evolution of the soul passes through ten stages familiarly known as
dasakarya-tattva-rupa; tattva-darsana; tattava-suddhi; Atma-rupa; Atma-darsana: Atma-suddhi;
Siva-rupa; Siva-darsana; Siva-yoga and Sivabhoga. These are experienced in the Suddha-
avastha after the pilgrim has progressed sufficiently in the path of jnana.

4.3.3.6. Rituals of Saivism

Kartigai Dipam is ine of the important rituals of Saivism. Lord Siva assumed the form of
a hill at Tiruvannamalai in Tamil Nâdu. Here, He quelled the pride of Brahma and Vishnu who
were quarrelling as to their relative greatness. One day, when Lord Siva was in meditation,
Parvati left Him and went to the hill of Arunachala. There she performed penances. She was
the guest of the sage Gautama. It was during her penance here that Mahishasura was killed by
Durga bidden by Parvati. Parvati saw Lord Siva as Arunachalesvara. She was taken back by
Lord Siva to His side and made again Ardhanari, as Apitaku Chamba. Arunachalesvara is
Tejolinga. Arunachala represents the Agni Tattva of the Pancha Bhuta Kshetras. Arunachalam
is another name for Tiruvannamalai. In days of yore, many Siddhapurushas lived in this hill.
Idyakadar, Arunagirinathar lived here. This place is famous for its Festival of Lighting (Kartigai
Dipam) every year during the month of Kartigai (November), on the day when the full moon
falls in the Kartigai Nakshatram.
 57

4.3.4. Different Schools of Saivism

The popular schools of Saivism are Saiva Siddhanta, Kashmir Saivism, Pasupatism and
Vira Saivism. Saiva Siddhanta is one of the most important schools of Saivism. The philosophical
system of Tamil is based on the Saiva Agamas, Upanisads, Tirumurais, and Meykanda Sastras,
is known as Saiva Siddhanta. Saiva is connected with Siva, Siddhanta literally means, the
established conclusion or true end, and in its extension of meaning it denotes any system of
philosophy. The Saiva Siddhanta indicates that the philosophy has been popular in south Indian
as evidenced from the great temples dedicated to Siva and the source materials embedded in
the Tamil language.

The geographical term ‘Kashmir Saivism’ is wide as four Saivite sect flourished in Kashmir.
Abhinavagupta is considered as one of the important scholars of Kashmir Saivism. Pasupatism
is another notable school of Saivism. The term Pasupata is pertaining to Pasupati. Pasupati is
the Lord of Pasus (bound or enchained Jivas. According to Pasupatism, Siva is the only God
and one. He creates the heaven and the earth and pervades it all. Pati alone can release pasu
from the pasas. The name Vira-Saivism applied to this Saiva sect seems to be comparatively
recent. Vira-Saivism means, a staunch follower of Saivism, and they are known as Ligayats
who are found in Karnataka.

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Check Your Progress I

State True or False

1. Thirumular believed that Siva Agamas were revealed by Siva as twenty-eight to twenty-
eight celestials

2. According to Saivism, the supreme God is not only Lord Siva.

58

3. Obscuration (Tirodhana) is one of the five functions of Siva

4. Saivism classifies Souls into three categories

5. In Siva Siddhanta maya is not one of the three malas (dirt)

4.4. Vaishnavism
4.4.1. A Brief Historical Background to Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism is one of the principal traditions of Hinduism, and is distinguished from

other schools by its primary worship of Vishnu as the Supreme God. It is principally monotheistic
in its philosophy, whilst also incorporating elements which could be described as being
pantheistic. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent and
scanty. Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, He is mentioned less often compared to Agni,
Indra and other Vedic deities, thereby suggesting that He had a minor position in the Vedic
religion. Other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara (also
mentioned as Narayana-Purusha in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas), who together form the
historical roots of Vaishnavism. In the late-Vedic texts (1000 to 500 BCE), the concept of a
metaphysical Brahman grows in prominence, and the Vaishnavism tradition considered Vishnu
to be identical to Brahman, just like Saivism and Saktism consider Siva and Devi to be Brahman
respectively.

South Indian texts show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi
companions, so ubiquitous in later North Indian text and imagery. Early writings of Tamil literatures
such as Manimekalai and the Silappathikaram present Krishna, his brother Balarama, and
favourite female companions in the similar terms. Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata
Purana is essentially a Sanskrit “translation” of the Bhakti of the Tamil Alvars. After the Gupta
age, Krishnaism rose to a major current of Vaishnavism. Vaishnavism in the 8th century came
into contact with the Advaita doctrine of Adi Sankrara. Many of the early Vaishnava scholars
such as Nathamuni, Yamunacharya and Ramanuja, contested the Advaita Vedanta doctrines
and proposed Vishnu bhakti ideas which is known as the Bhakti movement started in the 7th
century, but rapidly expanded after the 12th century.

4.4.2. Sacred Scriptures of Vaishnavism

There are ancient texts that form the basis of this religion: the Vedas, the Upanishads,
the Puranas, the Mahabharata including the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana, the Srimad
 59

Bhagavatam (one of the eighteen Puranas) and the writings of great teachers. Some of these
texts date back to the second century B.C., with an oral tradition that goes back to antiquity.
While many schools like Smartism and Advaidism encourage philosophical and metaphorical
interpretations of these important texts, Vaishnavism stresses their literal meaning (mukhya
vitti) as primary, while indirect meaning (gaua vitti) is decidedly secondary. In addition to these
texts listed here, Vaishnava traditions also consider the writings of previous teachers in their
respective lineage or sampradya as authoritative interpretations of scripture.

The Naalayira Divya Prabandha is a Divine Hymns of 4,000 verses composed before 8th
century CE, by the Twelve Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during
the 9th - 10th centuries. The songs were purportedly sung by the Alvars at sacred shrines known
as Divya Desams, and so the content centres upon the praise of Sriman Narayana and His
various forms. The work represents the first attempt at canonization of the works of the twelve
Alvars, and is still popular today in South India. Throughout this region, especially in Tamil
Nadu, the Divya Prabhandham is considered to be equal to the Vedas. In many temples, the
chanting of the Divya Prabhandham remains a focus of the daily service.

4.4.3. The Beliefs and Practices of Vaishnavism

4.4.3.1. God

The distinctive religious belief of Vaishnavism is its emphasis on God as a personal

being; i.e., someone you can know and have a relationship with. Vaishnavas often identify six
qualities of God: all knowledge, all power, supreme majesty, supreme strength, unlimited energy
and total self-sufficiency. One popular name for God among Vaishnavites is an ancient name
from the Vedas is Purushottama means the Supreme Person. For most Vaishnavas, the divine
self within is Vishnu himself, but not all of Vishnu. In other words, Vishnu is more than the self
and more than the universe. Likewise, when a Vaishnavite merges into God upon liberation,
his or her individual nature is not lost. Vaishnavism believe people are meant to be God’s
companions for all eternity.

Many Vaishnavas emphasize Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi as much, if not more, than Vishnu.
She is regarded not as another God, but as another aspect of the Supreme God. Many
Vaishnavas call Lakshmi as “Sri” (pronounced as shree), which means “auspicious one.” For
Vaishnavas, absolute reality (Brahman) is manifested in Vishnu, who in turn is incarnated in
Rama, Krishna and other avatars. Through His Avatars, Vishnu defends traditional righteousness
60

in keeping with the moral law (dharma). The most popular of the Avatars are Rama and Krishna.
Rama is often depicted in Hindu art and literature with his consort Sita. Krishna manifests his
true identity as Vishnu to his warrior friend Arjuna in the Bhagavat Gita, but he is often portrayed
as a handsome youth in the company of Radha or other Gopis (milkmaids).

4.4.3.2. Soul

According to Vaishnavism, the soul is distinct from body, senses, mind (manas), breath,
and intellect. Distinct from body (soul is) by reason of the experience. My body is distinct from
the outer senses by reason of the experiences that is I see with (my) eyes, I hear with (my)
sense of hearing, I speak with my tongue and so forth. It is distinct from mind (manas) as this
is known to be a sense from breath as indicated by the expression, my breath, and from
Intellect (buddhi) as borne out by the experience, I know. It is atomic or monadic by reason of
the Shruti (Scriptures) stating that it (Soul) out-goes from the body at time of leaving, and in-
comes to the body at time of joining, confirmed by our own experience.

No question need arise how, if soul is atomic, it is capable of cognising simultaneously

many objects, for its attributive consciousness has the capacity for such diffusion. By this
(law), the assumption of many bodies (simultaneously) by such (sages) as Saubhari, and by
the freed (Muktas) becomes possible. This soul is eternal, for it remembers what was experienced
in the past. But it may be asked: how if soul is eternal, they do speak of its being born and
dead? The reply is that birth is because of the Soul’s bondage with body, and death is, because
of its severance therefrom. Hence the nature of the soul is eternal. soul is distinct for each
distinct body.

4.4.3.3. World

According to Srilajiva Goswami, one of the four seed verses (catuh-sloki) of the
Bhagavatam that Lord Krishna spoke to Brahma at the dawn of creation. In this verse the Lord
defines His external energy maya. The term maya has various meanings, such as false, cheating,
illusion, compassion, power, wisdom, entanglement, the goddess of fortune, magic and so on
Krishna here uses it in the sense of the energy that causes bewilderment, the external energy.
The basic characteristics of maya are as follows:

i. Maya does not exist within the Lord.

ii. Maya does not exist without the Lord.

 61

iii. Maya exists outside the Lord.

iv. Maya is perceived when the Lord is not perceived.

A doubt may be raised concerning this definition. A conditioned living being also has the
above characteristics and thus this definition has the defect of being too broad. To avoid this,
Srilajiva Goswami says that the Jiva is conscious and has been counted in the same category
as the Lord. Moreover, the above definition should include the Jiva- maya and guna- maya
features, which are indicated in the verse. Maya is not in the para-sakti. This also implies that
it is not in the svarupa of the Jiva, or in the nature of the living being, and this is good news.
Were maya part of the Jiva, there would be no question of being liberated from it.

4.4.3.4. The Bondage and Liberation

In Vaishnavism, bondage is that which arises from the bonds or attachments (bandha or
pasa) which the beings (Jivas) form with the world. It is responsible for human suffering, delusion,
ignorance, and continuation of the individual souls in the mortal world. The soul is eternally
free, unattached, immutable and indestructible, but a living being is bound by his/her own
actions, desires, and attachments which further bind him to the mortal world. Bondage has
numerous forms. There is bondage of the embodied soul to the body (deha-baddha), of the
mortal world to death (mrityu-baddha), of the individual souls to nature (Prakriti-baddha), and
the mortal beings to the cycle of births and deaths (samsara baddha). You cannot easily escape
from it, until you suppress the triple gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas), overcome desires and
attachments, arrest the progression of karma, silence your ego, practice renunciation and
become equal to the dualities of life. Bound souls (baddhas) are subject to modifications,
egoism, and delusion.

The Vedas affirm that neither through good actions nor through sacrificial ceremonies
one can become free from bondage. Bondage arises because desire-ridden actions have
consequences, which leave strong impressions in the mind. Repeated activity of the senses in
the world of objects results in the formation of latent impressions (purva-samskaras). They
create the casual body (karana sarira) which become attached to the soul. As long as the souls
are enveloped in the impurities of their past karma and bound to their latent impressions, they
cannot be free. The Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads suggest several paths and approaches
to achieve liberation. The following are a few important solutions to restrain the mind and the
body and achieve self-realization. They may not be effective when practiced alone, but when
practiced together they lead to self-transformation, mental stability, and liberation.
62

Karma Yoga: It consists of performing obligatory duties as a householder in service to God for
the sake of order and regularity. The duties are meant to discharge one’s karmic debts to
parents, ancestors, seers, the world in general, other living beings, etc. A householder cannot
ignore them since they are vital to the practice of dharma.

Jnana Yoga: It is the pursuit of the knowledge of the self, which will lead to right awareness
and discernment. Self-study is the prescribed, traditional method to acquire it. The scriptures
hold the knowledge of rituals as lower knowledge (avidya), and the knowledge of the self or
Brahman as the higher knowledge (vidya).

Bhakti Yoga: In this yoga an aspirant experience an unconditional devotion to the Self or the
Supreme Self, without desires and expectations. He surrenders to God and becomes absorbed
in his contemplation, with his mind immersed in his thoughts, and with no other thought or
concern. According to the Bhagavad Gita, it endears the practitioners to God and leads to their
liberation. Since they devote themselves entirely to God, he takes care of their lives and
responsibilities.

Prapatti Yoga: It is a complete surrender to God. One who surrenders himself or herself to
God as nothing. It is the highest form of yoga of all other yoga which does not require any
external means to do for liberation. It is for all who is willing to be liberated.

4.4.3.5. Rituals of Vaishnavism

Vaishnavites can often be identified by certain sectarian marks on their foreheads and
bodies. Vaishnava marks vary, but usually include a U, Y, or T shape drawn in white along with
a red and yellow dot representing Lakshmi. Like all religions influenced by the Indian religious
worldview, Vaishnavites recognize the importance of meditation in religious practice. Vaishnavas
love to recount the love story between Rama or Sita or daydream about Krishna’s attractive
features and amorous antics. Religious ecstasy and feelings of companionship with Vishnu
are the main goals of Vaishnava religious ritual.

4.4.4. Different Schools of Vaishnavism

The Vaishnavites are usually distinguished into four kinds of Sampradayas, or sects. The
four major sampradayas include the:
 63

4.4.4.1. Lakshmi Sampradaya

It is also known as Sri Vaishnavism, represents one of the most important extant
Vaishnava traditions, having retained its prominence until the present. The tradition was
espoused most notably by the mystic saint Ramanuja (1017–1137), who perfected the philosophy
of Yamunacharya. Ramanuja propounded a system of Visistadvaita or “qualified nondualism,”
which connects the self to Brahman as in Advaita, but as an incomplete part rather than a full
equivalent. By the fourteenth century, the Sri Vaishnava tradition had bifurcated into two
branches, the northern Vadagali group which was based upon the Sanskritic tradition, and the
southern Tengali group, which maintains a balance of Sanskrit and Tamil influence. These
branches have been labelled the “school of the monkey” (Markatanyaya) and “school of the
cat” (Marjanyaya) respectively because of their contrasted conceptualizations of faith and grace.
The Vadagali group believes that one must cling to God much like an infant monkey cling to its
mother—that is, by putting forth effort to receive God’s grace. The Tengali, meanwhile, believe
that one must put forth no effort to acquire God’s grace—like a kitten, they must rely entirely on
the mother-cat to pick them up and carry them to safety.

4.4.4.2. Rudra Sampradaya

It was reputedly founded by the dualist Visnusvami, a thirteenth-century philosopher

and saint who taught that loneliness was the sole factor which impelled Brahma to create the
universe. It was Vallabhacharya (1479-1531) who gave Visnuvami’s teachings new life,
expounding the philosophy of Shuddhadvaita (“pure nondualism”). This philosophy represented
a correction of Sankara’s Advaita since it held that maya the power of illusion, is not separate
from Brahman bur rather is a necessary part of it. Individuals are lost in the folly of ego, and it
is by God’s grace alone that one can obtain release from this bondage, thereby attaining
Krishna’s heaven. This heaven is far above the so-called “heavens” of Brahma, Vishnu and
Siva, for Krishna is himself the eternal Brahman, according to Vallabhacharya. Vallabha decried
rote ritualism, and instead claimed that all spiritual actions should be characterized by a sense
of playful effortlessness. This inspired the raslila dramatic performances which were associated
with the Vallabhacaris.

4.4.4.3. Brahma Sampradaya

It was founded by Madhavacharya (1238-1317) and was based almost solely upon the
Bhagavata Purana. Apparently, a formal Brahmasampradaya which descended from a line of
Vishnu-worshipping Smarta Brahmans predated Madhva’s school in western Karnataka, and
64

probably influenced his thought. Madhva’s position was thoroughly dualistic (and therefore
dubbed Dvaita), in that he asserted an irreconcilable differentiation between the individual soul
the ultimate Godhead, who he held to be Vishnu. The goal of a practicioner of this system
should not be union with the divine, but rather participation in the divine.

4.4.4.4. Sanakadi Ssampradaya

It was founded by Nimbarka, a Telegu brahman who inhabited Vrindavan during what
was probably the thirteenth century. Nimbarka expanded upon Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva
by way of his Dvaitadvaita doctrine, the teaching of “duality in unity.” Here difference refers to
the existence of soul and matter as separate but dependent upon God, while “non-difference”
refers to the fact that it is impossible for soul and matter to exist independently of God. Central
to the soteriological aspects of Nimbarka’s teachings was the concept of prapatti or “surrender,”
which was the first step toward rectifying one’s relationship with God. Devotees must fully
surrender to the grace of God, thus doing away with any notion of personal efficacy. With this
in place, the Bhagavan will then grant the devotee direct perception of his glory. Although the
Sanakadi Sampradaya’s popularity was exclusive to an area surrounding Mathura as well as
Agra and Bengal, it did manage to wield some influence on later thinkers, particularly on Caitanya.

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4.5. Saktism
4.5.1. A Brief Historical Background to Saktism

Saktism is a religious tradition that devotees worship Sakti or Devi as the female principle
of the divine in her many forms as the absolute manifestation of divinity. Practitioners of Saktism
are commonly known as Saktas conceive the goddess to be the personification of the universe’s
primordial energy and the source of the cosmos. Along with Saivism and Vaishnavism, Saktism
 65

is one of the three primary monotheistic devotional schools of contemporary Hinduism. In the
details of its philosophy and practice, Saktism greatly resembles Saivism, as the God Siva is
commonly considered to be the consort of Sakti. The magnitude and significance afforded to
Saktism illustrates the theological reverence for the female within the Hindu tradition, and
points toward the fundamental necessity of a female image of the divine in religious experience.

The roots of Saktism burrow deep into India’s prehistory. The earliest Mother Goddess
figurine unearthed in India near Allahabad has been carbon-dated back to the Upper Palaeolithic,
approximately 20,000 B.C.E. Dating back to that period are also collections of colourful stones
marked with natural triangles discovered near Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. These resemble
stones still worshiped as the goddess by local tribal groups in that region. Thousands of female
statuettes dated as early as 5500 B.C.E. have been recovered at Mehargarh, one of the most
important Neolithic sites in world archaeology, and a precursor to the great Indus Valley
Civilization suggesting yet another precursor of Goddess worship in the Indian context.

The later population centers of the Indus Valley Civilization at Harappa and Mohenjo-
daro (dated c. 3300 - 1600 B.C.E.) were inhabited by a diverse mix of peoples. The majority
came from the adjacent villages to seek the prosperity of the city, and they brought with them
their own cults and rituals, including those involving the feminine divine. These cults of the
goddess were promptly given an elevated position in the society, and went on to form the basis
of Indus Valley religion. While it is impossible to precisely reconstruct the religious beliefs of a
civilization so distantly removed in time, based on archaeological and anthropological evidence
it has been proposed that this period contains the first seeds of what would become the Sakta
religion. As these rituals developed in the northern reaches of the subcontinent, additional
layers of Goddess-centered tradition were expanding outward from the Dravidian civilizations
of the south. The cult of the goddess was a major aspect of Dravidian religion, and their female
deities eventually came to be identified with Puranic goddesses such as Parvati, Durga or Kali.
The cult of the Sapta Matrikas, or the Seven Divine Mothers, which is an integral part of the
Sakta religion, may also have been inspired by the Dravidians.

4.5.2. The Philosophical Development of Saktism

4.5.2.1. The Vedas

As the Indus Valley cities were deserted, its peoples mixed with other groups, eventually
giving rise to Vedic Civilization (c. 1500 - 600 B.C.E.). This was a decidedly patriarchal society
in which female divinity continued to have a place in belief and worship but generally in a
66

subordinate role, often serving principally as consorts to the great gods. Nonetheless, the
Great Goddess of the Indus Valley and Dravidian religions still loomed large in the Vedas,
taking most notably the mysterious form of Aditi, the Vedic Mother of the Gods. Aditi is mentioned
about 80 times in the Rigveda, and her appellation (In Sanskrit, it is without limits) marks what
is perhaps the earliest name used to personify the infinite. Vedic descriptions of Aditi are vividly
reflected in the countless Lajja Gauri idols, depicting a faceless, lotus-headed goddess in
birthing posture that have been worshiped throughout India for millennia. Here as well the
historically recurrent theme of the Devi’s all-encompassing, pan-sexual nature explicitly arises
for the first time in such declarations as:

Aditi is the sky, Aditi is the air, Aditi is all gods....

Aditi is the mother, the father, and the son.

Aditi is whatever shall be born.

Other goddess forms appearing prominently in the Vedic period include the Usas, the
daughters of the sun-god Surya who govern the dawn and are mentioned more than 300 times
in no less than 20 hymns. Prithvi, a variation of the archetypal Indo-European Earth Mother
form, is also referenced. More significant is the appearance of two of Hinduism’s most widely
known and beloved goddesses: Vac, today better known as Sarasvati and Sri, now better
known as Lakshmi in the famous Rigvedic hymn entitled Devi Sukta. Here these goddesses
unambiguously declare their divine supremacy, in words still recited by many Hindus each day:

I am the Sovereign Queen; the treasury of all treasures; the chief of all objects of
worship; whose all-pervading Self manifests all gods and goddesses; whose birthplace is in
the midst of the causal waters; who in breathing forth gives birth to all created worlds, and yet
extends beyond them, so vast am I in greatness.

This suggests that the feminine was indeed venerated as the supreme divine in the
Vedic age, even in spite of the generally patriarchal nature of the texts.

4.5.2.2. The Upanishads

The Upanishads are the end of the Vedas, provide the goddesses with little attention.
The Kena Upanishad tells a tale in which the Vedic trinity of Agni, Vayu and Indra, boasting and
posturing in the flush of a recent victory, suddenly find themselves bereft of divine power in the
presence of a mysterious yaksha, or forest spirit. When Indra tries to approach and identify the
 67

yaksha it vanishes, and in its place the goddess appears in the form of a beautiful yakshini.
Here she is equated with the monistic essence of the universe:

It was Uma, the daughter of Himavat. Indra said to her, Who was that yaksha? She
replied, It is Brahman. It is through the victory of Brahman that you have thus become great.
After that he knew that it was Brahman.

The final Upanishad of the Hindu canon of 108 texts, only nine are classified specifically
as Sakta Upanishads. Sakta Upanishads are a group of Upanishads related to the Saktism
Theology of a Goddess (Devi) as the Supreme Being. They are here listed with their associated
Vedas; i.e., the Rigveda (RV), the Krishna or Black Yajurveda (KYV), and the Atharvaveda
(AV): Sita (AV), AnnapurGa (AV), Devi (AV), Tripuratapani (AV), Tripura (RV), Bhavana (AV),
Saubhagya (RV), Sarasvatirahasya (KYV), Bahvrica (RV)

4.5.3. The Beliefs and Practices of Saktism

4.5.3.1. Goddess

Many Hindus worship Sakti as the divine mother who calls for absolute surrender. Yogis
regard Sakti as the power, lying dormant within the body as a coiled serpent (kundalini), that
must be aroused and realized to reach spiritual liberation. Saktism is an essential part of Hindu
Tantra, a system of practices involving the worship of the goddess and designed to empower
and release both mind and body. In popular worship, the goddess Sakti is known by many
names; Hindus regard all female deities as her different manifestations and may refer to her
simply as Devi (Goddess). In her beneficent aspect she is known variously as Uma, Parvati,
and Ambika. In her fierce, destructive aspect she is represented as the black Kali, the demon-
destroying Durga, and the goddess of smallpox. The goddess is also worshipped as the gracious
Lakshmi, who is the consort of Vishnu.

4.5.3.2. Sakti and Siva

Saktism’s focus on the Divine Feminine does not preclude the significance of masculine
and neuter visions of divinity. These elements are, however, deemed to be inactive in the
absence of Sakti. In Saktism, Sakti is considered the motivating force behind all action and
existence in the phenomenal cosmos. The cosmos itself is Brahma, an unchanging, infinite,
immanent and transcendent reality that provides the divine ground of all being. This masculine
potentiality is actualized by feminine dynamism, symbolized by Sakti and embodied in the
68

multitudinous goddesses who are ultimately reconciled into one. In religious art, this mutual
dependence of Sakti and Brahman is powerfully expressed in the half-male, half-female statue
known as Ardhanarisvara or “The lord who is half woman.” For such depictions, the female
Sakti half is represented by Parvati, and the male Brahman half is represented by her husband
Siva. While most forms of Hinduism interpret this figure to represent the necessary pairing of
male and female in order to create life, and hold Siva to be the dominant member of this dyad
(evident from the literal meaning of the name), the Sakta interpretation is somewhat different.
The Sakta conception of the Devi is that virtually everything in creation, seen or unseen and
including Siva, is none other than the goddess. Saktism holds that the feminine represents the
dominant power in the universe over and above that of males. However, both genders must be
subsumed within the ultimate if it is to be truly considered supreme. Sakti is not infinitely superior
to the male gods; rather, masculine and the feminine are simply aspects of the singular
transcendent divine.

4.5.3.3. Forms of the Goddess

Saktas approach the Devi in a multiplicity of forms. There are thousands of goddess
forms, many of them associated with particular temples, geographic entities or even individual
villages. The form chosen by a particular Hindu depends on many factors, including family
tradition, regional practice, guru lineage, and personal resonance, among others. The
multifarious schools and sects of Saktism offer endless varieties of practices seeking to access
the various forms of Sakti; doctrinally and geographically, however, two main forms of Saktism
can be broadly classified. They are the Srikula, or family of Sri (Lakshmi), strongest in South
India; and the Kalikula, or family of Kali, which prevails in Northern and Eastern India. The
Brahmanical idea of Sakti has also become fused with many local traditions in villages. Village
goddesses are often concerned with more sundry matters of rural life, and are thought to
punish evil, cure diseases and bring boons and blessings to the people of the township over
which they preside.

Among these innumerable manifestations of Sakti, there are a few highly popular goddess
forms that are more widely known and worshiped throughout the Hindu world and therefore
stand out among others. These principal benevolent goddesses are:

i. Durga: the goddess as Mahadevi, the apical principle of the universe.

ii. Kali: the goddess of destruction and transformation, as well as the devourer of time.
 69

iii. Sri Lakshmi: the goddess of Material Fulfilment (wealth, health, fortune, love, beauty,
fertility, etc.); consort of Vishnu.

iv. Parvati: the goddess of spiritual fulfilment, Divine Love; consort of Siva.

v. Sarasvati: the goddess of cultural fulfilment (knowledge, music, arts and sciences,
etc.); consort of Brahma.

vi. Gayatri: the Goddess as Mothr of Mantras.

vii. Ganga: the Goddess as Divine River (the Ganges River)

viii. Sita: the Goddess as consort of Rama.

ix. Radha: the Goddess as Consort of Krishna.

Each of these divinities is highly interconnected with the other goddesses. Goddess
groups, such as the “Nine Durgas” (Navadurga), “Eight Lakshmis” (Ashta-Lakshmi) and “Seven
Mothers” (Sapta-Matrika) are also very common in Saktism.

4.5.4. Rituals of Saktism

4.5.4.1. Worship

Over the course of a worship ceremony (or puja), Sakti is worshipped via the typical
means of mantras, mudras and offerings of sweets and flowers. She is most profoundly
worshipped by chanting her bija mantra, which varies depending on which specific goddess is
being addressed. The particulars of Sakti worship also depend upon location. For example,
animal sacrifice is performed in some places in India, including such major sites as Kalighat in
Kolkata, West Bengal, where goats are offered on days of Tuesdays and Saturdays. Black
male goats are typically sacrificed, as well as male buffaloes during Durga Puja. This practice
is a controversial one, and so the brahmin performing the sacrifice is to take precautions so as
not to cause of pain of the animal, waiting for it to surrender before cutting off its head with a
single stroke. The blood is used to bless icons and worshippers, and the meat is cooked and
served to the worshipers and poor as prasad. Those who are averse to animal sacrifice, however,
will use a pumpkin or melon instead, which has become an increasingly popular and acceptable
substitute.
70

4.5.4.2. Sakti Peethas

There are fifty one important centres of Sakti worship sprinkled throughout various
countries in the Indian subcontinent, including India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Tibet and
even Pakistan. These are known as Sakti Peethas or “places of strength,” and are consecrated
specifically to the goddess Sakti. The great goddess is worshiped in the form of a yoni-like
stone over which a natural spring flow. During the festival, rituals acknowledge the fusion of the
seasonal cycle of monsoon rains with menstruation, both of which are represented as sacred,
making mother nature available to all. Both male and female worshippers observe traditional
menstrual restriction and seclusion during this time.

4.5.4.3. Major Festivals

Major annual festivals throughout India dedicated specifically to the goddess include
Durga Puja is celebrated nationally, although it is particularly popular in Bengal. During Diwali
festival, worshippers direct their devotions toward Lakshmi, praying for material prosperity and
bountiful harvests. Kali Puja is celebrated to make petition to the goddess to destroy evil by
diminishing the ego and all negative aspects of the human psyche that hinder spiritual
progression and the accumulation of material prosperity. Meenakshi Kalyanam is most popular
in the regions of Madurai, located in Tamil Nadu.

4.5.5. Relationship between Saktism and Tantra

One widely misunderstood aspect of Saktism is its close association in the mainstream
mind with Tantra which is an ambiguous religious concept that suggests everything from black
magic and occult practices in North India, to ritualized sex in the West. Not all forms of Saktism
are Tantric in nature, just as not all forms of Tantra are Saktic in nature, considering the fact
that Tantra is a highly variable and shifting classification, the meaning of which may differ
depending on the particular historical moment, cultural milieu, and political context with which
it is connected. When the term Tantra is used in relation to authentic Hindu Saktism, it most
often refers to a class of ritual manuals, and – more broadly – to an esoteric methodology of
Goddess-focused spiritual discipline called sadhana. This involves less controversial elements
of Tantra such as mantra, yantra, nyasa, mudra and certain elements of traditional kundalini
yoga, all practiced under the guidance of a qualified guru after due initiation (diksha) and oral
instruction. Literary history demonstrates that Vedic Brahmins have been involved in Sakta
Tantrism from its incipient stages of development, that is, from at least the sixth century.
 71

More controversial elements, such as the infamous Five Ms or panchamakara (ritualistic

consumption of Madya (wine), Mamsa (meat), Matsya (fish), Mudra (parched grain) and
Maithuna (sexual intercourse) are indeed employed under certain circumstances by some
Tantric Sakta sects. However, these elements tend to be both grossly sensationalized by
commentators who are ill-informed regarding authentic Tantric doctrine and practice. Moreover,
even within the Sakta tradition itself there are wide differences of opinion regarding the proper
interpretation of the panchamakara (i.e., literal vs. symbolic meanings; use of “substitute”
materials, etc.). Some lineages reject them altogether.

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https://www.liquisearch.com/shaktism/overview/association_with_tantra

4.6. Tantrism
4.6.1. A Brief Historical Background to Tantrism

Tantra literally means ‘extension’, ‘warp on a loom’. Tantrism is a major current in Indian
religious thought, in tension with the orthodox Vedic tradition. It emphasizes the feminine aspect
of a bipolar reality and advocates a practice of sadhana to unite these polarities and so attain
Moksa. The origins of Tantrism are obscure. Its roots may go back to autochthonous magic
and fertility cults of pre- or non- Aryan India, and certainly Tantrism arose on the edges of Aryan
influence in Bengal and Assam. In Hinduism, Tantra pervades the theistic traditions of Saivism,
Saktism, and Vaishnavism. Tantrism also exerted considerable influence on Jainism. In a
narrower sense Tantrism refers to doctrines and practices embodied in specific Saiva and
Sakta texts called Tantras.

The history of Tantric traditions and their interrelationship is complex. Although the roots
of Tantrism may be ancient, the texts can only be dated with any degree of certainty to the ninth
or tenth centuries CE, though they probably date back to about the seventh. The Tantras are
regarded as an independent revelation which superseded the orthodox Hindu revelation of the
Veda. Among the earliest are Saiva Tantras (focused on Siva), though there are also Vaishnava
Tantras (focused on Vishnu) and Sakta Tantras (focused on the Goddess or Sakti). A collection
72

of Saura Tantras (focused on the Sun) is now lost. There is also Jain Tantras which do not
contain the practices of the more extreme Saiva cults. The Buddhist Tantras are early and
become incorporated into the complex traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.

4.6.2. Doctrines of Tantrism

Tantrism is found in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Although Buddhist and Hindu Tantrism
are distinct, they nevertheless share some common features. These include: a search for
liberation during the present lifetime; a view that the body is divine and contains the bipolar
universe within it; the use of visualisation and yoga, particularly Kundalini yoga in Hindu Tantrism
and concern with the construction of sacred diagrams (yantra, mandala), ritual gestures (mudra)
and the repetition of sound formulas (mantras) in order to gain liberation and achieve magical
power (siddhi). Within Saivism the Tantric revelation can be divided into Saiva Siddhanta which
accepts the dualist Tantras as supreme and Saiva and Sakta Tantras which claim to be monistic.
Saiva Siddhanta became aligned to high caste orthopraxy, whereas other groups, such as the
Kapalikas, remained heterodox. Sri Vidya is a Tantric tradition containing both left- and right-
handed doctrines which became associated with Brahmanical orthodoxy in south India. Kerala
has a thriving Tantric tradition and Kerala Tantris are respected Brahmans who install images
in temples to this day.

Many of the esoteric Buddhist Tantras are modelled on the Hindu Saiva Tantras, though
Buddhist doctrines are superimposed on the Saiva material. Some of the early Saiva Tantras
composed within a culture of cremation ground asceticism advocate the worship of ferocious,
often female, deities, offering them alcohol, meat and erotic substances. These later become
codified into the Five Ms or panchamakara. What became known as left-handed (vamacara)
Tantrism took the use of these ritual ingredients literally, right-handed (daksinacara) Tantrism
understood them to be symbolic of pure ritual substances. Some Tantric traditions, such as
Kashmir Saivism are monistic maintaining that the self is identical with the absolute, others,
such as the Saiva Siddhanta are dualistic. Buddhist Tantras speak of the purification of body,
speech and mind in order to realise the emptiness of all phenomena.

4.6.3. The Beliefs and Practices of Tantrism

Tantric sadhana consists of puja (worship) and yoga. In many ways Tantric puja follows
Vedic puja and is of three kinds such as; nitya, to be performed daily, naimittika, to be performed
on special occasions and kama, to affect a particular desire. Tantrism understanding to yoga is
bhoga (‘sensual pleasure’). Tantrism has developed a sophisticated esoteric anatomy comprising
 73

of energy centres(chakras) connected by channels (nadis). This anatomy is visualized in Tantric

yoga of which there are two important kinds, mantra and laya or Kundalini.

An important classification in Tantra is between the right-hand path (daksinacara) which

interprets the Five Ms or panchamakara symbolically, and the left-hand path (vamacara) which
interprets them literally. Some lefthand sects such as the Saiva Kapalikas and the Agoris live in
charnel grounds and are said to have consumed the flesh of corpses and scatological substances
in order to achieve perfection and power (siddhi). Though the development of Tantrism reached
its peak about 1000 CE, it has never died out and has exerted considerable influence on
modern religious movements such as the Ananda Marga and Bhagavan Sri Rajneesh movement.

4.6.3.1. Yoni Worship

Tantrism is a system of Yoni-worship or female-centered sex-worship which allegedly

begun thousands of years ago in India by women of a secret sect called Vratyas, the processors
of the devadasis or sacred harlots. Its primary objective was the adoration of the lingam-yoni,
sign of the male and female principles in conjunction (Siva and Kali). The basic tenet of Tantrism
was that the woman possesses more spiritual energy than the man; therefore, the man could
achieve realization of the divinity through sexual and emotional union with a woman. A
fundamental rite was controlled sexual intercourse, maithuna i.e., sex without male orgasm. In
theory, the man must store up his sexual fluid rather than expelling it by ejaculation. Through
Tantric training, he learned to absorb through his penis the fluid engendered by his partner’s
orgasm and to prolong sexual intercourse for many hours. In this way he became similar to
Siva, the God in perpetual union with the Goddess. Theoretically, the concept was that the
conserved vital fluids would be stored in the man’s spinal column, working their way up through
the chakras to his head, and there flower the inspiration of divine wisdom. The most sacred
mantra expressing Tantric worship was Om mani padme hum, the Jewel (penis) in the Lotus
(vulva). The symbolic lingam-yoni often took the form of an altar shaped like a penis in a vulva.

4.6.3.2. Symbols

Tantrism is very rich in symbols which are used in meditation and ritual. Indeed, the body
itself is a symbol of the cosmos and male and female bodies symbolise Siva and Sakti for
Hindus, or Prajna (Wisdom) and Upaya (Means) for Buddhists. Sexual union therefore becomes
a symbol of liberation understood as the union of Siva and Sakti or of Prajna and Upaya. In
Hindu Tantrism, Sakti is active female energy and Siva is passive, male consciousness, whereas
in Buddhist Tantrism Prajna is the passive female element and Upaya the active, male element.
74

Other Tantric symbols are sound formulae (mantras); sacred diagrams (yantra, mandala); and
ritual hand gestures (mudra). The Tantras also contain a symbolic language which associate
the body with the male-female polarity in the cosmos.

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www.shripuram.org/index.php/articles-all/79-non-vedic-origin-of-tantrism

Check Your Progress II

Fill in the blanks

1. The Tamil sacred scripture of Sri Vaishnavism is _________

2. Self-surrender in Sri Vaishnavism is known as ________

3. Vallabhacharya’s Suddadvaita is also known as __________ sampradaya

4. Madhva’s Philosophy is labelled as ________

5. The idea of Cakra is central to _____

4.7. Recap
Saivism is an ancient, truly ageless religious tradition in India. Scholars trace the roots of
Siva worship back more than 8,000 years to the advanced Indus Valley civilization. The Rig
Veda mentions Rudra as the destroyer. In later days, it was attributed to Lord Siva. It is assumed
that the Harappan people even worshipped Pasupathi, the earlier form of Siva. According to
Megasthenes, Panini and Patanjali the Mauryas, Sungas, Greeks and Kushana kings might
have worshipped Siva. Lord Vishnu assumed various names as Narayan, Krishna, Hari, Ram
and Govinda in various parts of India. The worshippers of Lord Vishnu belong to Vaishnavism.
The Guptas worshiped Vishnu. Vaishnavism is the worship and acceptance of Vishnu or one of
his various incarnations (Avatars) as the supreme manifestation of the divine.

Saivites and Vaishnavites worship Sakti as the divine mother who calls for absolute
surrender. Saktism is an essential part of Hindu Tantra, a system of practices involving the
 75

worship of the goddess and designed to empower and release both mind and body. In popular
worship, the goddess Sakti is known by many names; Hindus regard all female deities as her
different manifestations and may refer to her simply as Devi (Goddess). In her beneficent
aspect she is known variously as Uma, Parvati, and Ambika. In her fierce, destructive aspect
she is represented as the black Kali, the demon-destroying Durga, and the goddess of smallpox.
The goddess is also worshipped as the gracious Lakshmi, who is the consort of Vishnu. Tantrism
is found in both Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hindu Tantrism, Sakti is active female energy and
Siva is passive, male consciousness, whereas in Buddhist Tantrism Prajna is the passive female
element and Upaya the active male element.

4.8. Answers to Check Your Progress

Check Your Progress I
1. True

2. False

3. True

4. True

5. False

Check Your Progress II

1. Naalayira Divya Prabandha

2. Prapatti

3. Rudra

4. Dvaita

5. Tantrism

4.9 Model Questions

1. Explain the difference between Saivism and Vaishnavism

2. Write a short note on Tantrism

3. What ate the beliefs and practices of Saktism?

4. What do you understand the relationship between Saktism and Tantrism?

76

4.11. References
Bharati, Shuddhananda. Lights on Saiva Siddhanta. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University,
1955.
Bhattacharyya, N. N. History of the Sakta Religion, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.
Ltd. New Delhi, 1974.
Brooks, Douglas Renfrew. The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Shakta
Tantrism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Dallapiccola, Anna. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend. London, UK: Thames and Hudson,
2002.
Dandekar, R.N. “Vaishnavism: An Overview.” Encyclopaedia of Religion. Edited by Mircia
Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 168-171.
Dimmitt, Cornelia, and J.A.B. van Buitenen. Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the
Sanskrit Puranas. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1978.
Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,
1996.
Hardy, Friedhelm. Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India.
Delhi: Oxford, 1983.
Joshi, M. C. “Historical and Iconographical Aspects of Shakta Tantrism,” in Harper, Katherine
(ed.), The Roots of Tantra. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.
Kandasamy Mudaliar, T. S. Sources of Saiva Siddhanta Philosophy. Annamalainagar:
Annamalai University, 1949.
Kinsley, David. Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious
Traditions. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
Ramanujachari, R. Saiva Siddhanta. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University, 1948.
Sivaraman, K. Saivism in Philosophical Perspective. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Pvt. Ltd, 1973.
Urban, Hugh B. Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics and Power in the Study of Religion, Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2003.
Welbon, G.R. “Vaishnavism: Bhagavatas.” Encyclopaedia of Religion. Edited by Mercia
Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 172-181.
Woodroffe, Sir John. Sakti and Sakta: Essays and Addresses 9th Ed., Madras: Ganesh &
Company,1987.
 77

LESSON - 5
BUDDHISM
5.1 Introduction
In the history of the world, 8th century B.C. to 1st century A.D is known as ‘Axial Era’, a
period of great ‘Spiritual Quest’ where we get almost all lasting answers to life’s perennial
questions. India gave her contribution to the genuine thoughts of Axial Era in the form of
Upanishadic enquiry, religions of Jainism and Buddhism and all other systems of thought. We
generally divide them as orthodox and heterodox contributions. Buddha is one fine product of
this era as a new pathfinder. From him comes a religio-philosophical system which is a whole
in itself with its diverse developments and spread in course of time. In this lesson, we will study
the historical setting of Buddha, His teachings, Its Metaphysical pre-suppositions and its
implications.

5.2 Objectives
After studying this lesson you will be able to explain the following:

• Emergence of Buddhism

• The Life of the Buddha

• Salient Principles and Tenets of his Teachings

Plan of Study

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Objectives

5.3. The Life of the Buddha

5.4. Buddhist Scriptures

5.5. Salient Principles and Tenets of his Teachings

5.6. Philosophical Implications of Buddha’s Teachings

5.7. Summary
78

5.8. Key words

5.9. Answers to check your progress

5.10. Model Questions

5.11. References

5.3. The Life of the Buddha

The Buddha was born in a royal family at Kapilavastu, capital city of Sakya kingdom at
the foothills of the Himalayas, which is now within the present day Nepal near India-Nepal
border. His father was King Suddhodana, head of the Sakya Clan. His mother Mayadevi gave
birth to him at Lumbini grove on her way to her parents’ place for delivery. Five days later, amid
much rejoicing and celebration, a grand ceremony took place in the palace and the infant was
given the name Siddhartha, signifying thereby the fulfillment of his parents’ long cherished
dreams and aspirations.

Thus his first name was Siddhartha (“wish fulfilled”), his family name Gautama – hence
he is also called Gautama Buddha. During the naming ceremony, many learned Brahmans
examining his bodily marks predicted that he would become either a Universal Monarch or a
Buddha. But Kondanna , the youngest, who excelled all others in knowledge, declared that he
would definitely renounce the world and become the Buddha. Mother Mayadevi died seven
days after his birth. So he was brought up by his mother’s sister Mahaprajapati, who was also
married to King Suddhodana.

From the Buddhist religious scriptures, Tipitaka, we learn very little of his early life. One
incident should be mentioned specifically. Once for the annual ceremonial ploughing festival
held with king at the head, the child was also taken. When he fell asleep under a rose-apple
tree, the nurses left him alone and went off to see the festivities. On return all were amazed to
see the child sitting cross-legged under the tree and in deep meditation. Seeing his son thus,
the Royal Father saluted him. There is also a story (though not included in the Tipitaka) that
illustrates the young prince’s great compassion and profound wisdom.

One day there was an argument over the possession of an injured bird, shot down by
Devadatta but saved and nursed by Siddhattha. They were cousins, but very much different,
Siddhattha was kind and generous; Devadatta was cruel and mean. The argument was serious
and neither was prepared to give in.
 79

Devadatta argued that he should have the bird since it was he who had brought it down
and he meant to have it. Siddhattha, on the other hand, argued that the bird should belong to
him because it was he who saved it and thus gave back its life. At the royal court the verdict
was passed in favor of Siddhattha. At that time the kind prince was still in his tender age.

At the age of sixteen he married his beautiful cousin princess Yasodhara who was of
equal age. Son Raghula was born. For nearly thirteen years after his happy marriage, he
continued to lead a luxurious life, blissfully ignorant of the vicissitudes of life outside the palace
gates. He was living in an entirely separate make-believe world which appeared to be filled
only with things of joy, beauty and happiness. Then came the four sights that altered the
course of his life according to the traditional accounts: a shriveled old man, a sick man, a
corpse and a monk (quiet and tranquil, full of peace and grace)

The first three sights shocked and tormented his tender heart. He saw the universal
problem of misery in individual instances. As a man of deep sensitivity, he was deeply moved
by the miseries to which the humanity is subjected: birth, disease, old age, decay, death and
destruction. On reflecting on old age, he realized that he was also subject to old age and not
free from old age, and his elation in youth completely disappeared. On reflecting on sickness,
he realized that he was also subject to sickness and not free from sickness and his elation in
health completely disappeared. On reflecting on death, his elation in life completely disappeared.
These are the sufferings due to natural causes that are inevitable. There are two more kinds of
sufferings: One due to changes that are continually taking place (Viparinama Dhukkha) and
the other due to desires and mental afflictions (Sankhara Dhukkha).

Birth is suffering, decay is suffering, disease is suffering, death is suffering; to be united

with the unpleasant is suffering, to be separated from the pleasant is suffering; not to get what
one desires is suffering. In brief, attachments to the five aggregates (Rupa i.e. form, feelings,
perceptions, Sankharas i.e. mental formations and consciousness) are suffering.

Facing the reality of these sufferings, he underwent a vicarious experience of the

sufferings of mankind as his own and saw the make-believe world he was living in crumbling.
He tried to understand the nature of things as they actually are and not as they appear to be.

Moved by these experiences he yearned for answers to the questions of why such
sufferings in the world and how to get rid of them. He groped for ways to end the sufferings of
the humanity. The fourth sight of the ascetic, standing tranquil and peaceful, gave him hope
80

that such an ascetic life may find him answers to the questions agitating his mind. He decided
to quit his regal chambers renouncing his position, wealth and kingdom he was to inherit and
leaving his beautiful wife and infant son. This was at his twenty-ninth year (594 BCE or 534
BCE.)

He had his head and beard shaved and, wearing yellow garments, went forth from
home to the homeless state. He ventured out into the world as a wandering mendicant, “a
seeker after what is good, searching for the unsurpassed, peaceful state, most excellent.”

Siddhartha wandered from teacher to teacher, and from ashram to ashram, in search
of the highest knowledge that would lead to the cessation of suffering and usher in peace and
tranquility. Nothing he found satisfied him.

5.3.1. Practice of Austerities and Self- Mortification

Thereafter, carried away by the belief that the mind becomes capable of penetrating
the higher truths by extreme body austerities, he practised self-mortification and self-torture
relentlessly. He took to extreme forms of asceticism, including breathing less meditations and
even going to the extent of reducing his daily intake of food to barely a few morsels.

Thus, Gotama strenuously and resolutely practised all forms of severe austerities and
fasting. “Adding vigil after vigil and penance after penance”, he made superhuman efforts for
six long years. The more he tormented his body, the farther his goal receded from him. In spite
of all his strenuous efforts, the goal was in no way near at sight. He decided to change the
method and the practice of abstinence from food.

Ultimately, he realized the utter futility of these bitter difficult austerities and self-
mortification, and discovered the middle path (Majjhima-Patipada) of avoiding the two extremes
of self-mortification and self-indulgence. The former weakens one’s body and intellect and the
latter retards one’s moral progress. He realized that neither extreme indulgence in sensual
gratification nor severe asceticism is conducive for higher knowledge. The middle path, which
yields insight, knowledge, which tends to peace, higher wisdom, enlightenment and Nibbana,
as practiced by Buddha has subsequently been incorporated as one of the salient elements of
his doctrines.
 81

5.3.2. Enlightenment and Discovery of Truth

Discovering the middle path, he gave up his painful penances and extreme austerities
and began to nourish his body sparingly with coarse food to revive his lost strength.

At that time five disciples were attending on him, thinking that whatever truth ascetic
Gotama would comprehend would be imparted to them. But when Gotama began to partake of
coarse food such as boiled rice, the five disciples got disappointed at this change of method
and deserted him saying that ascetic Gotama had become luxurious, had ceased from striving
and had turned to a life of comfort.

Gotama continued his tapas adhering to the middle path, with mind firmly rooted in
determination and concentration to find the highest truth and wisdom. He was sitting and
meditating deeply under a Pipal tree at Uruvela (near Gaya) on the banks of the Neranjara
river. There he took a vow not to move from that position on the earth until “I have obtained my
utmost aim” (Buddhacarita XII: 97). He gradually immersed deeper and deeper in meditative
absorptions which the Buddhist scriptures later describe as attainments of different levels of
Jhanas (Samadhi states). With the Jhanas he thus gained, he seems to have directed his mind
to penetrate deeper to find out the true knowledge, wisdom and insight into the real nature of
things and the fundamental truths of existence.

The discourse in Vinaya-Pitaka describes how he experienced the gradual awakening

of the threefold higher knowledge as below in three successive watches of the night and has a
direct knowledge and insight into things as they were, as they are and as they will be.

1) Retrocognitive knowledge or remembrances of his previous births.

2) Clairvoyance or knowledge of the disappearance (decease) and reappearance of beings

according to their deeds.

3) Knowledge of the destruction of the defiling impulses (corruptions) within himself.

Through the retrocognitive knowledge he gained in the first watch of the night, he could
recall the great many cycles of his previous births and his manifold past experiences. He
recalled the modes and details of his varied lives in his former existences.
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“With the second knowledge gained in the middle watch of the night and the attendant
clairvoyant vision, purified and supernormal, I perceived beings disappearing from one state of
existence and reappearing in another. I beheld the base and the noble, the beautiful and the
ugly, the happy and the miserable, and beings passing according to their kammic deeds” –
says the Buddha.

With the third vision he gained in the last watch of the night, he apprehended the Four
Noble Truths of Suffering, the Cause of Suffering, the Cessation of Suffering and the Path
leading to the Cessation of Suffering, He found out that each mental craving, each mental
defilement is a suffering. With his insight, he comprehended the nature of defilements
(corruptions), their causes, their cessation and the Noble Eightfold Path leading to their cessation.
The truth of dependent nature of all things dawned on him (the doctrine of dependent origination).

Summing up, the first two visions revealed to him the universal Law of Cause and
Effect, particularly the Law of Kamma. The third vision revealed the Law of Dependent Arising
and in particular The Four Noble Truths, the fourth Noble Truth being the Noble Eightfold Path.
Thus, with these flashes of higher knowledge, he became enlightened as to the true nature of
all things.

With the mind thus pure and with the arising of the three-fold higher knowledge
culmination in the knowledge of dependent origination and the Four Noble Truths, he had the
inner realization that he had burnt away all ignorance and karmic formations. With the removal
of the causes leading to rebirth, he became aware of the extinction of the karmic forces and the
extinction of his rebirth. Such was his deliverance and such was his liberation.

With his knowledge of dependent origination, he realized the contingent nature and
selflessness in everything. He became totally selfless apprehending neither any self in him nor
anything belonging to his self (i.e. without any notion of “I” or “mine”) and completed the remainder
of his life in his physical body without producing any more karma which would cause him to be
reborn. He had reached the state of anatta or “no self” and had realized Nibbana.

Important to note in this account of the process of getting enlightened and liberated is
the fact that there is no indication of any intervention of any superhuman divine powers or any
union with a transcendent Absolute Being. “Quite by myself, you see, have I the Dharma won.”
By his own strenuous efforts, he won Enlightenment and not by the grace of any god or Absolute
Being.
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5.3.3. Decision to Teach the Dhamma

Coming out of his meditative absorptions (Jhanas) after enlightenment, the Buddha
pondered on his future course. He thought that the Dhamma he had realized is profound and
difficult to understand by others who are attached to worldly desires. He was not inclined to
preach his Dhamma to others.

The legend has it that Bhahma Sahampati (from the Brahma realm), knowing with his
mind the thoughts of the Blessed One, feared that the world would perish without the teachings
of the Blessed one and appeared before him and pleaded with him to expound the Dhamma.

Thereupon the Blessed One surveyed the world with his Buddha vision. He saw beings
with little and much dust in their eyes, with keen and dull intellect, with good and bad
characteristics, beings who are easy and difficult to be taught and few others who live perceiving
the dangers of evil and of a future life and as such, can understand. Out of compassion for the
human beings, Buddha agreed to impart his experiences to others and teach them the way to
salvation and freedom from suffering.

He left Uruvela and went to Benaras in search of his earlier five disciples who had been
administering to him when he was striving after the highest truth and who left him when he
changed his method to the middle path avoiding the extremely severe penances and fasting.
The first sermon of the Buddha was addressed to these first five disciples at the Deer Park in
Isipatana, near Benaras.

This first sermon is known by the name of “Dhammacakka Pavattana”, that is “Setting
in Motion the Wheel of Dhamma or Law.” It also means “The Establishment of Wisdom.”
According to the commentators, “Dhamma” here means (Truth, Ideal or Religion) and “cakka”
means establishment. It is also called as: “The Wheel of Righteousness” or “The Kingdom of
righteousness” metaphorically.

5.3.4. Spreading the Message of Love and Peace

After his Enlightenment and when the number of his disciples increased, he organized
the Buddhist order of monks and later nuns which grew into a powerful vibrant religious
movement. This became a model for emulation for all religious movements that developed in
India subsequently. He threw open the gates of the Order of his Sangha to all without any
discrimination of class and caste. His exhortation to the first group of sixty monks, whom he
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converted and ordained and sent to different corners of the world to spread the message of
Dhamma, speaks volumes about his philosophy of life and action:-

“Go forth, O Bhikkhus, for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of
compassion for the world, for the good, for the benefit and for the happiness of gods and men.
Let not two go by one way. Preach, O Bhikkhus, the Dhamma, excellent in the beginning,
excellent in the middle, excellent in the end, both in the spirit and the letter. Proclaim the Holy
Life, altogether perfect and pure.

“There are beings with little dust in their eyes, who not hearing the Dhamma will fall
away. There will be those who will understand the Dhamma.

“I too, O Bhikkhus, will go to Uruvela, to Senanigama, in order to preach the Dhamma.”

(Mahavagga).

He moulded the disciples into missionary torch-bearers of his Dhamma. Buddha also
travelled far and wide with indefatigable energy as a wandering monk to preach his Dhamma
and to spread the message of all-enveloping loving kindness, compassion, peace and Nibbana
(Nirvana). His theory of anatman (no-self) directly negating and opposing the Upanisadic concept
of atman (self) and the utter selflessness he displayed in his life and in his activities charmed
the masses. His Dhamma (religion) spread rapidly and his disciples grew in large numbers.

Practising what he preached, resting barely for one or two hours in the night, wandering
from place to place, permeating the whole world with thoughts of loving kindness, he worked
incessantly for the good and happiness of all, even upto his last moment.

The inexorable law of death claimed him ultimately in the form of a meal with
sukaramaddava which might have been a tender boar meat or a kind of mushroom. The accounts
differ. After partaking this meal, that might have been spoiled, served with reverence and love
by a blacksmith named Cunda, the Buddha developed a serious sickness (dysentery) with
severe pains and succumbed to the same. According to some other accounts, he recovered
from this, but later died of natural causes.

Popular accounts describing his death state that the Buddha had passed into Parinibbana
(Pali). This meant “fully passed away”, or “full extinction”, with the residue of karmic forces
causing rebirth having been fully burnt away in his case.
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5.4. Buddhist Scriptures

Canon of Buddhist scriptures called Tipitaka (Pâli; Tripitaka in Sanskrit) (literally “Three
Baskets”), composed in Pâli language (Pâli Canon)consists of three parts:

- Vinaya-pitaka

- Sutta-pitaka

- Abhidhamma-pitaka

(1) Vinaya-pitaka, the first basket, contains:

- Accounts of the origins of the Buddhist sangha, and

- Rules of discipline regulating the lives of monks and nuns

- Sets down the methods for resolving disputes in the monastic order and
disciplining the offenders - consists of five books.

(2) Sutta-Pitaka, the second basket, is composed of:

- Discourses said to have come from the mouth of Buddha or his immediate
disciples

- Is arranged into five “collections” (Nikâya) :

• Digha Nikâya (collection of Long discourses) – 34 discourses

• Majjhima Nikâya (collection of medium length discourses) – 150 discourses

• Samyutka Nikâya (collection of kindred sayings ie. thematically – grouped discourses)

- (7762 discourses)

• Anguttara Nikâya (collection of discourses arranged numerically) – 9557 discourses

• Khuddaka Nikaya (Misc. collections incl. Dhammapada and Jatakas) – collection of

15 books. Dhammapada is a very important Buddhist scripture for lay Buddhists and
is a collection of 423 memorable verses preaching in a nutshell the Buddhist way of
life.
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(3) Abhidhamma-Pitaka

- Abhidhamma means “Higher or Special Dhamma”

- It is a compendium of Buddhist Philosophy and Psychology

- It gives interpretations and explanations of the concepts that appear in the suttas,

- Provides deeper insights into the Buddhs’s general teachings

- It consists of seven works

• The Vinaya-pitaka and Sutta-pitaka were composed at the first Buddhist council

• This council was called by Ven. Mahakassapa, chief disciple of the Buddha, one-
hundered day’s after the parinibbâna of the Buddha

• 500 Arahuts participated

• Upâli recited the Vinaya – pitaka and Ananda the Sutta-pitaka

• The recitations and renderings in this assembly were debated and a definitive version
agreed upon as authoritative canonical teaching (though it seems not entirely
unanimously, hence the divisions later).

• The compilation of Abhidhamma – pitaka was completed in the Third Buddhist Council
held at Pataliputra (present day Patna) about 244 BCE during the reign of Emperor
Asoka. The Canon finalized and fixed in this Buddhist Council came to be accepted as
the authoritative Theravada Canon in Pali Language.

Check your progress I

Fill in the blanks

1. Gaudama Buddha was born to ___________________.

2. His original name was _____________________.

3. Canon of Buddhist scriptures called ____________.

4. Buddha discovered __________ path.

5. The compilation of Abhidhamma – pitaka was completed in the Third Buddhist Council
held at ____________.
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5.5. Salient Principles and Tenets of his Teachings

Everyone who accepts Buddha agrees on one thing that his basic teaching is four
noble truths (chatvari arya satyani). They are ‘sarvam dukkam’, ‘dukka samudaya’, ‘dukka
nirodha’, ‘dukka nirodha marga’. This is actually ethico-religious teaching. This is exposed in
the first discourse the ‘Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta’. All agree that Buddha was against hair
splitting metaphysical speculations that are useless from the perspective of life’s goal. He has
a classical simile to explain it. He says if a man is struck by a poisonous arrow and is in
immediate need of medication but says, ‘I will not allow you to remove this arrow and put
medication until I know who shot, this arrow, what it is made of, how far away he was standing,
what type of bow he used etc, then, by the time you collect all answers the man will die. Thus,
these answers are useless at the moment. The fact is in front of us and the means for saving
his life too. Let us do that.

Buddha was taken up by the plight of humans. He named it ‘dukkham’ (suffering),

searched the cause of it and presented remedies like a doctor who diagnoses disease and
prescribes medicine for cure. The goal is religious as life without ‘suffering,’is a stage beyond
‘this present life situation’. And the means are purely ethical and meditational. Only difference
in this matter between him and the other religious thinkers was rejection of metaphysical
speculations, be it on God or soul or the beginning and end of life, etc. Buddha saw it as not
only useless but also detrimental to remove suffering. According to Buddha, suffering is caused
by ignorance and this ignorance is ignorance about real nature of reality which is anatma,
anitya and dukkha. This ignorance causes attachment, craving and all its evil effects. The goal
for us is removal of this ignorance by removing attachment and craving. That is termed as
‘Nirvana’ and the means for this is prajna, sila and samadhi (awareness, moral precepts and
meditation). They are elaborated into ‘noble eightfold path’.

5.5.1. Sarvam Dukkham: (everything is suffering)

Indian Philosophy in general begins at a realization of this human predicament; the

unfortunate existential situation in which one finds oneself, that his life is ‘brutish and short’. It
begets frustration, unhappiness and pain. Some scriptures say “life is a vale of tears”; “vanity
of vanities, everything is vanity”. This is a pessimistic way of looking at life. Buddha also shares
in it. According to him, “Birth is suffering, old age is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is
suffering, to be united with what is unpleasant is suffering, if one wants something and does
not get it, that also is suffering; in brief, the life as we see it is suffering (it is the aggregate of
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five skandhas with thirst for existence and clinging)”. If we ask the question why it is suffering
we must say it is suffering because it is impermanent. Though this initial pessimism is there in
Buddha, it does not make him inactive; rather, it energises him to search for answers. One
general answer was already there in the form of law of karma, i.e., the source of this unfortunate
situation is of our own making. It is our own deeds that breed the karmic residue which is
stored up and activated later and makes our life like this. And the future will be conditioned by
the present deeds. This situation is called karmic circle, samskara. Buddha shared in this
worldview and within this context arrived at his enlightenment; having been dissatisfied of the
already given explanation and he proposes his own.

If we ask the question ‘What was Buddha’s enlightenment?’ we must say it was the
realization, ‘sarvam dukkham’. Ordinary man, at one time speaks of life as vale of tears, in the
next moment, strives for pleasure and clings to some soul. Even when he fails to attain pleasure
he is under the impulse, the thirst for pleasure and appeasing of soul. For the ordinary man
things are not consistently impermanent. The distinction of Buddha is that for him even those
strivings for pleasure are painful and the attainment of the so-called pleasures too. Clinging to
a permanent soul is the root delusion. Thus everything is pain, and this realisation is the first
criteria for enlightenment. Thus this is the first noble truth, and this realization is the first criteria
for following Buddha way.

One who realizes consistently that everything is suffering, he will strive with the whole
heart to end it. In order to end it, first he must know how it originates and how it can be
removed. An expert doctor will not only consider the symptoms of disease but also will find out
the root cause of it, in order to root it out. Buddha did the same. If every action leads to
suffering, can we escape from suffering by desisting from action? Here comes Buddha’s moral
consciousness, that it is not action that is important, but the attitude behind it. Action before
being done externally, happens internally or in the mind. As every action has its cause and
brings out its fruits, every mental action too has its cause and effect. This cause-effect
examination of all actions within the person through a psychological analysis is his second
noble truth.

5.5.2. Dukkha Samudaya (cause of suffering)

Second noble truth says, our suffering has a cause. That which is caused can come to
an end if the causal condition is removed. Something that is uncaused cannot be removed.
(this is the foundation for Buddha’s rejection of Upanishadic uncaused and permanent soul).
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Thus the second noble truth is the message of hope that comes from Buddha. Since bondage
is caused, there is possibility of removing it by controlling causes and eventually eliminating
them.

What is it that causes suffering? In the first sermon at Benaras (Dhammacakkapavattana-

sutta) Buddha said, it is the thirst (trishna) that leads to rebirth, which is accompanied by
delight and passion. Later this thirst is further elaborated as aroused by sense-objects
(kamatrishna) and it is directed towards one’s worldly existence (bhavatrishna). When senses
come in contact with their objects, sensations arise and these awaken desire. In this way the
so-called thirst for objects of desire (kamatrshna) arises. The second type of trishna arises
when one takes worldly personality (five skandhas) as the self (atma) and clings to it. This is
the ignorance that entangles one in the cycle of existence. When all these joined together in
cause effect chain (dependent origination - pratitya samutpada), the famous theory of 12 spokes
of bhavachakra of Buddhism originated. They explain it both in forward order and reverse
order.

Let us see the twelve-membered chain of causes and effects:

• Ignorance (avidya)

• Impression (samskara)

• Initial Consciousness in the embryo (vijnana)

• Mind-body embryonic organism (nama rupa)

• The six fields viz., the five senses and the mind together with their objects (sadayatana)

• Contact between the senses and the objects (sparsa)

• Sense experience (vedana)

• Strong Desire (trishna)

• Clinging to existence (upadana)

• Will to be born (bhava)

• Re-birth (jati)

• Pain, old age and death (jara-marana)

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In the general presentation of cause of suffering in the twelve-membered chain of causes

and effects, the root cause of entanglement in causal chain is ignorance which is the absence
of liberating cognition, the four noble truths. In such a person craving for worldly objects and
worldly personality come into being (kama trishna and bhavatrishna). The impressions that are
like a subtle body is the bearer of rebirth; it enters into a new womb after death, driven by these
impressions. This necessitates formation of body-mind organism and in turn the formation of
senses and mind as six organs of cognition. Due to that, contact with objects occurs. And that
causes sensations of various kinds leading to the passions (raga, dvesa and moha), foremost
being the thirst that clings to sense-pleasure and to the supposed self that grasps them, thereby
leading to renewed bondage and new existence. Once again, birth and entanglement in the
suffering of existence come about, and so it goes, in the endless chain, till the liberating cognition
and annihilation of thirst put an end to the cycle of existence. When one strikes at the root of
this endless chain by removing the basic ignorance which is the wrong view of atma, permanence
and pleasure, one prepares the way for third noble truth.

5.5.3. Dukka Nirodha (cessation of suffering)

It is the third noble truth about cessation of suffering, nirvana. Negatively if we speak of
nirvana it is cessation of all suffering; annihilation of all that binds; complete vanishing of thirst,
abandoning of all afflictions (upadhi). Positively it is attainment of freedom. The question is
freedom from what and freedom to what. Nirvana is a freedom from all the three types of acts
that bind mental, vocal and physical. This can happen only when one’s actions do not create
craving (raga), aversion (dvesa) and delusion (moha). Again Nirvana is a freedom to a life with
full of good will (metta), compassion (karuna), sympathetic appreciation (mudita) and equanimity
(upekkha). Its outward expressions include politeness, good manners, cleanliness of habits
and the like. Buddha himself stands as a beacon with his personality.

Buddha when he started teaching was a man of harmonious, self-contained personality

with great magnetism. This comes from self-confidence resulting from his enlightenment, the
attainment of the right view. This is liberation. He had a contemplative temperament and kind-
heartedness towards all mankind, even towards one who came to kill him. The majesty of his
appearance and his courtesy towards people even of lower status and his noble manners
converted many even Angulimala and impressed even those who rejected his teaching.

What is the nature of Nirvana, if we take it as the permanent state after death? It is a
controversial issue. For Buddhism teaches anatma and anitya. If no permanent agent to
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experience freedom, then who attains liberation? Or what will be that after right view dawned
and aggregate of skandhas are no more which we normally call death? Rightly Buddha kept
these questions in the inexpressible (avyakrtas), for they are beyond our categories of linguistic
expression. Later schools explained it in their own way.

5.5.4. Dukkha Nirodha Marga (path for cessation of suffering)

The fourth noble truth is about the path to liberation. This is the path that Buddha
followed and attained enlightenment. So anyone who wishes to follow Buddha and attain
enlightenment can follow this and attain enlightenment. In fact, it is path to moral perfection,
through practice of morality or virtues. Morality in Buddhism has a deeper understanding than
popular understanding. Normally we judge rightness or wrongness on the basis of actions
externally seen, but in Buddhism emphasis is on what is going on in the mind. Again popularly
morality means following moral precepts i.e., emphasis on actions performed. In Buddhism
emphasis is on ‘being moral’ than following precepts. Being moral emphasises total personality.
It is not one action that decides morality but the moral culture of the person.

Fourth noble truth is generally described as the noble eightfold path. Some books divide
them into three groups. They are wisdom (prajna), morality (sila) and meditation (samadhi).
Among the eight first two are classified in the group of wisdom, next three are in the group of
morality and last three are in the group of meditation. They are

i) Right View (samyak drsti)

ii) Right Conception (samyak samkalpa)

iii) Right Speech (samyak vak)

iv) Right Conduct (samyak karmanta)

v) Right Livelihood (samyak ajiva)

vi) Right Effort (samyak vyayama)

vii) Right Mindfulness (samyak smriti)

viii) Right Concentration (samyak samadhi)

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i) Right View (samyak drsti)

‘Right view’ here refers to comprehensive understanding. Its opposite wrong view then
refers to one sided or excessively bent to one extreme, be it about self or about world, and that
is the root cause of suffering. Thus if we want to be free from suffering we must come out of our
one sidedness. Buddha came out of both extremes of ‘it is’ (sasvatavada) and ‘it is not’
(uchedavada). He gave the truth as middle way, which is the right view, claim his disciples. This
truth is exposed in the form of four noble truths and their pre-suppositions, which are dependent
origination as becoming (pratitya samutpada), no permenant soul (anatma) and law of
impermanence (anitya).

ii) Right Conception (samyak samkalpa)

Right conception is the decision in the mind of what is to be practically followed. As far
as practice is concerned, the right view remains impractical, for it doesn’t become part of the
active mind. It is duty of right conception to make mind active in that way. If that is not there,
wrong conception may carry the mind away. Wrong conceptions are associated with lust (kama-
samkalpa), conception of ill-will (byapada-samkalpa) and conception of harm (vihimsa-
samkalpa). The right conceptions are conceptions of renunciation (nishkama-samkalpa),
conceptions of good will (abyapada-samkalpa), and conceptions of compassion (ahimsa-
samkalpa).

iii) Right Speech (samyak vak)

When right view and right conception start to regulate life, they bring qualitative change
in the way of speaking, behaviour and life style. Right speech is that speech which does not
consist of lies, gossip, abuse and idle talk. This rule asks for restraint of speech and practice of
virtues with one’s speech.

iv) Right Conduct (samyak karmanta)

This noble truth asks the practitioner (sadhaka) to abstain from wrong actions. This
contains famous “Pancha-Sila” – the five vows for desisting from killing, stealing, sensuality,
lying and intoxication. Killing refers to destruction of the life of any being. He who takes away
life or instigates another to do so is guilty of this crime. Stealing is taking away of that which is
not given. Sensuality or adultery is the holding of carnal intercourse with the female that belongs
to another. Lying is one among the four sins of the speech. Others are slander, abuse and
unprofitable conversation. Intoxication refers to intentional drinking of any liquor. This is forbidden
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because it is the root cause of all other sins. For liquor takes away the rationality and morality
of the one who is under the grip of liquor, and he commits all types of sins.

v) Right Livelihood (samyak ajiva)

Right Livelihood refers to earning one’s everyday living by honest means. This rule tells
the practitioner (sadhaka) that even for the sake of maintaining one’s life one should not take
to forbidden means, but work in consistency with good determination.

vi) Right Effort (samyak vyayama)

Right effort refers to mind control. Mind is the root where all types of tendencies reside,
whether they are good or wicked passions. Sometimes undesirable ideas may haunt the mind,
and hence mind control is needed. Sins of the mind are covetousness, malice and scepticism.
They need to be controlled. One cannot progress steadily unless he maintains a constant
effort to root out old evil thoughts and prevent new evil thoughts from arising. Again since mind
cannot be kept empty, he should constantly endeavour to fill the mind with good ideas and
retain such ideas in the mind. These four are the right efforts.

vii) Right Mindfulness (samyak smrti)

This rule further stress constant vigilance, constantly keeping in mind the good things
he has already learned. He should constantly remember and contemplate the body as body,
sensations as sensations, mind as mind, mental states as mental states and contemplate on
the frail, loathsome and perishable nature of things. These help us remain free from attachment
and grief.

viii) Right Concentration (samyak samadhi)

Buddhism speaks of four stages of concentration. The first stage is dhyana or meditation
on four noble truths. Here mind makes its reasoning and investigation about truths. At the
second stage of concentration there is no reasoning and investigation, but an unaffected
contemplation. Here still the practitioner enjoys an experience of joy, peace and internal
tranquillity. At the third stage one detaches himself even from joy of concentration, attitude of
indifference increases, still conscious of the ease and equanimity he experiences. At the last
stage one puts away even the ease and equanimity and all senses of joy and happiness he
earlier had. This is a stage of perfect equanimity, indifference and self-possession. Here he
attains the desired goal of nirvana, the right view in its perfection.
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5.6. Philosophical Implications of Buddha’s Teaching

Buddha was not satisfied with the philosophy of the times. He questioned theory and
practice of Vedic sacrifice, theory and practice of ‘soul-realization’ and theory and practice of
‘this-life-alone’ holders. He comes to a new vision, accepting the spiritual, accepting morality,
but rejecting ‘permanence’ and ‘soul’ or ‘substantiality’. That which is ‘not-permanent’ breeds
suffering. Everything is not-permanent. Hence, ‘sarvam dukkam’. His vision springs from
awareness of the causal genesis of things and ideas (pratitya samutpada), their impermanence
and insubstantiality.

5.6.1. Theory of Dependent Origination (pratitya samutpada)

This is the central conception of the system of Buddha. This is the Buddhist theory of
causation. This explains the nature of existence. He said “leave aside the questions of the
beginning and end. I will instruct you in the Law (dharma of Buddhism). If ‘that’ is, ‘this’ comes
to be; on the springing up of ‘that’, ‘this’ springs up. If ‘that’ is not, ‘this’ does not come to be; on
the cessation of ‘that’, ‘this’ ceases”. This is the common description of dependent origination.
This exposes most salient features of Buddha’s conception of the principle of dependent
origination. There is a temporal relation between the ‘that’ and ‘this’. ‘This’ is an experiential
component. For ‘this’ refers to the effect that is experienced rather than inferred. And ‘that’
refers to the cause that has already been experienced. Formulating the principle of dependent
origination in this manner, the Buddha attempts to avoid the search for any mysterious entity or
substance in the explanation of phenomena. Avoiding mysterious entity or substance does not
mean abandoning all enquiry and go to absolute scepticism. Rather it represents the acceptance
of a middle standpoint and he calls it right view. In Kaccayanagotta-sutta, when question asked
about ‘right view’ Buddha said; .... “this world, is generally inclined toward two views: existence
and non-existence. To him who perceives with right wisdom the uprising of the world as it has
come to be, the notion of non-existence in the world does not occur. To him who perceives with
right wisdom the ceasing of the world as it has come to be, the notion of existence in the world
does not occur.

The world for the most part, is bound by approach, grasping and inclination. And he
who does not follow that approach and grasping, that determination of the mind, that inclination
and disposition, who does not cling to or adhere to a view, “this is my self”, who thinks “suffering
that is subject to arising arises; suffering that is subject to ceasing, ceases” such a person
does not doubt, is not perplexed ..... there is “right view” (that leads to liberation).
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“Everything exists” is one extreme. “Everything does not exist” is the other extreme.
Without approaching either extreme, the Tathagata teaches you a doctrine of the middle....(then
follows exposition of 12 factors of bhava chakra as causes of suffering). This we already saw
in the second noble truth, where he applied this theory of causation (pratitya samutpada) in the
origin of suffering. Like that in other fields too his disciples apply it. In the field of Logic it is law
of identity. Something is, is; is not, is and is not. When it is applied in metaphysics it becomes
theory of momentariness (everything in constant flux, changing from cause to effect). And
when applied in ethics it becomes law of karma as every action leaves its effect. This principle
of dependent arising is an alternative to the Brahminical notion of eternal self (atman) as well
as to the Carvaka rejection of spirituality. As an alternative Buddha explains phenomena as a
state of being in constant arising and ceasing. What is it that arises and ceases, they say
‘dharmas’. It does justice to the need of both permanence and change to explain our experience
and ethics.

5.6.2. Doctrine of Universal Change or Impermanence (Sarvam anitya)

The metaphysical application of law of dependent arising arrived by investigation and

analysis of the empirical, is the doctrine of universal change. All things are combination of
‘dharmas’ and subject to change and decay. Since they all originate from some condition, it
disappears when the condition ceases to be. Whatever has a beginning has an end. Buddha
therefore says “know that whatever exists arises from causes and conditions and is in every
respect impermanent. That which seems everlasting perishes, that which is high will be laid
low; where meeting is, parting will be; where birth is, death will come”. This is doctrine of
impermanence. When this is brought to its logical conclusion, by asking the question, how one
thing can become another if it is not continuously changing. If not changing it will remain as it
is, if it remains as it is, it will never change combination of dharmas too become impossible. If
there is no change, we cannot explain our experience, morality cannot be explained, for morality
in order to be meaningful actions should bear fruit, no fruit without change. If change, change
must be at all moments. If at one moment it is permanent, then it will go on like that for ever.
For Buddhism does not accept of an external mover.

5.6.3. No-Soul Theory (anatma)

From the beginning of human reflection up to now, one prominent theme is ‘soul’. But it
is known by different names. To the primitive man inside him or in any animal that lives and
moves there is a living principle, a man inside a man or an animal inside an animal that we call
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‘soul’. This is animism. As religion becomes refined soul concept also becomes refined. But in
one form or another we see it in living religions of Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Islam.
They teach a man’s personality or self is his soul, known by different names like ‘atman’,
pudgala, pneuma, or psyche which enters body at birth and quits at death. The common element
is, it is the invisible, immaterial ego, the ‘I’ that is unchangeable amidst everything that is
changing, the ‘Lord’ of the body and mind. Those who hold that, there is a soul that exists say,
without a soul there could be no immortality, without immortality life would not be worth living.
The existence of a soul alone could ensure to each individual the fruit of his actions; without
soul there could be no reward in heaven or punishment in hell and without it transmigration
could not be explained, and so also we cannot explain differences between man and man in
character, position, peculiarities and fate.

For Buddha such a permanent soul, a permanent self is the most deceitful of illusions,
the basic wrong view that leads man into the pit of sorrow and suffering. In order to be a
Buddhist practitioner first thing that is to be rejected is such a belief in permanent self. The
reason given is – self naturally produces attachment, and attachment to it leads to egoism,
craving for pleasure and aversion to pain on earth and then beyond in heaven. So search for
soul is a wrong start, and wrong start will lead in false direction. “Some say that the ‘I’ endures
after death, others say it perishes, both have fallen into a grievous error. For if the ‘I’ is perishable
the fruit people strive for will perish too, and then deliverance will be without merit. If, as the
others say, the ‘I’ does not perish, it must be always identical and unchanging, then moral aims
and salvation would be unnecessary”. Because of this logical difficulty, Buddha kept that matter
in the ‘inexplicable’. This silence of Buddha was explained differently by different schools,
though all agree ‘soul’ does not exist. First systematic exposition of that we have in the book
“The Questions of King Menandros” (Milindapancha). Here Nagasena the monk convinces the
king with the example of chariot, there is no permanent personality, but only name and form,
i.e. the five groups (skandas), which continuously cease and arise anew.

Check Your Progress II

True or False

1. Four noble truths and eight fold path are one of the salient teachings of Buddha.

2. Buddhism speaks of two stages of concentration.

3. Five vows are known as panjasilas.

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4. Nirvana is the cessation of all suffering.

5. All things are combination of ‘karmas’ and subject to change and decay.

5.7. Summary
The Buddha showed to mankind by his example the hidden potentialities and creative
power within man and proved that perfect enlightenment, Buddhahood, is within the reach of
everybody who devoutly makes strenuous single-pointed, concentrated efforts. He taught that
man can gain his salvation and freedom from suffering by his own exertions and efforts without
depending on any supernatural agency or God and the mediating priests and without resorting
to any rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic Religion.

5.8. Key Words

1) Anicca: impermanence, continuous change

2) Dukkha : suffering, sorrow, unsatisfactoriness

3) Anatta : no - self

4) Dhamma : dependent arising, selflessness

5) Nibbana : complete and permanent liberation from suffering

6) Samkharas : karmic formations

7) Vijnana : Store- house of accumulated tendencies, cravings and karmic formations

5.9. Check Your Progress - Answers

I Fill in the blanks

1. Suddhodhana and Mayadevi 2. Siddhatta 3. Tipitaka 4. Middle 5. Pataliputra

II True or False

1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. False

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5.10. Model Questions

1) What are the three basic facts of existence called Dhamma Mudras in Buddhism ?

2) What are the Four Noble truths?

3) Write a short essay on the Noble Eightfold Path.

4) What are the right means of livelihood?

5.11. Reference Books

Buddha and His Dhamma, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Buddha Bhoomi Publication, Nagpur

Buddhist Thought : A Complete Introduction to Indian Tradition, Paul Williams with Anthony
Tribe (Routledge, London and New York )

The Buddha and His Teachings, Narada (Buddhist Missionary Society Malaysia, 1988)

The Supreme Buddha, Rahul Sankrityayan (Samyak Prakashan, New Delhi, 2011, second
edition)

The Tree of Enlightenment, Peter Della Santina (The Corporate Body of the Buddha
Educational Foundation,Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C, 1997)

E-links related to Buddhism

What Is Buddhism? - YouTube

What is Buddhism? What do Buddhists believe? - YouTube

Dharma River | Journey Into Buddhism FULL SPECIAL | PBS America - YouTube

Buddhism | Definition, Beliefs, Origin, Systems, & Practice | Britannica

Buddha (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

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LESSON - 6
JAINISM
6.1. Introduction
The Jainas strongly believe in the teachings of twenty four Tirthankaras. The last teacher
or the Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira. In this lesson, you will study, the Jaina
philosophical system, the general characteristics of Jainism such as its epistemology,
metaphysics and ethics.

6.2. Objectives
After studying this lesson, you will be able to know the following:

• What is Jainism

• Jaina Philosophical System: Epistemology, Metaphysics and Ethics.

Plan of the study

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Objectives

6.3. The first and the last Tirthanakaras

6.4. Jaina Beliefs and Practices

6.5. Jain Symbols

6.6. Sects of Jainism

6.7. Epistemology of Janism

6.8. Jaina Theory of Judgement or Syadvada

6.9. Jaina Metaphysics or the Theory of Substance

6.10. Jaina Theory of Inanimate Substance or Ajiva

6.11. Jaina Ethics

100

6.12 Conclusion

6.13 Answers to Check your progress

6.14 Key Words

6.15. Model Questions

6.16. Select Bibliography

6.3. The first and last Tirthankaras

The Jainas strongly believe in the teachings of the twenty four Tirthankaras.
Rishabhadeva was the first Tirthankara. The last teacher or the Tirthankara was Vardhamana
who was given the title Mahavira meaning ‘the great hero’. He is believed to have lived in the
sixth century B.C. during the time of Buddha. Vardhamana was preceded by Parsvanatha who
lived in the ninth century B.C. The remaining 22 teachers or the Tirthankaras are believed to
have belonged to a much earlier period. The word Jaina came from the root word Jina which
etymologically means a conqueror. It is the common name given to all the twenty four
Tirthankaras since they all had conquered passions and thereby attained liberation.

6.3.1. Rishabha

The first Tirthankara of this era was Rishabha, also known as Adinath. His mother was
Queen Maurdevi and his father was King Nabhiraj. The mother of a Tirthankara sees the 14/16
dreams the night before he is conceived. Rishabha was the King and founder of “Ikshvaku”
dynasty. Rishabha is considered as the father of civilization and he taught the people asi (usage
of weapons), masi (usage of writing material), krishi (agriculture), vanijya (trade), vidya
(education) and shilpa (arts and crafts). After becoming an omniscient, Rishabha preached
across the world. His divine preaching was recorded in fourteen scriptures called “agamas”.
He then became liberated. He had two wives and hundred sons and two daughters. The name
of the eldest son was Bharat who was a Chakravarli (Emperor). He later attained Moksha.
India is called “Bharat” after this great ruler. Bahubali was the other son of Rishabhdeva who
meditated profoundly before attaining liberation.

6.3.2. Mahavira

Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of this era. His childhood name was Vardhaman. He
was born in the early part of the 6th century BCE in a royal Jain family in Bihar. The date
 101

assigned by historians is 599 to 527 BCE. His mother was Trishala and father was king
Siddhartha. The Queen was devotee of 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanath. Mother Tirshla also saw
14/16 dreams the night before Vardhaman descended in her womb. Prince Vardhaman belonged
to Ikshvaku dynasty. He renounced material life at the age of 30 to seek perfection and
enlightenment. At the age of 42 he became enlightened and attained nirvana at the age of 72.
His three great principles of Ahimsa (non-violence), Anekanta (non-absolutism) and Aparigraha
(non-possession/non-attachment) are applicable for all times.

For further study on 24 Tirthankaras and Jain community, visit https://jainworld.com/

6.4. Jain Beliefs and Practices

6.4.1. God

According to Jainism, there is no creator god. This universe exists from infinite time
and will exist forever. The universe is eternal. Nothing can be destroyed or created in this
universe but the modes keep changing. The creator is immanent in all living and non-living
things.

Though Jainism does not believe in creator god. It believes in godhood where one has
destroyed all karmas and become liberated, the pure souls are gods/paramatma (supreme
soul) who enjoy infinite knowledge, infinite vision and infinite bliss, etc. Anybody who realizes
their pure soul, eventually sheds the karmas and rises to the status of godhood.

6.4.2. Reincarnation

A soul keeps taking birth due to his accumulated karmas. It can take birth in any form of
life like human, animal, plant or in hell-heaven according to his karma earned in previous birth/
time.When this soul destroys all karmas he becomes Siddha-the accomplished personality of
godhood.

6.4.3. Universe

According to Jain metaphysics this universe is made up of six substances called dravyas
and they are soul (jiva), matter (pudgala), principle of motion (dharma), principle of rest (adharma)
space (akash) and time (kaal). These six dravyas are the building blocks of everything that
exist in the whole universe. They will exist for ever but their modes keep changing.
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6.4.4. Ahimsa

The whole doctrine of Jainism is based on Ahimsa. All religions emphasize on Ahimsa,
But Jainism sees it in a very subtle aspect. Jainism says that harming anyone by the activity of
mind, body, speech is also violence.

6.4.5. Food & eating habits

Jains generally do not eat root vegetables like carrots, potatoes, onion because these
vegetable contain micro organisms which cannot be seen by our naked eyes. They do not
consume food after sun set as in the absence of sunlight infinite micro-organisms multiply. Jain
food is food with least violence.

6.4.6. Fasting

The soul does not need food, only the body needs. So the Jains take to long intermittent
penances and fasting in order to detach from the body, mind and senses and realize the
transcendental pure soul. The purpose of observing fast is to bring purity of mind and body so
that practitioners can focus on Jain principles. It also helps in controlling the desires. There are
many kinds of fasting like not having food the whole day (upvasa), eating one time a day
(ekasana), eating having salt-less diet once a day (ayambil) etc. Fasting for the body is feasting
for the soul and this practice is very popular among the Jains worldwide.

6.4.7. Samayika

Samayika is the great practice of meditation for 48 minutes and the main goal is to
acquire equanimity. This must be practiced by monks as well as householders.

6.4.8. Sallekhana

Sallekhana is the practice of equanimity at the time of death and this is taken up to
crush the karmic body which causes rebirth. When death is near due to disease or age or by
any reason the practitioner starts reducing food and liquids gradually and also meditates on
the nature of the self until the soul departs from the body. This should be taken up under expert
guidance.

If Sallekhana is done with full peace of mind, without any fear of death it arrests the
influx of karmas and helps in the shredding of old karmas. If the jiva is highly evolved he can
eventually attain nirvana.
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6.4.9. Festivals

Jain festivals are totally different from other religious festivals. These festivals are meant
to give up attachment as much as possible. On the day of festivals Jain generally observe
fasting according to one’s capacity. The main festival of Jains is Paryushan/Dasa lakshana
Parva which falls in the month of Bhadrapad according to Indian calendar which generally falls
in August/September. During these 8/10 days people fast, pray, meditate, contemplate and
study the scriptures. On the last day they seek forgiveness for all their wrong doings by saying
“Michhami Dukkadam”. Besides these festivals, Mahavira Janma Kalyanak, Raksha-bandhan,
Akshay-tritiya, Shruta Panchami, Deepavali are also Jain festivals which are celebrated to
enhance the spirit of non-violence and detachment and so fasting, charity, etc taken up rigorously
on these days. The reason behind celebrating these festivals is different from other festivals.

6.5. Jain symbols

6.5.1. Jain Swastika

The four arms of the swastika symbolize the four states of existence as per Jainism

i. Heavenly beings

ii. Human beings

iii. Hellish beings

iv. Subhuman animals and plants

It represents the perpetual nature of the universe in the material world, where a creature
is destined to be born in one of these states based on one’s karma. In contrast to this circle of
rebirth and delusion is the concept of a straight path, constituted by right faith, understanding
and conduct, and visually symbolized by the three dots above the swastika, which leads the
individual out of the transient imperfect world to a permanent perfect state of enlightenment
and perfection. This perfect state of liberation is symbolized by the crescent and dot at the top
of the svastika

It also represents the four columns of the Jain Sangha: sadhus, sadhvis, shravaka and
shravikas - monks, nuns and female and male laymen.
104

It also represents the four characteristics of the soul: infinite knowledge, infinite
perception, infinite bliss, and infinite energy.

6.5.2. Symbol of Ahimsa

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism. The
word in the middle is “ahimsa” (non-violence). The wheel represents the dharma-
chakra, which stands for the resolve to halt the samsara through relentless pursuit
of ahimsa and spiritual absorption.

6.5.3. Jain emblem

The Jain emblem reveals the fundamental concepts and philosophy of the enlightened
Tirthankaras. The outline of the image represents the universe as described in Jain Agamas. It
consists of three Loka (realms). The upper portion indicates heaven,
the middle portion indicates the transverse world and the lower portion
indicates hell.

The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes siddhashila, which

is a zone beyond the three realms. All the siddhas or liberated pure souls
reside here forever, liberated from the cycle of life and death. The three
dots on the top under the semi-circle symbolize Ratnatraya – right faith,
right knowledge, and right conduct. Every creature in this world can
become free from the cycle of life and death. This emphasizes that it is
necessary to have Ratnatraya in order to attain moksha.

In the top portion, the swastika symbol is present.

The symbol of hand in the lower portion shows fearlessness and symbolizes the spirit
of ahimsa towards all creatures in this world. The circle in the middle of the hand
symbolizes samsara and the 24 spokes represent the preachings from the 24 Tirthankaras,
which are to be followed in order to liberate oneself from the cycle of transmigration. The
meaning of the mantra at the bottom, Parasparopagraho Jivanam, means, “all life is bound
together by mutual support and interdependence.”
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6.6. Sects of Jainism

The Jainas did not believe in God. They are liberated souls who were once upon a time
in bondage but later through their own efforts became free, perfect, omniscient, omnipotent
and blissful. In due course of time the followers of Jainism got divided into two well known
sects namely Svetambaras and the Digambaras. Their basic distinction lies in the minor details
of faith and practice. While the Svetambaras are more accommodative and down to earth the
Digambaras are more strict and orthodox. The Digambaras hold that the followers of their sect
should renounce all attachments, possessions and even clothes for that matter. On the other
hand the Svetambaras insist that their followers should wear only white clothes.

Check Your Progress I

True or False?

1. Jainism is a contemporary religion that was established in recent centuries.

2. Mahavira founded Jainism.

3. Kalpa- vriksha are the wish fulfilling trees.

4. Jainism came into existence only during the times of Ramayana and Mahabharata.

5. Tirthankaras are ford makers and great philosophers.

6.7. Epistemology of Jainism

Consciousness is the inseparable essence of every soul. It is like the sun’s light capable
of manifesting itself and also every other thing, unless it is obstructive. The reason is that
omniscience is a natural property of the soul. In an unobstructed state, the soul is in a position
to know things but when it is imprisoned in the body its nature of omniscience is obstructed. In
other words it can know things only through the apparatus of the senses. The obstacles are
created by the different karmas of the soul. These karmas obstruct the natural consciousness
of the soul in different degrees and that determines the type of knowledge that the soul can
get.

The Jainas admit twofold classification of knowledge – namely mediate and immediate
knowledge. Under mediate knowledge they categorize inference and other such knowledge
which are derived through the medium of some other knowledge. On the other hand immediate
106

knowledge refers to perception. Perceptual knowledge is said to be immediate because we get

knowledge of both external and internal objects through the senses and mind. In some cases
the soul is also in a position to apprehend. In other words immediate knowledge is direct and
mediate knowledge is indirect. Under immediate knowledge we have again two kinds namely
ordinary immediate knowledge, extraordinary immediate knowledge; ordinary immediate
knowledge, is that type of knowledge which the soul gets when bound by the karma obstacles.
Under this type of knowledge we can classify mati jnana and sruta jnana. Mati Jnana includes
any kind of knowledge obtained through the senses and mind. It even includes memory,
recognition etc. On the other hand sruta jnana involves knowledge derived from an authoritative
person or text. One may argue that listening to a person or reading a text is also a part of
perceptual knowledge. Even sruta jnana can be brought under mati jnana but the Jainas reply
that sruta jnana is different from mati jnana because it involves the text of an authoritative
person, that is why it needs special mention.

Immediate knowledge is also classified as absolute or paramartika immediate knowledge

or extraordinary immediate knowledge. This knowledge is possible after the soul is purged of
the impurities namely the karma obstacles. In such a state the soul’s consciousness becomes
immediately related to objects without the medium of the senses. In the case of ordinary
immediate knowledge the soul is caged in the body and as a result, it can be related to objects
and thereby know them only through the senses. In that stage the soul’s knowledge is not only
obtained through the sense organs but is also guided by the karma obstacles. On the other
hand, the soul is said to obtain extraordinary knowledge directly. We can explain this with an
example. When a person is standing inside a room he can know the outside world only through
the openings in that room such as windows, and doorways. Once the four walls that surround
him are removed he can know much more about the world than what he knew earlier. In other
words, man is able to see everything around him provided he is free. Similarly soul’s
consciousness is capable of knowing everything directly but when it is inside the body it is
limited, it is not in a position to exercise its full power. When ones karma obstacles are removed
he is in the path towards extraordinary knowledge which of course is immediate par excellence.
The Jainas talk about this in stages because this immediate extraordinary knowledge is not to
be got overnight. It needs the gradual destruction of the karma obstacles. The Jainas mention
three such stages as

(i) Avadhi, (ii)Manah Paryaya, (iii) Kevala – Jnana

 107

After the partial destruction of karmas one acquires the power of knowing objects which
are too for away and obscure for the normal sense organs. This stage of extraordinary knowledge
is avadhi. The second stage is manah paryaya wherein one has direct access to others mind.
This can happen only after that person overcomes hatred and jealousy. In other words, in the
first stage, we are able to know some distant gross objects with a form. In the second stage we
are able to know or probe deeper into subtle level. Finally when all karmas are destroyed
completely, then absolute knowledge or omniscience arises. That stage is kevala jnana. Only
the liberated souls possess this kind of extraordinary knowledge.

The Jainas accept three pramanas or sources of knowledge namely perception,

inference, and testimony. Perceptual knowledge is direct which involves the sense organs and
therefore acceptance of perception as an independent source of knowledge need not be
elaborated. But definitely we must examine the refutation of Carvaka’s position by the Jainas
regarding inference and testimony. The Jainas ask whether perception is a valid source of
knowledge. efinitely according to Carvaka, perception is a valid source of knowledge because
it is uncontradicted and at the same time not misleading. Now the Jainas point out that the
reasons for the validity of perception itself shows that the Carvaka resorts to inferential
knowledge. Furthermore even perceptual knowledge can at times be contradicted and
misleading as in the case of the perception of a mirage. So the Jainas point out that if perception
can be contradicted and misleading but still held as a source of knowledge why not inference
and testimony be regarded as independent sources of knowledge.

Therefore according to Jainism the only reasonable conclusion that we can draw is that
any source of knowledge, be it perception, inference or testimony, should be regarded as valid
in so far as it yields knowledge that does not prove misleading. Therefore the criterion of
validity should be the harmony of knowledge with the practical consequences to which that
knowledge leads.

6.8. Jaina Theory of Judgement or Syadvada

It is the conception of reality as extremely indeterminate which is the basis of syadvada.
According to this theory every judgment is only partial or relative. The term “syat” is derived
from the Sanskrit root “as” which means “to be”. The present tense form of this verb ‘as’ is ‘asti’
which can be translated as “is”. The potential mood of this verb form is “syat” which means
“may be”. The Jainas use this theory to signify that the universe can be looked at from many
points of view and that each view yields a different conclusion. In other words they believe that
108

there can be a variety of doctrines depending upon the points of view. This is known as
anekantavada. This doctrine indicates an extreme caution and signifies an anxiety to avoid
absolute affirmation and absolute negation. Here one must see the conditions under which this
doctrine was passed in order to understand its significance. There were two important extreme
views concerning reality. At one point of time namely the Upanishadic view and at another point
the Buddhistic view. The Upanishadic view of reality upholds the concept of “Being”. On the
contrary the Buddhists deny such a “Being”. According to Jainism both these theories are only
partially true. So the Jainas consider reality to be so complex that every one of these theories
is true as far as it goes. But none is absolutely true. So the Jainas make out a series of partially
true statements without committing to any of these exclusively. This series is explained in
seven steps or sevenfold formula called saptabhanginaya. “Naya” means partial knowledge
about some object while “bhangi” means different and “sapta” seven.

Judgment based on any partial knowledge is also called naya. When we consider every
judgment to be unconditionally true then it leads on to quarrel. In this way the various schools
of philosophy have come to quarrel with each other since they believe that their judgment of
reality is final; when they realize that their knowledge is partial the conflict is no longer there. In
view of this fact the Jainas insist that every judgment should be qualified by some words like
“somehow” or “may be” so that the limitation of every judgment as also the possibility of other
judgments is recognized. Thus syadvada is the theory which holds that every judgment is only
partially true. Thus we have the judgment “the elephant is like a pillar” is changed into “may be
or somehow the elephant is like a pillar”. On the basis of this theory the Jainas classify seven
kinds of judgments though logic recognizes only two namely affirmative and negative. The
seven types of judgments are as follows:

a) syat asti – ‘somehow S is P’. A jar is red

b) syat nasti – ‘ somehow S may not be P’. A jar may not be red.

c) syat avaktavyam – ‘somehow S may be indescribable’. The redness of jar cannot be

described adequately.

d) syat asti ca nasti ca – ‘somehow S may be or may not be P’. This argument does not
involve contradiction. Normally logic considers a judgment to be contradictory only when
it holds that ‘S’ is both ‘P’ and ‘not P’, because the same ‘S’ is ‘P’ from one angle and
‘not P’ from another angle. That is why this judgment is accepted by the Jainas.
 109

e) syat asti ca avaktavyam ca – somehow ‘S’ is ‘P’ and is indescribable.

f) syat nasti ca avaktavyan ca- somehow ‘S’ is ‘not P’ and is indescribable.

syat asti ca nasti ca avaktavyam ca- somehow ‘S’ is ‘P’ ‘not P’ and indescribable. These
seven steps form a part of what is known as saptabhanginaya or the seven fold judgments.
According to this theory every judgment is only partial or relative.

6.9. Jaina Metaphysics or the Theory of Substance

Every substance has got innumerable characters of which some are positive and others
are negative. As in common conversation so also in philosophy a distinction is made between
the characters and that which possesses these characters. We call that which possesses
characters as substance or dravya. The world consists of different substances. Each of these
substances have qualities which are essential along with qualities that are accidental. The
essential quality is called guna. The accidental quality is called paryaya. The essential qualities
are those that remain in the substance as long as the substance exists. In other words they are
inseparable from the substance. On the other hand the accidental qualities are those which
come and go. In so for as the essential characters of the ultimate substance are abiding, the
world is permanent. In so far as the accidental qualities undergo modifications, the substance
also changes. According to Jainas both change and permanence are real. When we apply
syadvada the seeming contradiction between change and permanence vanishes. The Jainas
reject both kshanikavada (theory of momentariness of Buddhists) and reject nityavada (theory
of permanence of the vedantins).

Substances can be classified as both extended and non-extended. Among substances

time alone is devoid of extension. All other substances are considered to be extended. Extended
substances are innumerable and are referred to by the general name astikaya because every
substance exists like a body. Kaya means that which possesses extension. The word astikaya
means anything that occupies space or has some pervasiveness. Such objects which are
extended are classified by the Jainas as animate (jiva) and inanimate (ajiva). We may call
them as the living being or the non-living matter. The Jainas consider soul or jiva as an extended
substance. This is not without reason. Normally we understand soul as being opposed to body;
since body is extended we conclude that its opposite namely the soul is non-extended. But
according to Jainism souls also expand and contract according to the dimensions of the body
which they occupy. It is only in this sense that the Jainas regard souls to be extended. Even
among such souls the Jainas differentiate between the emancipated and fettered souls. Once
110

the souls are emancipated or liberated none of the impurities attach to them. That is the highest
state of jiva. But the jiva has to transcend various levels before reaching this state. So the
Jainas attribute such states to the souls in bondage. Fettered souls are either moving or immobile.

Among the non-moving fettered souls the Jainas consider those living in bodies made
of earth, water, fire, and air or plants. All such non-moving substances (sthavara ) have one-
sensed, namely that of touch. On the contrary moving substances (trasa) are two-sensed
namely worms, three-sensed like ants, four-sensed like bees and five sensed like man. This
distinction among moving substances is based on the senses that are active. For instance in
the case of worms the sense of touch and taste alone are at work. In the case of ants the
senses of touch, taste and smell. That is why ants have been classified under three-sensed
and similarly bees are four-sensed because they also have sight. The immobile living substances
have the most imperfect kind of bodies when compared to the mobile living substances. The
Jainas regard even the four elements as being animated by souls, that is the particles of earth
etc have soul in the sense that there is consciousness present in them although this
consciousness is not as differentiated as in the case of a higher being. We may call such
substances as elementary. They just live and die. Their functions are not clearly demarcated,
or well defined. These elementary lives are either gross or subtle. Gross objects are distinguished
from subtle on the basis of their visibility and knowability. On the contrary the mobile living
substances have bodies of different degrees of perfection.

Soul or jiva – Generally jiva is a conscious substance. It is also extendable in space

because souls expand and contract according to the dimensions of the body. According to the
Jainas the essence of soul is consciousness or in other words consciousness is present in the
soul everywhere. The Jainas arrange the soul theoretically in a continuous series according to
the degree of consciousness. At the highest end of the scale would be the perfect soul that has
overcome all karmas and attained omniscience and at the lowest end would be the most
imperfect soul such as the single sensed souls. In this state consciousness is in the dormant
form due to the interference of karma obstacles.

The soul knows, performs, enjoys, suffers and illumines itself and other objects. Like a
light it has no form of itself but it takes the form of the body. It is in this sense that the soul is
said to occupy space in its pure states, the soul as infinite bliss and infinite power. Except a few
souls all other souls are in bondage because of karma or matter which has been accumulated
in the past. The Jainas view that consciousness or soul has extension and the soul primarily is
a living being which has consciousness in every part of the living body. Consciousness is the
essential quality of the soul.
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Proofs for the existence of Soul :

1. The existence of the soul is directly perceived by experiences such as “I feel pleasure,
pain” etc., when a quality is perceived we say that along with it a substance is also
perceived.

2. We can also prove the existence of the soul from inference. If we take a body as an
instrument there must be someone to control it and that which controls the body is the
soul.

3. The body also performs many actions that are guided; this enables us to infer the
existence of soul as the guiding factor.

6.10. Jaina Theory of Inanimate Substance or Ajiva

Among the extended substances we have seen jiva and its various facts. Now let us
take a look into another category of extendable substance namely the inanimate substance or
ajiva. Even these substances occupy space and is referred to as astikaya . The Jainas classify
this kind of substance into four namely, Pudgalastikaya, Akasastikaya, Dharmastikaya,
Adharmastikaya

6.10.1. Pudgalastikaya

The word “pudgala” means matter and since it occupies space it is astikaya.
Etymologically it means that which is liable to integration and disintegration. Material substances
combine together to form larger wholes and can also break up into smaller and smaller parts.
The smallest part of matter which cannot be further divided is called an atom (Anu). Pudgala is
made up of such atoms. The Jainas call atoms and combination of atoms by this single term
pudgala. All material substances are produced by the combination of atoms. Our bodies and
objects of nature are such compounds of material atoms. So even they are called as pudgala.
Even mind, speech and breath are products of matter. The atoms are eternal and possess
qualities like touch, taste smell and colour. Therefore we find these qualities in the compounds
of atoms. Here according to Jainas, sound is not an original quality. It is an accidental modification
of matter.

6.10.2. Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya

The terms dharma and adharma should not mislead us into thinking about merits and
demerits. Instead these two terms are used to denote two kinds of inanimate substances
112

which are known and proved inferentially. They stand for mobility and immobility. The Jainas
argue that the movement of a fish in the water, though initiated by the fish, would not be
possible without the medium of water. Here water is a necessary condition. Similarly the
movement of any soul or material thing needs a necessary condition without which movement
would not be possible. Such a condition is dharma. Nevertheless, dharma cannot cause
movement in a non-moving object. It only favours the movement of objects in motion. On the
other hand adharma is the substance that helps in the immobility of objects or the restful state
of objects, just as the shade of a tree helps the traveler to take rest. However adharma cannot
arrest the movement of any moving object. These two are pervasive in nature. In other words
these two are passive conditions for movement and the state of rest respectively. Water cannot
compel a fish to move nor can the shade compel a person to take rest. Similarly dharma and
adharma do not compel movement and immobility actively but help objects to move or not to
move passively. The necessity for admitting these two categories seems probably to have
been felt by the Jainas on account of their notion that the inner activity of jiva or the atoms,
require for its exterior realization the help of some other entity. Moreover since the jivas were
regarded as having inherent activity they would be found to be moving even at the time of
liberation which is undesirable.

6.10.3. Akastikaya or Space

The function of akasa is to afford room for the existence of all extended substances. It
is based on this category that the Jainas classify substances as astikaya. Soul, matter, dharma
and adharma exist in space. The existence of space is inferred and not perceived because
substances which are extended can have extension only in space, and that space is called
akasa. Here akasa is a necessary condition. Likewise, if we say that substances are those that
pervade, then there must be something that is pervaded. That which pervades is called substance
while that which is pervaded is space. Jainas distinguish two kinds of space namely lokakasa
and alokakasa. Lokakasa stands for space containing the world and alokakasa stands for
empty space that exists beyond lokakasa.

6.10.4. Time or Kala

It is the only non-extendable substance according to the Jainas. Time makes possible
continuity modifications etc. Like space time is also inferred. It is inferred as the condition
without which we cannot speak about continued existence of things or modification of things.
For instance mango became ripe implies that mango was in an unripe state at one point of time
which became ripe at a later time. But time according to Jainas is non-extendable(anastikaya)
 113

because time is an indivisible substance. It cannot be characterized by space. It is irreversable.

The Jainas distinguish between real time (i.e) paramartika kala and empirical time vyavaharika
kala. Continuity or duration is the measure of real time. But on the other hand, changes of all
kinds characterize empirical time. According to the Jainas empirical time is conventional i.e.
divided into hours, minutes and seconds. It is limited by a beginning and an end. Real time on
the other hand, is eternal and formless.

6.11. Jaina Ethics

This is the most important aspect of the Jaina philosophy. For them metaphysics or
epistemology is useful only in so far as it helps man to right conduct. What is meant by right
conduct? According to the Jainas right conduct enables man to liberate himself from bondage.
Bondage in Indian philosophy means the liability of the individual to birth and all consequent
sufferings. But the suffering individual is a conscious substance (jiva) who possesses infinite
perception, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss. Despite these perceptions the
soul suffers in birth because of karma obstacles. If the soul has to regain its inherent qualities
then these obstacles must be removed. This situation is like that of the sun’s light which becomes
brighter and brighter as soon as the clouds are cleared. In order to know how these obstacles
can be cleared let us analyze what these obstacles are in reality. The Jainas assert that the
obstacles are constituted by matter particles which infect the soul and overpower its natural
qualities. In other words we can say that body which is made up of matter particles (pudgala)
is responsible for limiting the soul. Each body is made up of a particular combination of matter
particles which depend on the soul’s passion. The karma or the sum of past life of the soul
generates a craving which attracts particular pudgala to the soul. The soul becomes the efficient
cause and pudgala becomes the material cause. It is our past karmas that determine the
family in which we are born as well as the nature of our body such as its colour, shape, longevity,
the number and nature of sense organs etc. For instance gotra–karma determines the family
into which the soul is to be born and ayush - karma determines the length of life.

6.11.1. Liberation

Bondage, we have seen is the association of soul with matter and liberation therefore
should be the complete dissociation of the two. This can be achieved by stopping the influx of
new matter into the soul as well as by complete elimination of the old matter with which the soul
has become already mingled. Passions of the soul lead to association. What is the cause of
this passion? Passions spring from our ignorance about the real nature of our soul. It is
knowledge that alone can remove ignorance. Therefore the Jainas stress the need for right
114

knowledge of reality (samyag – jnana). Right knowledge is the detailed cognition of the real
nature of ego and non-ego, which is free from doubt, error uncertainty etc. It can be obtained
only by studying carefully the teachings of the omniscient Tirthankaras or teachers who have
already obtained liberation and therefore are fit to lead others out of bondage. W hen do
we accept a knowledge? Only when we have a preliminary belief in that. Then that preliminary
faith should be supported by right knowledge again for having right faith based on general
acquaintance (samyag- darsana) in support of right knowledge. Right faith does not imply that
one must blindly follow the Tirthankaras. But one must have the right attitude of respect towards
truth. Further by studying the teachings of the Tirthankaras one can strengthen his belief. But
these two are rendered useless unless they are followed by rigorous practice. Right conduct is
the third indispensable (samyag-caritra) condition of liberation. It is this that enables one to
stop the influx of new karmas and also to eradicate old ones. It consists in the control of
passions, senses, thought, speech etc. Right conduct is therefore described as refraining from
what is harmful and doing what is good. The Jaina prescription for right conduct: One must
follow the five great vows namely the panca-maha-vrata for the perfection of right conduct.
They are Ahimsa, Sathyam, Asteyam, Brahamacaryam and Aparigraha.

6.11.2. Ahimsa

It denotes abstinence from all injuries to life – either trasa or sthavara. That is why a
Jaina muni breathes through a piece of cloth in order not to inhale or destroy any life in the air.
It must be followed in thought, word and deed. That is why they practice extreme caution in
speaking, walking or even in answering calls of nature so as to avoid injury to any life whatsoever.
Sathyam: It is abstinence from falsehood. It is speaking what is true, good and pleasant.
Otherwise truthfulness is of no use. To maintain this vow one must conquer greed, fear and
anger. Asteyam: It refers to abstinence from stealing. Human life requires some form of wealth
for their survival. Depriving another man of his wealth is morally wrong. By stealing his belongings
it deprives him of an essential condition of life. Brahmacaryam: This pertains to abstinence
from sensual and casual pleasures. One must refrain himself from karma of any form altogether
either in speech, talk or action. Aparigraha: This means abstinence from all kinds of attachments.
It lies in giving up attachment for the objects of five senses.

Right faith, knowledge and conduct are inseparably bound up with one another and the
progress and degeneration of the one affects the other two. A person must harmoniously develop
all these three together. Only when the soul overcomes passions and karmas (both old and
new) it becomes completely free from bondage to all forms of matter and reaches its inherent
 115

potentiality. It is finally here that the soul attains the fourfold path of perfection (Ananta catustaya)
as follows: Ananta Jnana (infinite knowledge), Ananta darsana (infinite faith), Ananta virya
(infinite power), Ananta sukha (infinite bliss). These three (right knowledge, right faith and
right conduct) are known as Triratnas – or the three gems of Jainism.

Check your progress II

Fill in the blanks

1. _______ is non-absolutism. According to this, reality is many sided.

2. There are ______ vows for a laymen. Few of them are: ______, _________ and
_______.

3. The universe is made of six substances. They are ______, ______, ______, ______,
_______ and _______.

4. _______ is the main festival of the Jains which falls in the month of Bhadrapad.

5. _______ is the universal Jain prayer.

6.12. Conclusion
By understanding Jainism, one will realize that Jainism is not a mere religion but it is an
enlightened, spiritual and compassionate way of living. One truly lives correctly only when one
sees one’s true self and others around to be divine. And who can become liberated? One who
understands that he/she is a pure soul who is engaging in this endless cycle of birth and death
due to attachment and aversion springing from ignorance and perversion.

6.13. Check your Answers

I. Answers to Check your progress I

1. False 2. False 3.True 4.False 5. True

II. Answers to Check your progress II

1. Anekanthavada 2. Twelve; Ahimsa, Satya, Aparigraha

3. Jivastikaya, Pudgalastikaya, Akashastikaya, Dharmastikaya, Adharmastikaya, Kala

dravya
116

6.14. Key Words

Tirthankaras : One who has conquered all passions, raga and dvesa.

Consciousness : The inseparable essence of every soul.

Syadvada: The theory that every judgment is relative.

Suptabhanginaya: Seven different forms of judgment relating to nature of reality.

Substance: One which possesses of some essential characters (gunas) and also
changing modes (paryaya)

Astikaya: Substances having extension.

Anastikaya: Substances devoid of any extension.

Ahimsa: Non-violence or non-injury to any living beings.

Anekantavada: The metaphysical theory of reality as many–faced.

Jiva : Soul

Ajiva: Matter

Triratna: Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct (Three gems of Jainism.

6.15. Model Questions

1. Who are Tirthankaras?

2. What is meant by dravya, guna and paryaya?

3. Write short notes on Jiva?

4. What is the cause of bondage according to Jainism?

5. What are different practices followed by Jainism?

6. Narrate the importance of Ahimsa in Jainism.

7. Discuss the Jaina concept of liberation.

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6.16 Select Bibliography

Tukol.T.K, Compendium of Jainism, Published by Justice T. K. Tukol Educational &
Charitable Trust, Bangalore

Sanghve.Vilas. A, Aspects of Jain Religion, Bharatiya Jnanapith, New Delhi

Vijaya Sadhvi, Trans by Jain Priyadarshana Jain, Fundamentals of Jainism, Published by

Sri Diwakar Prakashan, Agra

Shastri Devendra Muni, a Source Book in Jaina Philosophy, Published by Sri Tarak Guru
Jain Granthalaya, Udaipur

Amar Muni, Illustrated Tirthankar Charitra, Published by Sri Diwakar Prakashan, Agra

Shah Natubhai, Jainism - World of Conquerors, Vol I and II, Published by Motilal Banarasidas,
New Delhi

Samani Mangal Pragya, Philosophy in Jain Agamas, Published by Jain Vishva Bharati,
Ladnun

Varni Jinendra, Saman Suttam, Published by Bhagwan Mahavir Memorial Samiti, New
Delhi

Jain Vijay. K, Tattvartha Sutra, Published by Vikalp Printers, Dehradun

Jain Jayantilal & Jain Priyadarshana, Essence of Sallekhana, Published by Department

of Jainology, University of Madras.
118

LESSON - 7
SIKHISM
7.1. Introduction
Sikhism is the religion of the Sikhs. It has a following of over twenty million people
worldwide. It has the history of five hundred years. Sikhism developed in India during the
lifetime of Guru Nanak (1469-1539) and of the succeeding nine gurus extending up to early
18th century. Sikhism preaches a message of devotion and remembrance of God at all times,
truthful living, equality of mankind, social justice and denounces superstitions and blind rituals.
This chapter deals with the emergence, salient features, practices and the teachings of its
founder Guru Nanak.

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8OxfordUniversityPress%29

7.2. Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will understand the following;

• Guru Nanak

• Sikhism and its origins

• Different Sikh Gurus

• Influences of Sufism on Sikhism

Plan of Study

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Objectives

7.3 Who and What is a Sikh?

7.4 Emergence of Sikhism

 119

7.5 The influence of Sufism on Sikh Religious Tradition

7.6 Other Nine Gurus and Their Contributions

7.7 Conclusion

7.8 Answers to Check your Progress

7.9 Model Question

7.10 Select Bibliography

7.3. Who and What is a Sikh?

The word ‘Sikh’ in Punjabi language means ‘disciple’, Sikhs are the disciples of God
who follow the writings and teachings of the Ten Sikh Gurus. So if any human being who
faithfully believes in One immortal Being, Ten Gurus from Guru Nanak Dev to Guru Gobind
Singh, the Guru Granth Sahib (Scripture), the Utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus, the
baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion
is a Sikh. A Sikh must pray, share and live an honest life. A Sikh must be pure of the five
thieves, Kam (lust), Krodh (Anger), Lobh (greed), Moh (attachment), Ahankar (Ego). Guru
Gobind Singh said every Sikh must take amrit. Many Sikh scholars state that in order to be
considered a Sikh one must read gurbani and meditate on Nam. So therefore everybody who
takes amrit and actually lives his life according to the teachings of gurbani is a Sikh. In sum, the
Sikhs may still be defined as the disciples who believe in the teaching of the ten Sikh gurus and
who venerate the Guru Granth Sahib as their sacred scripture, and who is willing to lay down
his life for the sake of his Guru.

All Sikhs speaks Punjabi, Sikhism encourages married life on a householder, doing
service to humanity through honest work and charity. It discourages celibacy, asceticism, begging
as a profession, over emphasis upon individualism to the neglect of corporate responsibility.
Although Sikhism emerged among the Kshatriyas, it doesn’t advocate caste. Thus, among the
Sikhs there were Muslims, barbers and people from other lower caste groups.

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120

7.4. Emergence of Sikhism

Guru Nanak the founder of Sikh faith was born at Talvandi, near Lahore, in 1469. He
belonged to the Khatri caste, a trading caste. In the beginning of sixteenth century when Nanak
was young, Punjab was ruled by Sultan Sikander Lodhi. There were uninterrupted scenes of
tyranny and bloodshed. The country was utterly weak and disunited. The rulers had lost all
their senses at that juncture guru Nanak bitterly criticized the rulers. The people were ignorant
and steeped in superstition. Huge sums were spent on useless ceremonies; idol worship was
prevalent among the Hindus. The caste system had lost its originality and elasticity and had
become rigid, giving rise to many evils and miseries. And the Muslims were ignorant of their
religions and the teachings of Islam. Only the upper classes were leading a luxurious life, who
treated others including Hindus as their slaves and treated them with great disdain. On the
whole, people were poor, illiterate and were fed on superstitions. Religions had lost its sanctity
and moral standards were completely forsaken. Political lawlessness, social confusion and
spiritual slavery were the order of the day and such were the conditions in the country at the
time of Guru Nanak.

According to Y. Mashib “Sikhism was born at a time when India was in a state of political
upheaval, social instability and religious ritualism, externalism without much inner illumination
and spiritual experience in depth”. Sikhism at the hands of Guru Nanak from social point of
view rejected caste and promoted egalitarianism. Thus, it was a religious reformist movement
in the direction of saint poets in India.

The 15th century of the Christian era was a period of singular mental and political activity.
In India as well as in Europe people shook off the indolence and were awakened to the
consciousness of intellectual and spiritual responsibility. All sacred learning had been
monopolized by the priests which led to serious abuses and a gloom was caste on the religious
aspirations of the people. During this period, Martin Luther and Calvin in Europe warned people
of the errors that had crept into Christianity. At the same time, in India saints were denouncing
priest craft, hypocrisy and idolatry. As a result many new sects emerged.

People lived in the darkness of ignorance and did what suited their fancy. Miracles and
alchemy were professed; incantations, spells and witchcraft were practiced. People indulged
in strife and murder out of one God they invented many. In the sphere of worship some worshiped
the sun and the moon; others propitiated the earth, the sky, the wind, the fire. People divided
themselves into innumerable castes. Mohammedans divided themselves into several sects.
The holy words of their prophets were forgotten.
 121

During the Muslim conquest of India in the middle ages, it became incumbent upon the
Hindus to consider seriously their religious and spiritual life. Many Hindus in order to avoid
tyranny or to obtain worldly advantages adopted Islam, during that period. Yet there were many
others who sought safety from persecution in lonely forests and there were others who in spite
of the persecution remained in search of religious truth. At this juncture Guru Nanak was born
at Talvandi in April-May in the year 1469 in the middle of the reign of Bahlol Khan Lodi.

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7.4.1. Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak was the son of Mehta Kalu, who was a farmer, a shopkeeper as well as a
landlord. His mother was Tripta, a pious religious woman and he had an elder sister Nanki.
There were many legendary biographies in relation to the story of his life. He was altogether a
different child having a serene countenance and intelligence. At his school age when he was
asked to write the alphabet on a wooden plate he wrote a beautiful composition based on the
alphabets. It is said that his teacher stood before him with folded hands as he learnt from him
many good things. He spent most part of his time in seclusion and contemplation. His father
tried him to work in many places but he was not success in any other works. At the age of nine
he refused wear sacred thread, which disappointed his parents. He was married at the age of
fourteen, but he never gave up the practice of spending time in contemplation and seclusion.
He loved to be in constant communion with the Divine spirit.

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7.4.2 The call of the Lord

Nanak received the call of the Lord in the year 1497 when he was working as per the
instruction of his father in a shop of his brother in Law at Sultanpur, he went to take bath in the
river. After he plunged into the stream he did not show up for a considerable time. A search was
made for him but without any success. It is said that as Nanak took a dip in the stream, the
Lord’s emissaries took him away and ushered him into His benign presence. There, Nanak
had an interview with the Almighty who asked him to preach the glory of his Name. The order
came from above as follows: “Nanak on whom thy favourable look is, on him is also mine. My
122

name is the supreme Brahma, the supreme Lord; and thy name is the Guru, the supreme Guru
of Lord”. The Guru was given also a cup of Amrit or nectar and was charged with a mission in
the following words:

Nanak, I am with Thee. Through thee will My name be magnified. Whosoever follows
thee, him will I save. Go into the world to pray and teach mankind how to pray. Be not sullied by
the ways of the world. Let your life be one of praise, of the word (nam) charity (dan), ablution
(isnan), service (seva) and prayer (simran). Nanak, I give thee my pledge. Let this be thy life’s
Mission.1

Guru Nanak bowed his head and accepted the mission of God, praised the glory of
God as One, True Name, Creator, Omnipotent and so on. He remained untraced for three
days then he reappeared on the fourth day and started his mission by uttering the words:
“There is no Hindu and there is no Musalman”2 (Muslim) which created a stir among the people.

He traveled many places and spread the message of the Lord among who had forgotten
His Name. He spent most of his lifetime in wandering and preaching. Though he visited many
places he never stayed in any particular locality. He established missionary centres (manjis)
wherever he went and converted many people belonged to different castes, creeds and faith.
It is very evident from his stay in a low caste carpenter house during the time of communal
strife in Gujranwala district that he broke all traditions.

He visited Mecca and Medina where he vanquished the Muslim priests in arguments.
When questioned by the high priest as to who he was, the Guru Nanak replied, “I have appeared
in this age to indicate the way unto men. I reject all sects and only know one God whom I
recognize on the earth, the heavens and in all directions.

He visited many cities and shrines, preaching against hypocrisy and the folly of
meaningless rituals. Ultimately he settled down in Kartarpur on the right bank of the Ravi River
and spent his last years there, preaching, composing and singing hymns. He died in 1539 A.D.
at the age of 70. He was acclaimed by both the Hindus and the Muslims as their spiritual leader
and was remembered as Baba Nanak or Nanakshah. Considerable biographical details about
him can be found in the Janamsakhis, a corpus of hagiographic literature, which came to be
composed as late as one hundred years after his death.

He grew up in the Hindu tradition, specifically in the bhakti (devotional) and the Sant
traditions of the Nirguna Sampradaya. It seems evident that all through his life, he had close
 123

contacts with Muslim Faqirs, holy men and Sheiks or religious teachers. These Sikhs gurus
drew their inspiration from the teachings of the Sants and Bhatas like Kabir and of the Muslim
Sufis like Sheikh Farid. Kabir was one of the influences that determined his career and from
him he learned some of the basal principles of his religions.

7.4.3. Kabir

Kabir was contemporary of Guru Nanak. He was from the Muslim weaver community
during whose period many of caste people converted to Islam. He was referred by Muslims as
Kabirshah and by others as Babaji Kabir. Hindus refer often to Kabir as Kabirdas, which means
servant of God, however his original name was Kabir. Both Muslims and Hindus hailed him as
a great mystic and bold religious reformer. Kabir is often hailed as ‘the father of Hindi literature’.
Both traditions attest that he was from a poor Muslim weaver of the ancient Kasi, the modern
Benares. He was most probably illiterate and his saying in Hindi reveals the fervor of his
conviction and the depth of his mystical awareness.

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7.4.4. Kapir-Panthis

There existed a well-developed sect bearing Kabir’s name, that of the kabir-panthis who claim
to be followers of the spiritual path (panth) shown by Kabir himself. Their opposition to idol
worship, their strong monotheism and the uprightness of moral code as well as the opposition
to case distinctions earned for them respect and attention of a small number of protestant
Christian missionaries and British officials who came into contact with them out of which
nineteenth century missionary circle as well as western scholars began to recognize in Kabir
as one of the greatest mystics and religious reformers in India.

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7.5. The influence of Sufism on Sikh Religious Tradition

As per the careful study of early Sikh traditions, the religion of Nanak was intended as
a compromise between Hinduism and Islam though some scholars like Dr. Trumpp hold the
124

opinion that Sikhism has only an accidental relationship in Islam. A good source, which clearly
describes about the influence of Sufism on Sikh religious tradition, was an article by Frederic
Pincott, M.R.A.S., in The Word of the Sufi by Idries Shah (Kanwal). Originally the information
given in this article is taken chiefly from original Punjabi Books and from manuscripts in the
India Office Library, and is supported by the authority of the Adi Granth, which is the sacred
canon of the Sikhs. As it is the prime source, the following evidences throw lights on the
influence of Sufism on Sikhism.

The biographical sketches of Nanak and his associates called “Janam-Sakhis” contain
some messages, which throw considerable light on the origin and development of the Sikh
religion. According to these books Nanak who was a Hindu by birth came under Sufi influence
and was attracted by the saintly demeanor of the Faqirs who were scattered over all through
northern India and in Punjab.

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Sufism arose in the early days of Mohammedanism and is almost due to the influence
of Persian Zoroastrianism. These Persians were strong in Sufistic doctrines. There were many
leading writers who illustrated these forms of Mohammedanism were Persian poets such as
Firdusi, Nizami, Sa’di, Jalaudin Rumi and Hafizandjami.

Among these Persian poets, Hafiz was fully conscious of the fact that Sufism was due
to the influence of the faith of his ancestors. He says, “make fresh again the essence of the
creed of Zoroaster now that the tulip has kindled the fire of Nimrod”. And another poet Nizami
says, ‘see not in me the guide to the temple of the fire-worshippers, see only the hidden
meaning which cleaves to the allegory’. These quotations indicate the Zoroastrian origin of the
refined spirituality of the Sufis.

Muslims believe in the unity of a personal God, and to them, mankind and the world
were mere object upon which the will of God was exercised. This understanding of Sufis was
nearer to the Christian sentiment embodied in the phrase, ‘Christ in us’.

The Persian conquerors of Hindustan carried with them the mysticism and spirituality
of the Islamo and Magian (Persian poets) creed. It was through Persia, India received its flood
 125

of Mohammedanism. As a result, the mysticism and asceticism of the Persian form of Islam
developed among the speculative ascetics of northern India. Thus, we find that the doctrines
preached by the Sikh gurus were distinctly Sufisitic and the early gurus openly assumed the
manners and dress of Faqirs, which announces their connection with the Sufistic side of
Mohammedanism.

According to the historical evidences, the Sikh gurus are represented with small rosaries
in their hands, quite in Mohammedan fashion, as though ready to perform Zikr (Repeating the
name of God). There are some more examples. Guru Arjun, who was fifth in succession from
Nanak was the first one who dressed like that of Faqir. And another guru the last one, made an
open confession of Sufism. He addressed, “The Smirits, the Sastras and the Vedas, all speak
in various ways, but I do not acknowledge them”. It implies a denial of pantheism and accepting
deity. And the same kind of expression also found in Adi Granth the scripture of Sikhism. It
says, “Thou art I; I am Thou”. And all through their scripture, a favorite name for deity is ‘True
one’ – the Absolute unity.

Another example that we observe from the Sufi Faridu’d Din Shakrganj. He calls the
Deity as ‘light of life’. The similar phrase is used by Nizami and this expression if found all
through the Adi Granth. Nanak himself expressed: “In all (is) light. He (is) light. From His light,
there is light in all”.

Another metaphor of Sufis for the deity is ‘the Beloved’. For example Hafiz says, ‘Be
thankful that the Assembly is lighted up by the presence of the Beloved’. In the same way Adi
Granth also addresses, “If thou call thyself the servant of the Beloved, do not speak despitefully
of Him”. And “Love to the Beloved naturally puts joy into the heart”.

Another remarkable proof of Persian influences in found in the form of the Adi Granth itself. It
consists of a collection of short poems, in many of which all the verses composing the poem
rhyme together, in singular conformity with the principle regulating the construction of the
Persian ghazal. This resemblance is rendered more striking by the fact that the name of Nanak
is worked into the composition of the last line of each of the poems. This last characteristic is
too persistent to be considered the result of accident; and while it is altogether foreign to the
practice of Hindu verse, it is in precise accord with the rule of the correct composition of the
ghazal. These are the facts seem conclusive as to the influence of Persian Sufism on the origin
of the Sikh religion.
126

7.5.1. The Traditions of Nanak according to Janam-Sakhi

The traditions of Nanak preserved in the Janam-Sakhi are full of evidences of his alliance
with Muhammadanism. According to this tradition, he was Hindu by birth belonged to the Bedi
Khattri caste, and was the son of the Patwari of the place now called Nakana. In his early days,
he sough the society of Faqirs and used both fair and unfair means of doing them service,
especially in the bestowal of alms. At the age of fifteen, he misappropriated the money, which
his father had given for trade, so his parents sent him to relative at Sultanpur in order that he
might be weaned from his affection for faqirs. He joined to serve Mohammedan Nawab named
Daulat Khan Lodi, but while serving him, he continued to give to faqirs all his salary. During that
period, he received the ecstatic exaltation, which he felt to be divine inspiration. It is stated in
the tradition of his life that Nank went to the river to perform his ablutions, and that whilst so
engaged; he was translated bodily to the gates of paradise. “Then a goblet of amrita (the water
of life) was given to him by command: “this amrita is the goblet of my name; drink thou it”. Then
the Guru Nanak made salutation, and drank the goblet. The Lord had mercy and said: “ Nanak,
I am with thee happy, and whoever shall take thy name all shall be rendered happy by me. Go
thou, repeat my name, and cause other people to repeat it. Remain uncontaminated from the
world. Continue in the name, in almsgiving, in ablutions, in service and in remembrance of me.
I have given to thee my own name; do thou this work”.

From this tradition, it is evident that the notion of repeating the name of God (Zikr),
which is full of Sufis practice, is influenced here. And soon after the inspiration that he received
he began to utter, “there is no Hindu, there is no Mussulman”. According to the tradition, people
went to the Khan who was his former employer and complained about the utterance of Nanak.
Khan replied not to regard his statement by claiming Nanak as Faqir. At that time there was a
person called Qazi, who stressed the saying of Nank to Khan again. Then Khan sent Qazi to
call Nanak. But Nanak refused to meet him by saying “what I have to do with thy Khan”?.
People began to question Nanak. He replied only the statement “There is no Hindu, There is
no Mussulman. Khan interviewed Nanak, at that time Nanak placed a staff upon his neck and
went. The Khan said: “O Nanak, it is a misfortune to me that a steward such as thou should
become a faqir”. Then he sat near Guru Nanak and urged Qazi to clear his doubts. The Qazi
enquired about his utterance of “there is no Hindu, there is no Mussulman”. Nanak replied: “To
be called a Mussulman is difficult, when one becomes it then he may be called a Mussulmann.
First of all having made religion sweet he clears away Mussulman wealth. Having become firm,
religion in this way brings to an end the revolution of dying and living”. When Nanak had
 127

uttered this verse, the Qazi became amazed. Then the time of afternoon prayer had come. All
the three arose and went to prayers and the Nanak also went with them. At that time Nanak
demonstrated his supernatural power by reading the thoughts of the Qazi. Then the Qazi came
and fell down at his feet and exclaimed and said, “Wonderful, Wonderful! On this one is the
favour of God”. At that time Nanak uttered this words: “A real Mussulman clears away self, and
possesses sincerity, patience, purity of speech”. When Nanak uttered these words, all the
people, the Saiyids, the sons of Shaikhs, the Qazi, the Mufti, the Khan, the chiefs and leaders
were amazed. All people began to salute him. After some time Khan also fell down at his feet.
Then the people both Hindus and Musulmann began to say that God was speaking in Nanak.

At one juncture when khan reproved Nanak for not coming to him when sent for he
replied saying that he was not his servant but the servant of God. Then immediately he urged
him to come with him for prayers in the Masjid. Nanak went along with him all the people began
to say, “Today Nanak has entered this sect”. Because of this, there was a commotion among
the respectable Hindus in Sultanpur. And one prominent figure Jairam who was the brother in
Law of Nanak complained about this matter to his wife. Thus, there is an outcry among the
Hindus and Muslims that Nanak has become a Turk (Muslim) today.

Even Nanak’s immediate successor believed that he went very close to

Mohammedanism. There are some similarities found between Nanak and a Persian
Mohammedan poet Hafiz. The poet Hafiz also expresses his own ecstasy in a way almost
identical with the reception accorded to Nanak at the gate of paradise.

Whenever, Nanak speaks of himself as the servant of God he employs the word Khuda
for God which is a Persian Mohammedan term. But when his brother in law Jairam speaks of
god, he uses the Hindu word Paramesura. So, in accompanying Muslims to the mosques,
Nanak caused his Hindu neighbors to believe that he is actually converted to the faith of Islam.
But the remarkable expression of him is that “there is no Hindu; there is no Mussulman”. This
can mean nothing else that it was Nanak’s settled intention to do away with the differences
between those two forms of belief, by instituting a third course which should supersede both of
them.

7.5.2. Nanak and His Mission

Nanak undertook a missionary tour, in which he converted a pious Mohammedan called

Sheikh Sajan. And he received salutation and was recognized as a Darvesh. There was a Pir
128

called Shaikh Sharaf, who kissed his hands and feet and left him after a long conversation and
acknowledging his divine mission. Then, Nanak went to Delhi and met Sultan Ibrahim Lodi who
also called him a Darvesh.

Nanank went to Benares where he met with a pandit named Saturdas. The pandit is
made to challenge the piety of Nanak since he has none of the marks of a Hindu saint such as
sallgram, necklace of tulsi, tike of while clay. But Nanak explained his position and converted
him to his own way of thinking. Thus, Guru Nanak occupied an intermediate position between
Mohammedanism and Hinduism. He is made to convert Mohammedan on the one hand, and
the Hindus on the other. In the same manner, he converted Jogis, Khattirs, Thags,
Necromancers, witches and so on.

7.5.3. Sheikh Farid

He was the most significant associate of Nanak. He was a famous Muhamadean pir
and a strict sufi. He attracted many his piety and formed a school of devotees of his own. His
disciples are still to be found in Punjab who go by the name of Sheik Farid’s Faqirs. This strict
Muhammadean became the confidential friend of Nanak. He accompanied Nanak in all his
wandering for next twelve years. And Adi granth itself contains more than 142 stanzas ascribed
to Sheikh Farid.

Nanak and his friend Sheikh Farid began to travel in company and visited many places
such as Bisiar, Patan and so on. The orthodox Hindus considered every spot polluted which
they had visited. Wherever he went he preached that there is only one God, and only one
tradition. In the course of time, he was captured and imprisoned by Emperor Babar then was
released.

Then, he took the pilgrimage to the Mecca whereby he admitted the intercession of
Muhammad, denounced the drinking of wine, acknowledged the existence of hell, the punishment
of the wicked, and the resurrection of mankind and so on. According to this tradition, the death of
Nanak was predicted by a Mohammedan Pir namely Makdum Bahai’u’d-Din who sent one of his
disciples to ask Nanak, if he also had received an intimation of his approaching death.

7.5.4. The Death of Nanak

Nanak came to the bank of the Ravi to die. Both Hindus and Muslims accompanied
him. He seated at the foot of a Sarih tree. When his sons asked him what their position was to
be, he told them to subordinate themselves to the Guru Angad whom he had appointed as his
successor.
 129

By realizing that their Guru is about to die, the Hindus and Muslims who were firm in the
name of God began to express themselves thus: the Muslim said, “we will Bury him, and the
Hindus said, we will burn him”. Then the Guru said, “place flowers on both sides; on the right
side those of the Hindus, on the left side those of the Muslims, that we may perceive whose will
continue greed tomorrow. If those of the Hindus keep green, then burn me; and if those of
Muslims keep green then bury me”. Then the Guru ordered the gathering to repeat the praises
of God and the gathering began to repeat praises accordingly.

After a few verses had been recited he laid down his head. When the sheet, which had
been stretched over him, was raised, there was nothing under it, and the flowers of both sides
remained green. The Hindu took away theirs and the Muslims took away theirs. The entire
gathering fell to their feet.

The mixture of Hinduism and Mohammedanism is evident in this tradition. The great
triumph was the establishment of a common basis of religious truth for both Mohammedan and
Hindu; and this he is shown to have accomplished with such dexterity that at his death no one
could say whether he was more inclined to Hinduism or to Mohammedanism. His friends stood
around him at the last moment quite uncertain as to whether they should dispose of his remains
as those of a Mohammedan or as those of a Hindu. An Nanak is represented as taking care
that the matter should ever remain a moot point. The final miraculous disappearance of the
corpse is obviously intended to convey the idea that Nanak belonged specially neither to one
party not to the other; while the green and flourishing appearance of the flowers of both parties
conveys the lesson that it was his wish that both should live together in harmony and union.
The commencement of the book, which sketches out his life and teachings, goes on narrating
that: The Hindus said, “The manifestation of some God has been produced”, and the
Mussulmans said, “Some holy man of God has been born”.

In Sum, Guru Nanak not only vehemently denounced caste, rituals, idol worship, belief
in gods and goddesses and preached the oneness of a single Personal – Absolute God who is
never incarnated in flesh, but gave men a new heart to challenge the powers that be.

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130

Check your progress – I

Fill in the blanks

1. Guru Nanak was the son of _________________.

2. Nanak came to the river _______to die.

3. Janam-Sakhi tradition preserves Nanak’s alliance with ___________.

4. Sheikh Farid was a famous Mohammedan Pir and a __________.

5. Followers of Kabir was called__________.

7.6. Other Nine Gurus and Their Contributions

Guru Nanak knowing that his end was approaching appointed Angad as his successor.
When it became known that Guru Nanak was about to die people flocked to him and began to
sing songs of mourning; the Guru fell into a trance and awoke after some time. The Guru drew
over him a sheet; uttered “Wahguru” made obeisance to God, and blended his light with Guru
Angad’s.

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7.6.1. Guru Angad (1504-1552)

Guru Angad was the successor of Guru Nanak. He was impressed by Nanak’s piety
and teachings at the time of his travel to worship goddess Durga at Jvalamukhi along with his
family members. His self surrender and devoted life made the Guru Nanak to reject his sons
and appointed him to succeed.

Angad’s chief contribution to the Sikhism was his insistence on absolute surrender to
God, his utter humility and dedicated service of humanity. He inculcated in his followers the
love of sports and organized wrestling bouts. He insisted his followers to forgive when the
 131

Hindu monk who was jealous of his followers and ill-treated them. He said: “You should endure
what is unendurable, suffer what is insufferable. You should have endurance like the earth,
steadfast in joy and sorrow like a mountain, and have pardon in the heart like a river”.

Another contribution of him was the vogue he gave to the native script of Punjabi,
Gurmukhi. Like his master he consecrated Amar Das as his successor.

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7.6.2. Guru Amar Das (1479-1574)

He was born in Basarke, Amritsar. He was a strong Vaishnavite before he met Guru
Angad. He was a great poet who collected the works of his gurus, and added his own and
those of some Hindu Bhaktas and Muslim Sufis which he put into manuscript form that became
the Sikh scripture.

He denounced vehemently sati and purdah and did not accept any gift from others. He
built the city of Goindwal, and dug up a well there with 84 steps to emphasize that whosoever
wanted to secure release from the 84 lakh births and deaths could do son in one human life by
reaching down to the inmost depths of his own being.

To minister the needs of the devout, he appointed 22 seats (manjis) for missionary work,
putting one of his leading followers in charge of each. He himself visited various hindu shrines
during religious fairs and discoursed to large gatherings on his new mission. He initiated reforms
in the marriage and death ceremonies and insisted the form of worship “reciting the name of
God”. He emphasized the need of dedicated secular activity.

7.6.3. Guru Ram Das (1534-1581)

Guru Amar Das was impressed by the obedient and self-supporting person Ram Das. So
he married his eldest daughter to him, and later appointed him as his successor. Guru Ram
Das was lyrical poet of great sincerity and charm. The present city of Amritsar owes its origin to
him. In his time, the Sikhs involved in agriculture, trade and banking. Amritsar became trading
centre during his period.
132

7.6.4. Guru Arjun (1563-1606)

He was the youngest son of Guru Ram Das. He was a profound poet and philosopher
and a great man of catholicity of outlook, he compiled the Sikh scripture Adi Granth (now
Known as Guru Granth Sahib) bringing together not only the sayings of his four predecessors
but also the well known Hindu Bhaktas like Kabir, Ravidas, Dhanna, Trilochan, and Muslim
Sufis like Baba Farid-ud-Din, Ganj-i-Shakar. He invited a renowned Muslim Sufi, Hazrat Mian
Mir to lay the foundation stone of the historic Golden Temple at Amritsar. In his period, the
Sikhs Spiritual authority was centralized institutionally for the first time in their history by way of
introducing tithe in once a year. He built the cities of Tarn Tarn and Kartarpur and dug huge
tanks and artesian wells for irrigation of land all around. This guru was arrested and was
tortured to death in Jehangir’s court. He became the first martyr in Sikh history in the year
1606.

7.6.5. Guru Hargobind (1595-1644)

The martyrdom of Guru Arjun turned the Sikh movement militant. Guru Hargobind was
the son of Guru Arjun who was only eleven years old when his father courted martyrdom. He
raised a small army and cavalry to defend his way of life. He built a fortress in Amritsar and
insisted his followers to offer him horses and guns instead of cash. He established a court just
opposite to Golden Temple for discussing secular matters.

Jehangir, imprisoned him but later released due to the impression of his piety, simplicity
and devotion to God. But, later Guru was engaged in battles by the successor of Jehangir,
Shah Jehan. He was successful in all these encounters and when he had rest he preached the
gospel of God throughout the country. His life became so austere that he even gave up the use
of the pillow. Many of his sons died before him, so he appointed his grandson Hari Rai to
succeed him.

7.6.6. Guru Hari Rai (1630-1661)

He was a great hunter and kept a cavalry of his grandfather. At one juncture when
Aurangazeb wanted to meet Hari Rai. Hari Rai sent his son Ram Rai. But Ram Rai carried off
by a desire to please the Emperor so he misinterpreted the words of Guru Nanak quoted as
being derogatory to Islam. When it came to the knowledge of Hari Rai, he did not forgive him
and asked him never to see him again. As a result, Ram Rai set up his own gaddi at Dera Doon
 133

and proclaimed himself Guru supported by the Emperor. But the Sikhs by and large did not
acknowledge his authority. At the same time Guru Hari Rai appointed his five-year-old son to
the throne.

7.6.7. Guru Hari Krishan (1656-1664)

Ram Rai finding his younger brother Hari Krishan as Child succeeding his father,
appealed to the King Aurangazeb to help him stake his claim to succession. But, Aurangazeb
proclaimed the child-Guru to he legitimate because he thought the movement being in the
hands of the young one would leave him in peace till he grew to adulthood. But the young one
(Hari Krishan) died at the age of eight appointing his grand uncle Tegh Bahadur as his successor.

7.6.8. Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621-1675)

He was forty-four when he came to the throne. He was given much trouble by some of
his relations like Dhirmal. At one juncture he went to pay homage at the Golden Temple, but the
custodians shut the doors. So he left his residential place and went to Kirtapur. There also the
followers of Dhirmal pursued him. Then, he purchased a piece of land in the Shivalik hills and
founded the city of Anandpur in the then hilly state of Khalur (now Known as Bilaspur in Himachal
pradesh). Here too he was not able to live peacefully, so he went out on tour preaching his
good news in the South-east of Punjab. He dug wells and tanks wherever he went. From there,
he traveled to the eastern part of India. He brought reconciliation between the two parties (Raja
Ram Singh and The Emperor under whom he ruled).

His fame was spreading all over, which resulted in praising him as Saviour by the
Hindus, Sufis and Shias. When many were converting themselves to Islam due to the tyranny
of Aurangazeb, he boldly gave them heart saying, “A wise man is he who is himself not afraid,
nor makes other afraid”. As a result, Aurangazeb arrested the Guru. And he was executed in
Delhi where a shrine known as Sisganj stands to his memory.

7.6.9. Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708)

He was only nine years old when his father died as martyr. He was a scholar of Persian,
Hindi, Sanskrit and Punjabi. He employed nearly 52 poets to translate everything in the ancient
Hindi lore into current idiom especially the portions, which contain the spirit of resistance against
evil, superstitions and renunciation. He organized a small army in order to face the dangerous
times. He also asked them to offer horses and arms instead of cash when they visited him.
134

When Hindu hill-chiefs attacked him many times they were beaten up in all occasion. Later,
they appealed to the Emperor for help which made Guru himself to take the initiation in going
to war.

On the day of Baisakhi, in the year 1699 Guru Gobind Singh decides to transform the
peaceable Sikh community into a band of warriors called the Khalsa. Naked sword in hand, he
asked for the head of one who was prepared to offer it here and then for the sake of Dharma.
After some initial hesitation and consternation, a Sikh did come forward, the Guru took him into
an enclosure, slaughtered a goat there, and with his sword dripping with blood he asked for
another head. This too was offered him and another three in the same way, one by one. After
this, the Guru put a stop to his unusual demand. He brought the five out- he called them his
Beloved Five (Panj Piyaras), - dressed in blue headgears, and loose long mustard shirts with
smart drawers on their loins and with a steel sword dangling by the side of each. The n he
initiated them formally into the new order of the Khalsa by baptizing them with sugared water
stirred with a dagger, called Amrit (immortalizing nectar). Then, he asked them to initiate him,
their Guru, into the fold of the Khalsa to signify that total equality would be the hallmark of the
new order. It is said that with in two weeks 80,000 Sikhs were initiated. Thus, faithful were
asked to wear the five K’s – Kesha or unshorn hair; Kangha or a Comb to keep it clean; kachha
or drawers for smart wear, as against the loose unstitched Dhoti worn ealier; Kara or a steel
bracelet to denote the universality of the new religion; and a Kirpan or a sword as a symbol of
royal authority and as a weapon of self-defence.

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Aurangazeb sent a large contingent to help the hill-chiefs to engage the Guru in a final
battle. In this battle Guru lost his two elder sons and the Nawab of Sirhind also bricked up other
two tender sons alive. Thus he wandered in forests being denied help and shelter and moved
to the Malva region from where he sent a letter to Aurangazeb in which he strongly reprimanded
the Emperor for his cruelties. Aurangazeb wanted to see him, but before Guru came to his
Kingdom Aurangazeb died. Then Guru helped Bahadur Shah to gain the throne when there
was a dispute for succession. The Guru made a tour to the South via Rajputana, during that
time he was assassinated at Nanded in the Deccan by a Pathan hireling of the Nawab of
Sirhind in October 1708.

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 135

Check your progress II

True or False

1. Kabir was the founder of Sikhism.

2. Guru Arjun was the first martyr of Sikhism

3. Guru Angad encouraged sports like wrestling among the Sikh youth.

4. Guru Ram Das was a Sufi saint.

5. Guru Gobind Singh introduced Khalsa.

7.7. Conclusion
In Sum, Sikhism is the religion of the Sikhs who consider themselves as the disciples of
God and follow the writings of the Ten Sikh Gurus. The Life and teachings of these gurus give
way to know the belief and practices and their scripture, which are kept and followed till now by
the Sikh Community. So the next chapter deals with the Scripture of Sikhism as well as the
beliefs and practices of them.

7.8. Answer to check your progress

I Fill in the Blanks

1. Mehta Kalu 2. Ravi 3. Mohammedanism 4. Sufi 5. Kabir Panthis

II True or False

1. False 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. True

7.9. Model Question

1. How Sikhism came into being?

2. Write a note on Guru Nanak and Kabir.

3. Explain the influence of Sufism on Sikh religion

4. Write the contributions of Sikh gurus in detail.

136

7.10. Select Bibliography

Anand, B.S. Guru Nanak: His Life was His Message (Guru Nanak Foundation, 1983).

Archer, John Clark. The Sikhs in Relation to Hindus, Moslems, Christians, and Ahmadiyya:
A Study in Comparative Religion (Princeton University Press, 1946).

Arshi, Pardeep Singh. Sikh Architecture (Intellectual, 1986).

Brown, Kerry, ed. Sikh Art & Literature (Routledge, in collaboration with the Sikh Foundation,
1999).

Chima, Jugdep S. The Sikh Separatist Insurgency in India: Political Leadership and
Ethnonationalist Movements (Sage Publications, 2010).

Cole, W. Owen. Understanding Sikhism (Dunedin Academic Press, 2004).

Cole, W. Owen and Piara Singh Sambhi. The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices
(Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978).

Grewal, J.S. and S.S. Bal. Guru Gobind Singh: A Biographical Study (Punjab University,
2nd ed., 1987).

Gupta, Dipankar. The Context of Ethnicity: Sikh Identity in a Comparative Perspective (Oxford
University Press, 1996).

Gupta, Hari Ram. History of the Sikh Gurus (U.C. Kapur & Sons, 1973).

Hans, Surjit. Reconstruction of Sikh History from Sikh Literature (ABS Publication, 1988).

Hawley, John Stratton and Gurinder Singh Mann, eds. Studying the Sikhs: Issues for North
America (State University of New York Press, 1993).

Hawley, Michael, ed. The Sikh Diaspora: Theory, Agency and Experience (Brill, 2013).

Hershman, Paul. Punjabi Kinship and Marriage (Hindustan Publishing Corporation, 1981
 137

LESSON - 8
IMPORTANT TEACHINGS OF SIKHISM
8.1. Introduction
The fifth-largest religion in the world is Sikhism. Sikh is a term that signifies “learner” or
“seeker of truth.” Sikhism promotes tolerance for different religions, social justice, equality, and
devotion to mankind. Sikhism’s central teaching is constant spiritual adoration and veneration
for God while upholding the principles of Living with integrity, compassion, humility, and
generosity. In this lesson, we will learn about the Religious Beliefs and Practices, Scriptures
and Sects of Sikhism.

You may watch:

Religious Beliefs and Practices, Scriptures and Sects of Sikhism
https://youtu.be/TgZ98rYtaiI

8.2. Objectives
After studying you will know the following:

• The Sikh Scriptures

• The Sikh Beliefs

• The Sikh Religious Practices

• Different Sikh movements

Plan of Study

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Objectives

8.3 The Sikh Scriptures

8.4 The Sikh Beliefs

8.5 Sikh Practices

8.6 The Sikhs Religious Rites

138

8.7 Festivals

8.8 Sects of Sikhism

8.9 Conclusion

8.10 Answers to Check your Progress

8.11 Model Question

8.12 Bibliography

8.3. The Sikh Scriptures

There have been in existence, the hymns of Guru Nanak and other saint poets from the
non-Sikhs. Guru Aryan undertook the task of bringing together all these hymns. The collection
of these hymns was called Adi Granth, which is the scripture of the Sikhs. After the selections
had been made, the entire material was dictated to Bhai Guru Das who wrote it down in
Gurumukhi. The collection was completed in 1604 and installed in the Harmandir at Amirtsar.

The remarkable feature of Adi granth is the inclusion of compositions of Hindu and
Muslim poet-saints, irrespective of caste. Nanak himself had composed number of songs, the
best of them may be named Japji, Asa-di-Van etc. It also includes the verses of Ramanad,
Jaideva, Namadeva, Kabir etc. however, the compositions of Kabir are far more numerous
than of any other non-Sikh composers. It shows the great esteem in which Sikh gurus held
Kabir.

The first section of Adi granth contains devotional and liturgical compositions for morning
and evening reading and recitation for wedding and for other special occasions. Next comes
the main text subdivided by various ragas (tunes). The final section contains miscellaneous
compositions such as Kabir, Sheikh Farid, etc.

The hymns of gurus are not given under their individual names. Labeling their
compositions as Mahaja I, II, III…etc, meaning each guru in order of succession, denotes
authorship. For example, Guru Nanak is I.

Guru Gobind Singh at Damdama Sahib made the second edition of the Adigranth. He
added several hymns and couplets of his father. The standard Guru Granth Sahib of today is
the edition prepared by Guru Gobind Singh and is known as Damdama Bir.
 139

There is also the Granth of the Tenth Guru, which contains his won compositions. The
Sikhs believe that the divine guidance is to be looked and found in the words of the Guru
Granth Sahib. On special occasion, an unbroken reading of the Adi granth is arranged. Firstly
Karah Parshad (cooked mixture of flour, sugar and ghee or clarified butter) is prepared and
distributed to all who attend this ceremony. It symbolizes that no one must leave the presence
of Guru hungry. They are one united family of equals.

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8.4 The Sikh Beliefs

8.4.1. God

Sikhism upholds an uncompromising monotheistic concept of God. The Adi granth

emphasizes both the immanent and transcendent aspects of God. God is primal truth (sat),
beautiful (suhanu), and eternal. God is one and is the sole reality, God is beyond tome birth
and death. God makes himself known through his voluntary act of grace. God is addressed in
different names as Sat Namu – The True Name, Ek Onkar-The one Eternal Being, Sat Guru-
The Enlightener, Wahe Guthar-The Wonderful Lord.

God can be mediated on through the practice of Nam Simran (remembering God’s
name). Sikhism is against self-renunciation. True renunciation is giving up lust, anger, greed
and falsehood while still engaged in Mundane activity. By constant remembrance of God’s
name one receives God’s name by God’s grace. Having received the gift of His name by God’s
grace the faithful will express service towards his fellow human beings. Through Nam Simran
the soul is cleansed of all evil tendencies and gets eternal joy.

Sikhism believes that God’s presence is latent inside every person. It becomes all
pervading through every person. It becomes all pervading through the constant practice of
Nam Simran. God is remembered so frequently that the faithful becomes filled with God and
thus begins to know God who already resides within.

Sikhism does not adhere to the popular Hindu idea of ‘avatar’ (incarnation). In Sikhism
God is unincarnate and is not subject to the process of transmigration. God is also addressed
as Rama but not in the Hindu tone, but God the absolute. The Sikh gurus never claimed divinity
for themselves.
140

A disciple has to choose the guidance of a guru, in his new life. The guru is the one who
had realized God. God as Sat Guru communicates his Truth through the world, the scripture. It
is the word of the Enlightener. Therefore the Adi Granth is also called the Guru Granth Sahib.
The word guru is applied to the ten gurus, but God alone is the Sat Guru.

The will of god is known as hukam. The faithful are under hukam. God creates out of
hukam. A disciple discerned of hukam comes through God’s grace called nadar or nazar.
God’s self revelation comes through his grace. God is pictured as God of grace in Adi granth.

Adi granth teaches that the bonds of karma are broken by devotion to the True Name.
Sikhism follows doctrine of karma to some extent. But it affirms that human being alone cant
reach the stage in which there is no more coming and going no more rebirths. Thus, divine
grace overrides karma.

Selfishness separates people from others and God. It is the result of ignorance, thus
human beings become self-reliance rather than self-dependence upon God. This rebellious
state is called haumai. Thus soul is attracted to the world. The human soul needs the grace of
God to break the bonds of haumai.

The goal of spiritual progress is absolute, meager, blending or union of human soul
with God. The door to salvation is opened by God’s grace. Divine grace leads the faithful
towards salvation. Sikhism insists on internal devotion. No external observances are expected.

The path of spiritual progress is called Sahaj involving an experience of cleansing

one’s heart and mind and having a loving devotion to God and thus craving for His grace. One
who achieves this state of being is called Jivanmukta celebrated ones. The stages of spiritual
progress are said by Guru Nanak in his Japuji (the first part of Adi granth).

• Dharm Khand – realm of performing moral duty.

• Gian Khand-realm of knowledge

• Saram khand-the realm of effort

• Karam khand-the realm of fulfillment in which the joy of spiritual union begins to be
experienced.

• Such khand – the realm of truth, which is an experience of permanent union with God.

• The ultimate stage is beyond description and can only be experienced.

 141

You may watch:

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6Fm2MIJEG0&ab_channel=BasicsofSikhi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ASGLH8Xsx5c&ab_channel=PutPut3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=brf2AGYSzRU&ab_channel=BasicsofSikhi

8.4.2. Guru

In Sikhism there are three entities, the God, the Guru and the Sikh. Guru is the sole
intermediary between a Sikh and the God. By Virtue of the Sikhism’s fundamental doctrine,
“Word is Guru, Guru is Word”, the Scripture Guru Granth Sahib personifies perpetual Guru of
the Sikhs.

8.4.3. Virtues

The Sikhism’s universal message inspires a person to be a noble human being and
cultivate all the essential human virtues to become a true Sikh and ultimately a Khalsa (noble
Sikh). So the human virtues are essential part of Sikhism, that is evident in the Guru Granth
Sahib, Page 1253. Among all the human virtues, Humility is the Prime One. According to
Sikhism, the cardinal virtues are Truth, Contentment, Patience, Faith and Daya (Compassion),
and other virtues are Sacrifice, Cleanliness, honesty, Charity and Courage.

8.4.4. Vices

The cardinal vices an ideal Sikh must relinquish are: Lust, Anger, Greed, Materialism
and Ego. Guru Granth Sahib page no: 218 reads as “O Holy men relinquish your ego. From
carnal lust, anger and company of the devices person, always distance yourself. He, who
relinquishes both flattery and Vilification, truly seeks exalted spiritual state”.

8.4.5. Equality

The Prevalent social inequality was one of the reasons that motivated Guru Nanak to
found Sikhism. To eliminate the ignominious tiered Hindu caste system the Sikh Gurus started
the institution of Langar (Partaking of congregational meals) where everyone sits together at
an equal level without any distinction as to caste, creed, gender, social status etc. as a means
to ensure social equality. The institution of Guru’s Langar instills spirit of community service,
equality and Charity. The Sikh gurus vehemently condemned Sati, Pudah, female infanticide
and gender inequality.
142

8.4.6. Death

The Sikh religious philosophy professes two forms of death, Physical and Spiritual.
Everything visible, animate or inanimate dies a physical death. A person who forsakes God
dies a Spiritual death, which is far worse than physical death. The Sikhism prescribes a unique
way of mourning. Instead of wailing, lamenting, or keening, Guru Granth Sahib advises the
mourners to pray and supplicate for redemption of the departed soul and its reunion with the
God.

8.4.7. Heaven and Hell

The physical death is a natural occurrence to a genuinely religious person. He is

preoccupied with living a life of human excellence while cultivating harmony with God, by
extolling His Divine Name. This is the path, which Sikhism professes, that leads to a blissful life
here and an eternal spiritual life hereafter, where one’s soul dwells in eternity (Heaven). Once
a person reaches that exalted state his concerns about the conventional concepts of heaven
and hell are dispelled. Kabir says, “Desire not abode in Heaven, neither fear dwelling in hell,
whatever will be, will be, don’t preoccupy your mind with hopes, instead let us sing wonderful
Lord’s praises from whom we get most precious treasures”.

8.4.8. Last Rites

Sikhism does not hold the idea either that all human bodies buried in the graves will rise
again or burial guarantees heaven and cremation condemns person’s soul to hell. The
fundamental belief of Sikhism is that no matter how the dead body is disposed, the five elements
Air, Water, Earth, Fire an Quintessence return to their natural status or sources. Therefore,
there is no stipulation as to whether a Sikh’s dead body is cremated, buried or submerged in
the water. However, cremation is preferred because it is deemed more ecology friendly.

8.4.9. Charity

The Scriptures of Sikhism refutes blind faith rituals, pagan rites and dogmatic acts of
charity involving donations and offerings including feasts to the clerics or holy quacks by the
survivors for the benefit of the deceased. Instead, it professes that such rites and offerings are
of no benefit to the deceased or the survivors, but only to the crafty recipients who scam the
offerings from the naïve survivors. In the just court of the Omniscient God, a person gets credit
for only altruism and philanthropy from one’s own honest earnings or charitable deeds performed
during his own lifetime.
 143

8.5. Sikh Practices

Apart from reading the prescribed scriptures and reciting the fixed prayers, a Sikh
should also join in the corporate singing of hymns, which is called kirtan. Parties of professional
musicians who are known as ragis may be employed for kirtan. Gurudwara is the centre of
Sikh worship. It has religious, social and even political importance. The Sikh worship includes
singing from Adi Granth and reciting said prayers. It invokes divine grace upon all. The Sikh
worship ends with the distribution of Karah Parshad.

Every Gurudwara is attached with a langar (kitchen with dining). Food is served free to
all. The condition is all should eat together. This is in fact reaction to caste system. Gurudwara
and Langar provide the Sikh opportunity to serve or learn to service. A good Sikh is a tither
whose wealth to be spent for the welfare of the community.

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Check your progress – I

Fill in the blanks

1. The Scripture of Sikhism is ____________

2. The Sikh worship ends with the distribution of __________ Karah Parshad.

3. Every Gurudwara is attached with ___________.

4. God can be mediated on through the practice of ___________.

5. Heaven is understood as the soul’s union with ____________.

8.6. The Sikhs Religious Rites

8.6.1. Name Giving

The important rite is name giving. It usually takes place at a Gurudwara. First amrit or
nectar is prepared (mixing sugar, crystal and water) which is stirred with a double-edged dagger
and the first five verses of the Japuji are recited. The tip of a kirpan (sword) is dipped in the
amrit and the child’s tongue is touched with it. The mother drinks the rest of the amrit. The
granthi opens the Adi Granth and the first hymn at the left hand page is read to the parents.
144

The child is named after the first letter of the verse on the upper left hand corner of the left
page. The parents decide the name. The granthi announces the name to the congregation.
Boy’s names end in ‘sing’ and girls name in ‘kaur’. Then prescribed texts are read. This too
ends with Karah Parshad.

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8.6.2. The Rite of Initiation

The initiation on rite is important to become a full member of the Sikh community.
When a Sikh male or female comes of age he/she is formally baptized and initiated into the
order of the Khalsa. This rite is known as Amrit Pahul. This rite begins by one of the five
beloved ones (Panj Piyars) expounding the Sikh faith in the presence of the Guru Granth
Sahib. Amrit is prepared, like above. Prayer is offered and texts read. The five kneel in a circle
round the bowl in which pedestals and water are mixed. They kneel in a formal manner with the
right knee on the ground and the left raised. The solution is stained by each of the five in turn
using a dagger simultaneously reciting the Japuji , the top etc.

Then are of the five lifts up the bowl and another offers prayer, now the person to be
initiated comes forward and knees in the same manner and repeats – waheguruji ka khalsn, sri
waheguruji ki Fateh, i.e. the khalsa is of God and the victory is God’s. Then each of the five
sprinkles the amrit on the eyes and hair of the one to be initiated, who is also given a handful
of amrit to sip before it is sprinkles five times from the bowl and amrit which is left over. Then
prescribed texts are read. The initiated is expected to observe all the religious practices binding
the Sikhs. The initiated person should maintain a very high moral standard. Here too, Karah
Parshad served at the end.

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TheOpenUniversity

8.6.3. Marriage

The Sikh marriage is monogamous and is a sacrament, not a contract, which may be
broken at, will. It is governed by a special legislative Act of the British days, called “Anand
Marriage Act”, enacted especially at the demand of the Sikhs. The marriage party of the
 145

bridegroom proceeds in a procession on foot or in vehicle to the house of the bride, usually
headed by a professional band and singing and dancing, with the groom riding a bedecked
horse. In front of the bride’s house, they are received by her relations and friends to the chanting
of the Guru’s Word. Then men from the two parties embrace and garland each other. The
marriage party is treated to a dinner if it is evening and to tea if it is morning. If it is evening, the
groom’s party is given hospitality also for the night.

In the morning, the two parties assemble in the Gurudwara or an improvised tented
place, before the Holy Book, and after the performance of the devotional music by the
professionals, the bride and the groom take four rounds of the Holy Book to the chanting, first
by the Granthi and then by the musicians, of the following four verses from the Guru Granth
Sahib. After each round, the couple bow down before the Holy Book. After the fourth round the
marriage is complete. Money is offered from both sides for social and religious purposes.
Flowers are showered on the couple. After another meal, the groom’s party returns home with
the bride. Usually dowries are offered to the bride, the groom’s party also takes with them
precious gifts for the bride. But it is strictly forbidden to ask for or give dowry where it is not
voluntarily offered. The daughter now has a share in their father’s as well as in their husband’s
according to laws. In some sects, like Namdharis, marriages are performed of a large number
of couples together in the presence of their Guru. Sikhism allows widow remarriage.

8.6.4. Death

Cremation of the dead is practiced. Much mourning is not advocated. Erection of

memorials also not encouraged. The reason is that death is considered to be union with God.
Karah Parshad is shared among relatives and friends.

8.6.5. Processions

The Sikhs take out colourful processions to commemorate the days of their Gurus’ birth
or martyrdom. The Holy Book placed in a decorated palanquin is carried upon a flower-bedecked
lorry, followed and preceded by enthusiastic and gaily-dressed devotees, singing parties and
sword-stick performers, and escorted by horsemen, cycle or motor cycle contingents, and
Panj-Piyaras with drawn swords. People come to participate from the surrounding areas in
large numbers and express the spirit of devotion.

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146

8.7. Festivals
Bhaisakhi – it marks the beginning of the wheat harvest and is the Punjabi New Year
day (13th April). On this day in 1699 A.D. Guru Gobindh Singh founded the Khalsa community
at Anandpur.

Diwali – festival of light is celebrated at the appearance of the new moon at the end of
October and the beginning of November. This festival is important to Sikhs because, the third
Sikh Guru, Guru Amar Das institutionalized this as one of the special days when all Sikhs
would gather to receive the Gurus Blessings at Goindwal. In 1577, the foundation stone of the
Golden Temple was laid on Diwali. On this day the Golden Temple at Amritsar is illuminated
and fire works are displayed. It is celebrated to commemorate the release of Guru Gobindh
from the fort of Gwalior where Emperor Jehangir had interned him. So, in sum, the purpose of
the celebrations is to remember Guru and pray for one’s own release from the imprisonment
and the objective is to pray for liberation from the worldly bonds and act upon the Guru’s path
of Truthfulness to avail human life time. Lighting deebam at Diwali in true sense is acquiring
Divine knowledge and virtues that leads one to become one with Waheguru God.

Hola Bohalla – Guru Gobind Singh instituted this festival for Sikhism 1680 A.D. to
infuse a marital spirit in them. During this festival archery, wrestling and horse riding contests
attract large crowds. Gurus’ anniversaries are also celebrated widely.

8.8. Sects of Sikhism

During the course of time many Hindu practices crept into Sikhism. Few feared that
Sikhism might be absorbed into Hinduism. To avoid such consequences many sects or
movements came into being. Such movements are Nirankari Movement, Sant Nirankaris,
Namdhari Movement, Singh Sabha Movement, Gurudwara Movement and Nihangs.

8.8.1. The Nirankari Movement

This movement is called Nirankari because it emphasized worship of God as Nirankar

or the formless one. It condemned idol worship. Baba Dayal was its founder who vigorously
sought to reform the Sikh ceremonial life. The Nirankari Sikhs have a succession of their own
living gurus even today. They were active in the North West Frontier province, Rawalpindi
District and Kashmir in the pre-partition of India. Now their main centres are in Chandigarh and
Delhi. The Nirankari Sikhs have always considered themselves as Sikhs. But they do have
distinctive features such as a human Guru, a slightly varied form of ardas and an equal place
for Sahajdharis Sikhs who do not wear the five symbols.
 147

8.8.2. Sant Nirankaris

This is a recent sect, which was founded by Baba Autar Singh. It is considered as a
heretical sect. The Sikhs demands it’s banning.

8.8.3. The Namdhari Movement

Baba Balak Singh founded this movement near Peshawar in the nineteenth century.
The followers are called Namdharis i.e., those who have adopted the name; due to the custom
of being initiated by whispering the name “waheguru” in their ears. They are also known as
Kukas. Their present centre of activity is Bhaini near Ludhiana in Punjab. They believe in the
tradition of living guru. They are strict vegetarians, teetotallers and wear white dress. This
community has advocated a militant Sikh revival. The Nirankari and the Namdhari are sectarian
type of movements.

8.8.4. Singh Sabha Movement

It helped Sikhism to enter modern age. On account of the work of Arya Samaj, Christianity
and Islam, Sikhism was facing the problem of identity. The reformers were convinced that the
survival of their faith depended on a positive emphasis on the Sikh religious and social
distinctiveness. Even books and tracts were published around the title “we are not Hindus”.
The reformers wanted to bring back the former glories of Sikhism. They sought to introduce
modern education on western lines. Punjabi was learned a fresh. Sikh history was refreshed.
Social evils were attacked vehemently. New commentaries were written.

Singh Sabha Movement undertook the following objectives very seriously. They are

1. Restore Sikhism to its original purity.

2. Edit and publish historical and religious books for the Sikhs.

3. Propagate current knowledge through Punjabi medium, by starting magazines and

newspapers in Punjabi language.

4. Reform and bring back into the Sikh-fold the updates.

5. evoke interest of highly placed English men in the educational programme of the Sikhs.

Thus, the Singh Sabha Movement brought about a regeneration of Sikh Society. In the
same way, in the Sikh Education Conference the following objectives were taken:
148

a) Spread of western education among the Sikhs

b) Promote the study of Sikh literature

c) Improve Sikh educational Institutions

d) Open new educational institutions

e) Further the cause of female education among the Sikhs and

f) Promote technical and agricultural education.

Thus, the Singh Sabha Movement rescued the Sikhs from the degenerating practices
of Hinduism and brought them to an awareness of the excellence of their religion. It opened for
them the doors of modern progress.

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8.8.5. Gurudwara Reform Movement

It came to existence because of the Mismanagement in the Gurudwaras i.e., done by

Mahants (abbots). The Sikhs who had gone through the reforms introduced by the Singh
Sabha Movement rebelled at what was happening in the Gurudwaras, i.e., maladministration
of their places of worship. The enthusiasm for reforms produced a popular movement Akali
movement that attempted to free the Gurudwara from the hand of Brahmin priests. As a result,
they had to clash with the British Government. The Sikhs refused to put up with the Hindu
rituals brought into the Gurudwaras. Because the hindu priest officiating their Gurudwaras
were ignorant of the fundamental principles of Sikhism. At Amritsar, the central Shrine of the
Sikh was controlled by the British Deputy Commissioner, where there were full of idols, Hindu
priests and astrologers. The Khalsa – Diwan of Lahore in April 1907, proposed that the manager
of the Golden Temple, who was a sikh appointed by British government, to be removed and a
committee of Sikh chiefs should be appointed in his place. In the same way Khalsa Diwan of
Taran Taran also concerned about the management of the holy Shrines.

The Akalis started activities for freeing their holy shrines from the hand of Mahants
(priests). A representative assembly of Sikhs from all walks of life was called to attend a meeting
 149

on November 15th, 1920. There each delegate was made to profess five conditions, they are
receiving Amrit, regular in reading the daily hymns, keeping the Sikh forms and symbols, raising
early, giving regularly one tenth of his earnings for religious purpose. But, before they met in
the conference the British government appointed a committee of 36 Sikhs to manage Golden
Temple. The Proposed meeting on November 15th of 1920 was held, where they included the
names of these 36 Sikhs also who were appointed by the British government to manage the
Temple, in order to avoid conflict with British Government. They formed a committee, which
was called Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandak Committee (S.G.P.C). In December 12, 1920,
five leaders were appointed to question each member to make sure that they are all true to the
Sikh faith. Then they all marched as a procession with swords slung across their shoulders
singing the sacred hymns. They elected Sardar Majithia as their president. On April 30, 1921
the SGPC obtained legal sanction and election were held in which Sardar Kharak Singh was
elected as President. The SPGC became a focal point for the reformation of Sikh religious
institutions and endowments. The Gurudwaras came under the control of SGPC one by one. In
Some Gurudwaras there was great opposition from the Brahmin priests. Some of the reformers
lost their lives in those conflicts. The conflict went on in many places. The Act was passed
against on them, which offended them deeply. The Sikh community condemned the action of
the Government. As a result, the Government declared the SPGC as an unlawful association
for protesting. The leaders were arrested and imprisoned, but the SPGC continued in protesting.
Finally the Government gave in and let the Sikhs take over the management of their shrines.

8.8.6. Nihangs

It is a minor sect. They are dressed like ever-ready fighters. They are heavily armed
with weapons like axes, Kirpans, Khandas, Shields and Spears. They usually roam from place
to place.

Check your progress – II

True or False

1. When a Sikh male or female comes of age he/she is formally baptized and initiated
into the order of the Khalsa.

2. Among Sikhs, Boy’s names end in ‘kaur’ and girls name in ‘sing’.

3. Heavily armed sect of Sikhism in Singh Sabha Movement.

150

4. Akali movement that attempted to free the Gurudwara from the hand of Brahmin priests.

5. Baba Balak Singh founded Namdhari movement

8.9. Conclusion
Thus, the Sikh has the Scripture called Guru Granth Sahib, which is the supreme Guru.
It contains the writings of persons of irrespective of caste and religion. Usage of the Scripture
in daily life and the centrality of it in all occasion are much prevalent among its followers. They
are strict monotheistic, abiding to the teachings of their scripture and the teachings of their
Gurus. After the death their last Guru, Gobind Singh, the Hindu ceremonies and rituals came
back into Sikh Gurudwaras. But they got reformed due to the reformed movements such as
Singh Sabha Movement, Gurudwara reform movements. The SGPC is a unique ecclesiastical
institution since 1925 when the Gurudwara Act was passed on.

8.10. Answers to Check your progress

I Fill in the Blanks

1. Adi Granth 2. Karah Parshad 3. Langer 4. Nam Simran 5. Eternity

II True or False

1. True 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. True

8.11. Model Question

1. How did the Sikh scripture came into being?

2. How does Sikhism understand the concept of God?

3. Write a note on different beliefs of Sikhism

4. What are the different religious rites practiced by the Sikhs?

5. Narrate the significance of Singh Sabha Movement and Gurudwara Reform Movement
in Sikhism.
 151

8.12. Bibliography
Singh, Gopal. Cultural and Religious Patterns in India: The Sikhs. Madras: Kabeer
Printing House, 1970.

Daniel, P.S., David C. Scott and G.R. Singh (eds.). Religious Traditions of India.
Serampore: Indian Theological Library, 1988.

Zachariah, Aleyamma. Modern Religious & Secular Movements in India. Bangalore:

Theological Book Trust, 1992.

Shah, Ahmad. Sikhism and Christian Faith. Lucknow: Lucknow Publishing House.
152

LESSON - 9
INDIAN ISLAM
9.1 Introduction
Islam emerged in the first half of the 7th century A.D. as an independent religion in
Arabia. Prophet Mohammad was the Messenger chosen by the Creator to spread the message
of this religion. The followers of Islam are called the Muslims. It is a monotheistic religion
propagating the worship of one God. Islam as a religion has created a great impact in the
Indian continent. In this lesson, we will study about the origin and development of Islam in
India.

9.2 Objectives
After learning this lesson, you will know:

• Advent of Islam in India

• Growth of Islam in India

• Status of Islam in India

Plan of Study

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Objectives

9.3 Origin of Islam

9.4 Arrival of Islam in India

9.5 Development of Islam

9.6 Islamic Sects

9.7 Sufism

9.8 Islamic Movements in India

9.9 Islam in India today

 153

9.10 Summary

9.11 Key Words

9.12 Activities

9.13 Check your Answers

9.14 Model Questions

9.15 Select Bibliography

9.3 Origin of Islam

Islam is an Abrahamic Religion. It believes that the Creator sent Prophets and
Messengers to different parts in the universe at different periods to guide the people in the right
path. Rooted in monotheistic belief Islam accepts all the Prophets and the holy scriptures
revealed to them. Accordingly Prophet Muhammad (570-632 A.D.) was a messenger selected
to warn and guide the people in the Arabian peninsula.

“Verily this is a Revelation from the Lord of the Worlds. With it came down the spirit of
Faith and Truth. Upon thy heart, that thou mayest be of the warners, in plain Arabic speech.
And, verily, this is indeed found in the ancient books of divine wisdom.”

(Al Quran 26:192-196)

Al Quran was the Holy scripture revealed to Prophet Muhammad through angel Jibril
(Arabic term for Gabriel). Although roots of Islam are believed to be older, scholars advocate
the date of origin of Islam to be the 7th century. Consequently it is the youngest of the major
world religions. Birth place of Islam was Mecca. But its major development resulted after prophet’s
migration to Medina. It is considered to be the first year of Islamic Hijra calendar. Next to the
Quran, the religious resource for Islam is the Traditions of the Prophet Muhammad called as
Hadith or Sunnah in Arabic terms.

Islam spread rapidly from the Arabian peninsula within a span of 30 years. The
neighbouring Persian and Roman Empires were defeated by the Muslim armies. Over the next
several centuries, Islam reached as far as India in the east, and to Spain in the west. Today, the
faith has spread throughout the world.
154

9.4 Arrival of Islam in India

Arab traders were in contact with India before Islam came into existence. They travelled
to the west coast of India to sell their goods such as gold, spices, etc. The merchants became
Muslims when Islam was established in Arabia. Subsequently they brought their new faith to
the Indian shores. In the northwest frontier Islam entered through the conquest of Muslim
rulers in the 12th century. Many of the Muslims living in India did not move out of India though a
religious demographic partition happened in India to separate Pakistan and Bangladesh as
independent countries. Today Islam is an integral part of India and its history.

9.4.1 Arrival of Islam in South India

India and Arab coastal regions face each other. They are separated by the Arabian sea.
This geographic location of the two countries enabled trade by sea possible. So the Arabs
frequented the coastal regions of Malabar in Kerala. For the Arab traders Indian west coast
 155

also became a transit point for their trade with Burma, South East Asian islands and China.
Hence the Arab settlement in South India before Islam was the result of their geographical
proximity and commercial relations.

The Arab traders began to play a new role as Islamic missionaries for their Indian
counterparts after their conversion to Islam. The Indian people were introduced to the new
belief in a peaceful manner. Many people in the coastal area of Kerala converted to Islam and
the religion came to be recognized. Indians considered the Muslims as friends and not as
invaders due to the good relationship and this enabled the settlements to grow. The Arab
settlers married the local women and converted them through this bondage. Dr. G. Krishnan
Nadar in “History of Kerala” notes: “The Arabs came into contact with the natives and they took
native women as wives. The union of the native women and Arab merchants produced a new
race and they were called Moplahs, who speak Malayalam.”

The first Indian king to travel to Arabia was Cheraman

Perumal. He embraced Islam. He died before returning to
India. But under his instruction Malik bin Dinar along with his
friends established eighteen mosques in different places and
made arrangements for their smooth functioning. The first
mosque built in Kodungallur Taluk, Thrissur District in Kerala
was named after the king. Cheraman Perumal Masjid

The maritime activities of the early Muslim traders of the Coromandal Coast were the
main cause for the Muslim settlements in Tamilnadu. The bed of the Gulf of Mannar was a
prolific breeding for oyster and natural pearls which was very rich product of the region. The
Muslim traders had separate villages in the Pearl Fishery coast such as Kilakkarai,
Kayalpattanam and Kulasekhara Pattanam. The Coromandal Coast was a crossing junction of
the Arabs because it was from this coast that they changed the direction of their voyage either
to the Bengal Coast or to the Eastern archipelago and China. The Cholas utilized fully the
maritime skill of the Arabs. The Muslims were not content with trade alone. They also participated
in the politics and social life. Apart from their supremacy over the maritime trade, especially
horse trade with Arabia, the Muslims also enjoyed a prominent role in the political realm.

9.4.2. Arrival of Islam in North India

Islam arrived in north India between 711 and 1526 through various Muslim armies -
Arabs, Turks, Afghans and Mughals.
156

The Arabs were the first Muslims to come to India. They conquered Sind and Multan in
712. The success of Muslim expedition to Sind region led by Muhammad bin Qasim was the
turning point in the history of Muslim occupation of India. And within few years it resulted in the
fall of the vast kingdom of Sind. Bin Qasim continued to take control over major city of
Brahmanabad, ancient city of Multan and extended up to the borders of the kingdom of Kashmir.

About three hundred years later (997-1030) Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni led a series of
plundering raids, about 17 in number. He attacked and defeated Jaipal, the king of Punjab in
1001, attacked and conquered Lahore in 1021 and put it under the control of a Muslim governor.
In 1025, he attacked and plundered Som Nath Temple in Kathiawar. These Muslim incursions
did not, however, produce any serious effect in the vast
interior of the sub-continent.

Mohammad Ghori occupied Lahore in 1186. In 1191

he was defeated by Prithvi Raj Chohan at the Battle of Tarain
near Thaneswar but next year he returned and fought a
desperate battle on the same battlefield in which he
completely defeated the Hindus. Thus commenced the
Muslim rule in India.

The dynasties which ruled from Delhi till the coming of the Mughals in the 16th century
were the Slaves, the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodis. This phase of Indian
history is known as the Sultanate period. Under Altmash and Balban, they extended their sway
over practically the whole of north India. Ala-ud-din, a powerful monarch of Khilji dynasty was
able to carry the Muslim arms to the extreme South of India. But the Sultanate rapidly
disintegrated after the death of Mohammed Tughlaq.

The foundation of the Mughal rule in India was laid by Babur in 1526. Babur was a
descendant of Chingez Khan and Timur. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in first Battle of Panipat and
established Mughal dynasty which lasted till the establishment of British rule in India. Akbar,
the greatest of the Mughals, embarked upon a policy of recovery and expansion. He extended
his sway over an area stretching from Kandhar in the west to Dacca in the east and from
Srinagar in the north to Ahmednagar in the south.
 157

To know more about the rise of Islam in Arabia read the following article:

https://insidearabia.com/a-brief-history-of-the-rise-of-islam/

To get to know in detail about entry of Islam in India read the book:

http://indianculture.gov.in/rarebooks/indian-islam-religious-history-islam-india

I. Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:

1. Islam originated in _____________ Peninsula.

2. Holy Scripture of Muslims is _________________ .

3. The first mosque in South India was built by ___________________ .

4. The city through which Muslims entered North India is _____________ .

5. The foundation of Mughal rule in India was laid by ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­_____________ in

1526.

9.5 Development of Islam in India

Islam was strictly monotheistic. It saw all people as equal before God. Although the
Arabs only conquered the north western part of India, their tolerant rule won many converts to
Islam in that region who remain as Muslims even to this day. This provided a solid base for
further Muslim expansion into India.
158

The Mongol invasions in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries seriously disrupted Muslim
civilization, especially in Central Asia. As a result, Muslims left on their own in India built an
independent kingdom, the Sultanate of Delhi (1206-c.1500). Also, many Muslim scholars fleeing
the Mongol onslaught came to India. This, along with an active sea-borne trade with Southeast
Asia, East Africa, and the Middle East led to a flowering of Muslim culture in India.

Muslims also absorbed Indian Culture. Caste distinctions started to appear among them
as Muslim men married Hindu women. A mystical branch of Islam namely Sufism developed. It
used the Hindu techniques such as meditation. Altogether, these developments brought into
India the Mughal invaders.

The greatest of the Mughal rulers was Akbar the Great (1656-1605). Coming to the
throne at the age of thirteen, he soon proved himself a firm and shrewd ruler who quickly
crushed any revolts in his inherited lands and expanded Mughal power into the Deccan. Akbar
was also a patron of the arts, encouraging both Hindu and Muslim artists, poets, and musicians.
Akbar established a strong and stable state that allowed his three successors, Jahangir (1605-
27), Shah Jahan (1628-58), and Aurangzeb (1658-1707), to keep expanding the Mughal realm.
During this time, India experienced flourishing of the arts with the fusion of Persian and Hindu
styles. Mughals Architectural splendour can be seen in the Taj Mahal, a mausoleum for Shah
Jahan’s wife and still considered one of the world’s most beautiful buildings. They blended
their style of music with Hindu folk music to create their own style of music.
 159

As the Mughal Empire broke down there was rise of great Maratha power, Sikhs and
arrival of British East India Company. At the end of the 19th century, South Asian subcontinent
was ruled by British Empire. British rule of India stripped Muslim elites of their traditional status
of ruling class and reduced them to the status of a religious minority doubly pressured by the
new conditions of colonial society. These pressures strengthened in the collective imagination
the perception of a minority at a disadvantage and it helped the Muslim elites to become
gradually aware of their right to constitute in nationhood and the need to organize politically to
defend their interests. Thus, Islamic nationalism took shape during the second half of the
nineteenth century.

The period between 1858 to 1906 witnessed different political trends among Muslim
community and above all the very same period also witnessed the formation of the separate
political identity of the Muslims in Modern India. The foundation of all India Muslim league in
1906 was the fulfilment of the hopes and desires of the Muslim Community of India.

In the historic struggle for independence Muslims did play a definite role and shared
the responsibility of liberating India from the yokes of British imperialism with their counterparts.
They underwent untold sufferings, made great sacrifices and thus served the country
commendably.

Finally, the British concept of divide and rule triumphed and in 14th August 1947, the
plan was put into effect and India was partitioned. On 15th August India was declared as an
Independent State. The rich, English educated, capitalists, land lords, industrialists, big business
magnates, among Muslims, who wanted to grab the opportunities in a new country, the politicians
who were power hungry left for Pakistan. But those Muslims - the poor and the masses, who
loved their motherland, continued to live in India. They became an inseparable part of India by
participating in several developmental activities, and contributed their fullest might for the
progress of India.

9.6 Islamic Sects

In India the Muslims are divided into two main sects - Sunni and Shia. Each one of
these two sects has many different schools. Along with these main divisions, the Indian Muslims
also have other divisions. It is mainly because different communities that adopted Islam have
different names.
160

9.6.1 Sunni Islam

The Sunnis are the largest branch of the Muslim community. The name is derived from
the Sunnah, the exemplary behaviour of the Prophet Muhammad. All Muslims are guided by
the Sunnah, but Sunnis stress it, as well as consensus (ijma; the full name of Sunnis is Ahl al-
Sunnah wa’l-Ijma, people of the Sunnah and consensus). Sunni life is guided by four schools
of legal thought—Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi, and Hanbali—each of which strives to develop practical
applications of revelation and the Prophet’s example.

Although Sunni Islam comprises a variety of theological and legal schools, attitudes,
and outlooks conditioned by historical setting, locale, and culture, Sunnis around the world
share some common points: acceptance of the legitimacy of the first four successors of
Muhammad (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali), and the belief that other Islamic sects have
introduced innovations (bidah), departing from majority belief.

Indian Sunnis largely follow the Hanafi school of Islamic law. The moplahs of Kerala
and Lakshadweep follow the Shafi system. The Sunnis of Gujarat follow the Maliki system.
Another well-known Indian Muslim community is Pathan/Pashtuns. The Pathans are Muslims
who arrived from Afghanistan to India. They speak Pashto language. The Pathans put their
surname as Khan. They are regarded as brave, honest and righteous. They follow the Hanafi
school of law.

9.6.2 Shia Islam

The other branch of Islam, the Shias, are guided as well by the wisdom of Muhammad’s
descendants, but through his son-in-law Ali. Worldwide, Shias constitute around 20 percent of
the overall Muslim population. Shias feel that Ali should have been the first Caliph and that the
Caliphate should pass down only to direct descendants of Mohammed via Ali and Fatima. They
often refer to themselves as ‘people of the house’ (Ahl al Bayt) of the Prophet.

The main Shia sect believes in 12 Imams (Isna Ashari), the last of whom presumably
disappeared in 873 AD. Shias refused, however, to accept that he had died, preferring to
believe that he was merely “hidden” and would return. They still think that he will return back.
When after several centuries this did not happen, spiritual power passed to the Ulema, a
council of twelve scholars who elected a supreme Imam. The other main divisions are Ismaili
and Sayyidi.
 161

According to the 2012 International Religious Freedom Report Shiites (or Shia’s)
constitute 13 - 14 % of the Indian Muslim Population. Prominent places in India with majority or
considerable Shia Muslim population are Kargil, Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Hallaur,
Amroha and others.

Among the Shias of India, an overwhelming majority belongs to the Ithna Ashari

(Twelver) division, while the Shias among the Khoja and Bohra communities are Ismaili.
Dawoodi Bohras are primarily based in India, even though the Dawoodi theology originated in
Yemen. India is home to the majority Dawoodi Bohra population most of them concentrated in
Gujarat out of over 1 million followers worldwide.

To know more about Muslims in India, read the essay:

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/essay-on-the-muslims-in-india/43045

II. Check Your Progress

Say True or False:

1. Islam saw all people as equal before God.

2. Muslims did not absorb Indian Culture.

3. The greatest Mughal ruler Akbar was a patron of arts.

4. Taj Mahal is a mausoleum for Shah Jahan’s wife.

5. Sunni is the majority sect of Muslims in India.

9.7 Sufism
Sufism developed within the cultural matrix of Islam. Sufism is the way of purifying the
heart from bad manners and characteristics. Sufism is considered as mystical Islamic belief
and practice in which Muslims seek to find the truth of divine love and knowledge through
direct personal experience of God. It consists of a variety of mystical paths that are designed to
ascertain the nature of humanity and of God and to facilitate the experience of the presence of
divine love and wisdom in the world. By educating the masses and deepening the spiritual
concerns of the Muslims, Sufism has played an important role in the formation of Muslim
society.
162

People often mistake Sufism as a sect of Islam. Sufism is more accurately described
as an aspect or dimension of Islam. Sufi orders (Tariqas) can be found in Sunni, Shia and other
Islamic groups. The Islamic Sufi movement was based on an approach similar to that of the
bhakti movements and also gained many converts in India. A manifestation of these devotional
cults was the growth of a new form of mystic-devotional poetry composed by wandering
mendicants who had dedicated their lives to the realization of God. One of the biggest
contributors to the musical Sufi tradition was Amir Khusro.

Sufi thought, syncretic values, literature, education, and entertainment had created an
enduring impact on the presence of Islam in India today. Particularly in rural areas, Sufis helped
Islam spread generously into prior polytheistic populations. Between the late 12th century and
13th century, Sufi brotherhoods became firmly consolidated in northern India. The Sufi group
was a more inclusive group that was often more tolerant of non-Muslim traditions. Although the
commitment to practice sharia remains a Sufi foundation, early Sufis in India focused on
proselytizing through service work and helping the poor. One reason why Islam became more
favourable in India was due to the establishment of khanqah. A khanqah is commonly defined
as a hospice, lodge, community centre, or dormitory run by Sufis.

The Chishti Order of Sufis, which is now

indigenous to India, was the first of the four main Sufi
Orders, namely Chishtia, Qadiria, Suhurawadia and
Naqshbandia, to be established in India. Khwaja
Muinuddin Chishti introduced the Chishti Order in India.
He selected Ajmer as his permanent abode since 1195.
His shrine became a place of pilgrimage largely with the
support of Muslim rulers. Radiating from Delhi under
Nizamuddin Aulia and following the trail of Mohammad Ajmer Durga
ibn Tughlaq towards the south, the Chistia spread its roots all across India.

Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (1318-1389) of Turkistan founded Naqshbandi order of Sufism.

Insistence on rigid adherence to Shariat and nurturing love for prophet was the essence of this
order that established its hold in India under the patronage of Moghul rulers. Khwaja Mohhammad
Baqi Billah Berang whose tomb is in Delhi introduced Naqshbandi order in India. Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi (1564-1624), a favourite disciple of Baqi Billah popularised this order later.
 163

Suharawardy order of Sufism was founded by Shihabud-Din Suharawardy of Baghdad

and introduced in India by his disciple Baha-ud-Din Zakariya of Multan. Suharawardiyya order
of Sufism became popular in Bengal. Qadiri order was founded by Abdul Qadir whose tomb is
at Baghdad. Its influence is found extensively among the Muslims of south India.

Some of the famous Muslim thinkers like Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Shah Wali Ullah,
Sayied Ahmad Barelavi, Karamat Ali, Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan, Allama Iqbal and Maulana Maududi
used the mystic philosophy befitting to the political exigencies of the time for revival of political
supremacy of Islam. Some of the Sufis like Sirhindi and Wali Ullah politicised the mystic ideology
for political domination of Islam. They were projected as Islamic reformists for purifying Islam
from any extraneous influences.

The Sufi saints actually Indianized Islam as they lived and preached in India. Sufism
became a vehicle of spiritual and cultural upliftment of people.

9.8 Islamic Movements in India

There were a number of religious-revivalist and even religious-reform movements
launched by the Muslim reformers. Some of the notable ones are:

9.8.1. Wahabi Movement

Wahabi movement in India was founded by Syed Ahmed Barelvi during 1830s. The
movement aimed at removing all the un-Islamic practices that had crept into the religion under
various influences. In other words, Wahabi movement aimed at revitalizing the true spirit of
Islam.

9.8.2. Ahl-i-Hadith

The death of Syed Ahmad Barelvi, the founder of the Wahabi movement in India, divided
his followers into two groups. The more devoted and radical considered him to be the imam-i-
mahdi and expected that he would return to lead them once again. His moderate followers, led
by Saiyid Nazir, who did not regard him as mahdi and his concept of jihad, founded the Ahl-i-
Hadith, a branch of Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah. The leaders of the Ahl-i-Hadith rejected Sufism
and condemned polytheism. The movement advocated widow remarriage as Islamic and
attacked the institution of dowry as a non-Muslim innovation.
164

9.8.3. Aligarh Movement

This movement was launched by Syed Ahmad Khan. He liberalized Indian Islam and
took upon himself the triple task of religious reinterpretation, social reform and education. He
came to the conclusion that only by taking to Western education would the Muslims be able to
rise above their backwardness and come to an understanding with their rulers. He made the
town of Aligarh, a predominantly Muslim area, the centre of his activities. The range of his
activities is known as the Aligarh movement. With the full backing of the bureaucracy he founded
the Aligarh School on May 24, 1875. This school was upgraded in 1877 to a college and named
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, the forerunner of the Aligarh Muslim University. One of
the objects of the Aligarh movement was to prevent the Muslims from joining the Congress
which Sir Syed condemned as anti-British and anti-Government.

http://aligarhmovement.com/sir_syed

9.8.4. Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam

It was founded in Lahore in 1866 by Muhammad Shafi and Shah Din, both followers of
Sayyid Ahmad Khan, the founder of the Aligarh movement. This Islamic society opened schools
imparting Western education, emphasized female education, loyalty to the British Government
and opposed the Indian National Congress.

9.8.5. Ahmadiya Movement

This movement was started by Mirza Gulam Ahmed in 1889 in order to spread western
education among Indian Muslims. The Ahmadiyas opposed jihad or sacred war against non-
Muslims and stressed fraternal relations among all people. The movement was based on the
principles of a universal religion of all humanity just like Brahma Samaj.

9.8.6. The Deoband Movement

This movement was started against the liberal movement by the orthodox Muslim Ulema
to teach the real essence of Islam on the basis of Quran and Hadis, and also to preach the
concept of Jihad against the foreign rule. The Islamic Seminary at Deoband was founded in
1867 by two theologians, Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi (1837-80) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi.
The followers of this school were concerned with the problems of education and character. The
questions of “society and State” were as important for them as those of “belief and practices of
the individual”.
 165

As a result of these reform movements, the Muslim urban society started taking to
modern ways. The modern awakening among the Muslims led to a decline in the practice of
polygamy, and widow remarriage was encouraged. The great political upheavals of this period
thus helped in bringing about a renaissance of Indian Islam and a reorientation of Muslim
society.

9.9 Islam in India today

The impact of Islam on India was tremendous. Islam gave the
message of universal brotherhood, introduced equality
in society, rejected caste system and untouchability.
Indians were influenced by the Mohammedan dress,
etiquette, recreation and other activities. The art of
warfare was also influenced and developed as result of
Islamic contact. Food of Muslims like Biryani, Kabab and
Palan etc. were adopted by the Indians. Indian music and musical
instruments were also influenced by Islam. Indian musical instruments were
modified and new instruments were produced. The Tabla is modified version of Mridangam.
Indian Veena combined with Iranian Tambura became Sitar.

A fusion of Hindu and Iranian systems of music led to the evolution of light songs like
qawwalis. Different classical vocal music of India underwent radical changes as a result of the
contact with Muslim singers.

Assimilation and synthesis between Hindu and Islamic culture led to evolution of new
styles of architecture. According to Dr. Tarachand, “The craftsmanship, ornamental richness
and general design remained largely Hindu, the arcaded form, plain domes, smooth-faced
walls and spacious interiors were Muslim impositions. The Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Qutab Minar,
Taj Mahal etc. are the examples. New art and crafts were introduced in the country; for example,
paper-making, enamellings, metals and jewels etc. Many workshops were setup-for gold and
silver articles and embroidery.

Hindu-Muslim contact led to linguistic synthesis. Urdu is the outcome of a mixture of

Persian, Arabic and Turkish words and of ideas with the concepts and languages of Sanskrit
origin. Many Arabized Persian language words found their way into the local languages. In
short Islam contributed to the evolution of common cultural heritage in India.
166

India’s Muslim communities tend to be more urban than rural. In many towns and cities
in northern India, Muslims are one-third or more of the population. The largest concentrations
of Muslims live in the states of Bihar, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh.

Today in India Islam is the second largest religion. Its followers comprise 14.2% of the
country’s population. Islam has become woven into the very fabric of Indian civilization and
culture. Muslims have played a notable role in economics, politics and culture of India. Muslims
remain as a distinct unit being conscious of their own identity.

To get to know in detail about Sufism in India read the book:

https://www.pdfdrive.com/indian-sufism-since-the-seventeenth-century-dervishes-
devotees-and-emperors-routledge-sufi-e186143539.html

To know about impact of Islam on Indian culture read the e-book:

http://indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/influence-islam-indian-culture-0

To know more about the Islamic movements in India read the article:

https://prepp.in/news/e-492-muslim-socio-religious-reform-movements-modern-india-
history-notesnotes

Check Your Progress- III

Say True or False:

1. Sufism is considered as mystical Islamic belief.

2. One of the biggest contributors to the musical Sufi tradition was Amir Khusro.

3. The Sufi group was an exclusive group that was not tolerant of non-Muslim traditions.

4. The Chishti Order of Sufis was the first to be established in India.

5. A Darga is commonly defined as a hospice, lodge, community centre, or dormitory run

by Sufis.

6. Wahabi movement in India was founded by Syed Ahmed Barelvi.

7. Syed Ahmad Khan founded the Aligarh School.

 167

8. Classical vocal music of India did not undergo radical changes as a result of the contact
with Muslim singers.

9. Hindu-Muslim contact led to linguistic synthesis.

10. Today in India Islam has declined.

9.10. Summary
We learnt in this lesson about how Islam arrived and developed in India especially in
the north and south, the different sects of Islam in India, how Sufism played a crucial role in the
spread of Islam and how different Islamic movements emerged in India. We also learnt about
the impact of Islam on India and how Islam had taken roots in to become the second largest
religion in India. Though the status of Muslims had not improved in Independent India, yet their
impact is strongly felt in its culture and traditions. They are existing at peace with other religious
communities in India with a strong patriotism and religious identity. Their long relationship with
Indian traditions has also influenced their practices. We find an amalgamation of Indian and
Islamic culture and traditions as an accepted practices in India.

9.11 Key Words

Abrahamic : Monotheistic belief of Prophet Abraham

Al Quran : The Holy Scripture revealed to Prophet Muhammad

Jibril : Angel Gabriel

Mecca & Medina : Holy places of Muslim in Arabia

Coastal : Seaside

Mosque : A place of prayer

Muhammad bin Qasim : The first Muslim to conquer Sind

Mughals : Muslim rulers

Sunni & Shia : Islamic Sects

Sufism : A dimension of Islam

168

Wahabi, Ahl-i-hadith,

Ahmadiya, Deoband

Aligarh,

Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam : Islamic Movements

9.12 Activities
• Visit Islamic Architectural Structures in India

• Interact with Muslims in the neighbourhood

9.13 Check your answers

Answers to Check Your Progress I

1. Arabia. 2. Al Quran. 3. Cheraman Perumal. 4. Sind. 5. Babur

Answers to Check Your Progress II

1. True. 2. False. 3. True. 4. True. 5. True

Answers to Check Your Progress III

1. True. 2. True. 3. False. 4. True. 5. False. 6. True. 7. True.

8. False. 9. True. 10. False

9.14 Model Questions

1. Explain the arrival of Islam in north India.

2. Explain the arrival of Islam in south India.

3. How did Islam spread in India?

4. What are the internal sects in Islam?

5. What were the various Islamic movements in India and what were their objectives?

6. What was the effect of Islamic influence in India?

 169

9.15 Select Bibliography

• Hodgson, M. ‘The Venture of Islam’, University of Chicago Press, 1961.

• Kennedy, Hugh, ‘The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the
World We Live In’, Philadelphia: Da Capo Press, 2007.

• Noorani, A.G. The Muslims of India, A Documentary Record. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 2003.

• Mujeeb, M. The Indian Muslims. London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1967.
170

LESSON – 10
ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES
10.1. Introduction
Islam made a significant difference in the practice of Monotheism in the world history. It
totally relied on the belief system that there is no God except Allah, Who is worthy of worship.
It clearly made known what are His attributes and how a human should worship Him and attain
His pleasure by disciplining his life as guided by Him. It made clear the purpose of life and
showed what is the right path. Life is a journey to be utilized as an investment to achieve the
highest position in the Hereafter.

10.2. Objectives
After learning this lesson, you will know:

• Basics of Islamic faith

• Islamic Rituals

• Islamic Teachings

Plan of Study

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Objectives

10.3 Islamic Faith

10.4 Sources of Faith

10.5 Foundations of Faith

10.6 Articles of Faith

10.7 Divine Justice

10.8 Lawful and the Unlawful

10.9 Shariah
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10.10 Summary

10.11 Key Words

10.12 Check your Answers

10.13 Model Questions

10.14 Select Bibliography

10.3 Islamic Faith

Islam is a monotheistic religion. Faith is a belief system. Islamic faith is based on the
concept of ‘Tawhid’ which means the unity of the Creator. The Creator has identified Himself as
‘Allah’. He is the only one without any equals or partners. He is Eternal without a beginning,
Everlasting without an end. He is perfect in all aspects. No imagination can conceive of Him
and no understanding can fathom Him. Nothing is impossible for Him. He is the Creator,
Sustainer, and Destroyer. He is also the reviver of the life after death in the hereafter and the
Lord of the day of judgment. He is the Almighty and Most powerful. There is no will for His
servants except what He wills for them. He has commanded them to obey Him. He gives
guidance to whomever He wills, protects them and keeps them safe from harm as an act of
grace. Muslims who submit to the will of Allah strive to win His pleasure. There is no need for
any form of intercessor or intermediary between man and God. Allah emphasized the importance
of directing worship to Him alone by pointing out that this was the main purpose of man’s
creation and the essence of the message brought by all the Prophets. Allah is above and
beyond His creation. His Being is totally distinct and separate from His creation.

10.4 Sources of Faith

10.4.1. The Quran

The primary source for Islamic faith is the Al Quran. It is a

progressive revelation from the Creator which was sent to His
messenger Prophet Muhammad through angel Gabriel over a period
of twenty three years. It is considered to be the word of God. It was
sent in Arabic which was the language of people of Arabia to make the
people understand the contents with ease.
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Quran gives the guidance for human race. It confirms the revelations sent to earlier
prophets. It touches upon all aspects of human existence. It contains 6236 verses known as
‘Ayaat’ which are divided into 114 chapters known as ‘Surahs’ and was arranged by the Prophet
in the sequence we find it today. It has remained unchanged over the past 1400 years is an
established fact as The Creator Himself has taken the responsibility to guard it as stated by
him in His Holy book.

The chapters are classified as Meccan or Medinan based on where it was revealed.
Meccan chapters deal with spiritual life and the Medinan chapters deal with social life. The
contents of the Holy Quran can be broadly categorized under the following headings: Spiritual
world, Commandments and legislation, Historical accounts, Wisdom and Prophecies.

10.4.2 The prophetic Traditions

Prophet Muhammad was the chosen last messenger of Allah. It was he who received
the message and conveyed it to the people. He was not only an interpreter of the Quran but
was also a walking Quran as he set the example for people by his practices. Hence his sayings
and actions collected by his companions and their successors are the secondary sources for
Islam. They are referred to as Hadith or Sunnah.

The main difference between the two sources – The Quran and hadith is that the former
consists of God’s own words from the beginning to the end, whereas the latter includes the
words and actions of the Prophet who, though a human being, was totally inspired and guided
by Allah in all his deeds. And care was taken to preserve his traditions from all error. Hence the
Sunnah is also considered as a binding authority for all Muslims.

“Whatever the Messenger gives you, take it, and whatever he forbids you, refrain from
it” (Al Quran 59:7). This verse is an evidence to prove that the authority was given to Prophet
Muhammed by divine will. That is why obedience to the Messenger is mentioned together with
obedience to Allah: “Say, ‘Obey Allah and the Messenger but if they turn their backs Allah loves
not the disbelievers’ “ (Al Quran 3:32).

The Sunnah of the Prophet not only expounds the Quranic verses, but also has
established certain new rules and regulations where contextual decisions had to be taken.
Since Qur’anic verses can be applied to a limited number of instances, the Sunnah has emerged
as the second fundamental source which addresses a wide range of issues, from religious
rituals and social life to criminal law and financial transactions in Islam.
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10.5 Foundations of Faith

The religion of Islam stands on five pillars. It is recorded that the Prophet Muhammad
(peace be upon) said: “Islam has been built on five (pillars): testifying that there is no deity
worthy of worship except Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah (shahadah),
establishing the prayer (salah), paying the obligatory charity (zakat), making the pilgrimage
(hajj) to the House of Allah, and fasting (sawm) in Ramadan.” These are the five key practices
that all Muslims are obligated to fulfil throughout their lifetime. The five pillars of Islam define
the basic identity of Muslims - their faith, beliefs and practices - and bind together a worldwide
community of believers into a fellowship of shared values and concerns.

10.5.1 The Profession of Faith (the shahadah)

The most fundamental expression of Islam (La ilaha illallah Muhammadur Rasulullah)
states that “There is no God but Allah and Prophet Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.” This
is the Shahadah, the statement of witness. It is the term given to making a declaration of faith
and indicating the dedication to the belief that there is only one God, who is the Creator,
Sustainer, and Destroyer. It is an important act signalling submission to Islam and announcing
the intention to be a true follower of Islam. It is an affirmation and commitment to the Islamic
faith.

10.5.2 Prayer

The second tenet is prayer. According to the Islamic faith, prayer provides a direct
connection between Allah and individuals. For the Almighty, it is one of the most beloved forms
of worship. When a believer offers Salah, it is an invocation for Allah’s blessings, His forgiveness
and His mercy in this world and the Hereafter.

Muslims are required to pray five times each day. The prayers occur at dawn, high
noon, in the middle of the afternoon, sunset, and again during the night. The call to prayer is
sounded by the muezzin (Muslim prayer caller) from a tower (minaret) or from within the mosque.
These ritual prayers must be performed in the direction of Makkah which is in Saudi Arabia.
Depending on where a Muslim lives in relation to Makkah, they could be praying in any direction:
whichever is the most direct to the holy city. Prayers involve first standing, inclining, prostrating
oneself, and sitting. The prayers are chanted in the classical Arabic of the Qur’an. Though it is
recommended to pray in a group in a mosque, a Muslim can pray individually also.
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Salah is an integral part of the lifestyle of a Muslim. Through prayer, Muslims are required
each day to ponder on the verses of the Qur’an, the Shahadah (the declaration of faith), and
Allah’s attributes.

In pictures: Muslim prayer movements

10.5.3. Obligatory Charity

Zakat is the third pillar of Islam and is a form of worship that involves wealth. While
charity is greatly encouraged to be a part of everyday Muslim life, it is obligatory to offer Zakat
once a year, ensuring that wealth is continuously redistributed to those who are in need of it. In
its lexical definition Zakat means “purity” and “growth”. It causes human and social virtues to
grow, leading to sound social relations, peace and stability.

It is obligatory upon Muslims to pay a portion of one’s earnings once in a lunar calendar
year to the poor and the needy when their earnings reach a prescribed amount (called “Nisab”)
above their needs. Only 2.5% of the wealth has to be donated to the eight categories of eligible
recipients described in the Holy Quran. The zakat for income from irrigated land is 5% and for
income from unirrigated land is 10%. “Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the
needy and for those employed to collect zakat and for bringing hearts together (for Islam) and
for freeing captives (or slaves) and for those in debt and the cause of Allah and the (stranded)
traveller – an obligation (imposed) by Allah. And Allah is Knowing and Wise.” (Al Quran 9:60)
 175

Zakat is a manifestation of the faith that affirms that Allah is the sole owner of everything
in the universe, and humans are trustees who had to discharge it as He has wanted them to. In
a way zakat strengthens the individual’s sense of relation to the community and social
responsibility. It also nurtures the community’s awareness of the value of the individual.

10.5.4. Fasting

Fasting in the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the lunar-based Islamic calendar,
is one of the five pillars of Islam. All Muslims are required to take part every year, though there
are special dispensations for those who are ill, pregnant or nursing, menstruating, or traveling,
and for young children and the elderly.

The practice of fasting serves several spiritual and social purposes. It reminds one of
human frailty and dependence on God for sustenance. Fasting in the Islamic tradition is the
best way to show a true and sincere thanksgiving. It makes one realize pangs of hunger and
thirst. Hence one develops compassion for the poor and needy. It also enables to identify and
reduce the distractions in life to clearly focus on one’s relationship with Allah.

During the holy month of Ramadan all Muslims are required to abstain from food, drink
and sexual relations from dawn to dusk for 29 or 30 days. Because Ramadan shifts approximately
11 days earlier each year on the solar-based Gregorian calendar, Muslims experience Ramadan
in different seasons throughout the course of their lives. It is recommended that before sunrise,
Muslims eat a pre-fast meal known as suhur. After sunset, Muslims break their fast with iftar, a
meal which usually starts with dates and water or milk, followed by dinner.

Many practicing Muslims also perform additional prayers, especially at night, and recite
the Qur’an. Muslims believe that it was in the final 10 nights of Ramadan that the Qur’an was
first revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. They seek Allah’s mercy and forgiveness in those
nights.

10.5.5. Pilgrimage

Hajj, is the pilgrimage to the holy city of Makkah in Saudi Arabia, which every adult
Muslim must make at least once in his or her lifetime. The hajj is the fifth of the fundamental
Muslim practices of Islam. Once a believer has completed the pilgrimage, he or she may add
the title Haji (for a male) or Hajjiah (for a female) to his or her name. The pilgrimage, if
performed properly, is believed to wipe out previous sins for the sincere believer.
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The pilgrimage rite begins on the 7th day of Dhul-$ijjah (the last month of the Islamic
year) and ends on the 12th day. The hajj is incumbent on all Muslims who are physically and
financially able to make the pilgrimage, but only if their absence will not place hardships on
their family. A person may perform the hajj by proxy, appointing a relative or friend going on the
pilgrimage to “stand in” for him or her. As the Muslim calendar is lunar, the Hajj takes place
progressively across all four seasons over time.

Mecca, Saudi Arabia: Kaaba

The pattern of pilgrimage rites was established by the Prophet Muhammad. The sacred
pilgrimage of Hajj comprises of a series of rites and rituals and some of which has to be
performed in a specific sequence. Much of the pilgrimage takes place at the Masjid al-Haram,
where the Kaaba is located.

The Hajj pilgrimage is a test of patience and temperament, and can be spiritually,
emotionally, and physically challenging. However, it provides an experience and opportunity to
get closer to Allah. Peace, serenity and piety pervade the entire pilgrimage and the pilgrims.

To know the benefits of these practices by a Muslim read:

https://d1.islamhouse.com/data/en/ih_articles/single2/en_The_Five_Pillars_of_Islam.pdf
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Check Your Progress - I

Say True or False

1. Islam is a Monotheistic religion.

2. The pattern of pilgrimage rites was established by the Prophet Muhammad.

3. Fasting in the month of Ramadan is not obligatory.

4. Salah provides a direct connection between Allah and individuals.

5. Islam has been built on five pillars.

10.6 Articles of Faith

Faith known as Imaan in Arabic is a crucial part of a Muslim’s life. These are derived
from the Holy Quran and Sunnah of the prophet Muhammad. There are six articles of faith.

The Quranic verse states: “O you who believe! Keep faith in Allah and His Messenger
and the Book which He revealed to His Messenger, and the Book which He revealed before.
Whoso disbelieves in Allah, His angels, His Books, and His Messengers and the Last Day, he
verily has wandered far astray.” (Al Quran 4:136)And,

The Hadith refers: “…What is Belief? The Prophet said, “Belief is to believe in Allah, His
Angels, His Books, His Apostles, and the meeting with Him, and to believe in the Resurrection.”

These basic beliefs shape the Islamic way of life. These are tenets to be believed
without any doubt in order to be considered a Muslim.

10.6.1. Belief in Allah

The doctrine of God is the foundation of the religion of Islam and is central to the
teachings of the Holy Qur’an. The word Allah used in Islam is the personal name of God and
literally means The One. Islam advocates belief in the absolute Unity of God in its entire purity
as its very foundation.

God is One. He is the sole Creator of the Universe, the Maker of the Heaven and Earth.
Oneness of God means that He is the God of all creations. He is the God of all people: past,
present and future. He is the God of people of all races and colors, and of believers and
unbelievers alike.
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God is the Supreme Being who exists independently of everything else. God has no
father or mother and no son or daughter; He has never fathered anyone nor was He fathered.
God has no equal. He does not need any support. Everything depends on Him. Allah is eternal
and infinite. According to Islam, no event occurs in this Universe without God’s knowledge and
implicit consent.

Islam stresses the need to have firm belief in various attributes of Allah, the Creator
and the Controller of the Universe. He is the Lord of all the worlds. He is the Gracious, the
Merciful. He is the Master of the Day of judgement. (Al Quran1: 1-4)

For human beings, He is a very personal God. He is there whenever they need Him, in
distress or prosperity. He listens to their supplications and prayers. He provides for all their
needs. He overlooks their shortcomings and forgives their excesses. He deals with His creation
with mercy, love and compassion. All His attributes are Ever Lasting.

10.6.2. Belief in Angels

Angels are a form of spiritual beings created by Allah from light to perform various
assigned duties before the human beings were created. They are countless. Angels have no
free will, they only obey Allah. Angels are frequently referred to as malak in the Holy Quran.

Angels do not possess any fixed material form. Angels do not sleep, eat or suffer from
illnesses. They cannot be seen with our physical eyes due to our limited faculties. The names
of some important Angels of Allah are: Jibra’eel (controls the communication of divine revelation
to the Prophets), Mika’eel (controls the provision and maintenance of life), Israfeel (responsible
for announcing the day of Judgement). According to Islam, the operation and maintenance of
the whole Universe, including our world, is maintained and controlled by Allah through His
Angels.

10.6.3. Belief in Books

The Message of guidance from Allah conveyed to mankind, through His prophets, from
time to time, is called the ‘Books of Allah’. Belief in the Books of Allah is the third article of faith.
Not only do the Muslims believe in the Holy Qur’an, but also in the ‘Books of Allah’ given to
other Prophets. The Qur’an makes reference to five revealed Books including the Holy Qur’an
itself - Suhuf (Scrolls) to prophet Abraham, Taurat (Torah) to prophet Moses, Zaboor (Psalms)
to prophet David, Injeel (Gospel) to prophet Jesus (Isa) and the Quran to prophet Muhammad.
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Allah has guaranteed the protection of the Quran from any distortion or corruption and clearly
mentioned that in the Holy Quran.

Muslims believe in all of the books revealed to the messengers. Allah has stated in the
Quran, “And to you We have revealed the Scripture in truth, confirming whatever Scripture that
came before it, and a watcher and judge over it” (Al Quran 5:48). Hence Muslims follow only
the Quran, as it is the final revelation, and aim to implement the rulings into their daily lives.

10.6.4. Belief in Messengers

Islam considers itself as part of the long religious continuum, formed by many prophets,
from Adam to Muhammad. A messenger is any human who was chosen by Allah to receive
revelation from Him and who was commanded to convey that revelation to the people. Every
nation was blessed with a messenger and these messengers came with the same fundamental
teaching: “And verily, We have sent among every nation a Messenger proclaiming, ‘Worship
Allah (alone) and avoid all false deities’” (Al Quran 16:36).

Messengers did not have any divine status. They had no knowledge of the unseen
except what Allah revealed to them. Allah’s messengers were truthful, virtuous, trustworthy
and rightly-guided servants who strove hard to guide their people to the right path and conveyed
Allah’s message to them in full, without concealing, omitting or adding anything to it.

Muslims believe that following the message of the messengers will bring about happiness
for the believers in both this life and in the life to come.

10.6.5. Belief in the Last Day

The Quran states, “Truly pious are those who believe in Allah and the Last Day.” (Al
Quran 2:177) Belief in the Last Day means having firm belief that Almighty Allah will raise
people to life from their graves and He will then judge them according to their deeds.

Belief in the Last Day prompts people to lead a pious life, do righteous deeds, fear Allah
and stay away from selfishness and arrogance. It reminds Muslims the transitory nature of the
worldly pleasures. It urges them to do as many good deeds as possible when they are alive. It
makes them understand that the worldly life is fleeting and that the hereafter is the everlasting
abode.
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10.6.6. Belief in the Divine Decree

Divine decree is referred to as ‘Qadar’ in Arabic terms. It can be explained as the belief
that everything is governed by Allah’s will. Whatever happens in one’s life is preordained.
Believers should accept good or bad that befalls them with thankfulness or patience. It does
not negate the concept of “free will”. Humans do not have prior knowledge of Allah’s decree
and they do have freedom to choose what they want in the worldly life.

Allah has recorded everything that will occur until the Day of Judgment in the Preserved
Tablet (al-Lauh al-Mahfuz in Arabic). The life spans of all human beings are written and the
amount of their sustenance apportioned. Everything that is created or occurs in the universe is
according to what is recorded there. If something reaches a Muslim, he believes it could never
have escaped him. If something misses him, he realizes it was never meant to be.

To gain further knowledge watch the video series on Six articles of faith by Abdur Raheem
Green:

https://www.islamreligion.com/videos/10874/six-articles-of-faith-part-1/

10.7 Divine Justice

Islamic monotheism rests on the principle of divine justice. God is just, and He never
wrongs. An injustice is an immoral action and Allah is incapable of evil. He does not have a
reason to be unjust to His creations. He is omniscient and never misses any matter. He is self
sufficient and does not need the help of His creations. He is the possessor of everything. His
wisdom transcends the universe. Quran states: “He is always standing firm on justice. There is
no Allah but Him, the Mighty, the Wise” (Al Quran 3:18).

Allah’s justice embraces the entire universe. The order therein is an evidence for His
justice over the whole of creation. Divine Justice is the backbone of the whole act of creation.
The balance and the due proportion evident in the heavens and the earth are a manifestation
of Allah’s Justice. Goodness (Which Justice Stems From) is part and parcel of Allah’s own
essence. Whatever Allah creates is the expression of Allah’s own essence of absolute Goodness.

In His treatment of humankind, Allah Makes justice obligatory upon Himself and therefore
always acts within goodness and justice. This means that he never wrongs his creation. Allah
is the ultimate judge of deeds on the day of judgment. On that day, Allah will establish justice
and will not punish people with more than what they deserve.
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Allah’s does not test people beyond their capacity in this world for it would be unfair and unjust
to do otherwise. He tests with what they could potentially bear. It is the consequence of Divine
Justice that man has free will because, without free will, man cannot be made accountable
either for reward or punishment of his deeds.

To know more about Divine Justice in Islam read:

https://azizahal-hibri.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Divine-Justice-and-the-Human-
Order.pdf

Check Your Progress II

Fill in the blanks

1. The primary source for Islamic religion is _________________.

2. Divine decree is referred to as __________ in Arabic terms.

3. Angels are created from _______________.

4. Allah’s justice embraces ______________________.

5. A messenger is a person chosen by ______________.

10.8 Lawful and the Unlawful

The lawful (al-halal) is that which is permitted. There is no restriction and the doing of
which the Law-Giver has allowed. The unlawful (al-haram) is that which the Law-Giver has
totally prohibited. Anyone who indulges in it will incur Allah’s punishment in the hereafter. He
will also face the consequences in this world. The detested (al-makruh) actions are those that
are disapproved by Allah. But are lesser in degree than al-haram.

The general rule is that everything is lawful except what has been declared to be unlawful.
The prophet has said: “Allah has prescribed certain obligations for you, so do not neglect them;
He has defined certain limits, so do not transgress them; He has prohibited certain things, so
do not do them; and He has kept silent concerning other things out of mercy for you and not
because of forgetfulness, so do not ask questions concerning them.” Muslims believe that
sovereignty to ordain what is halal and haram is in the hands of Allah.
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The Prophet was given the privilege to enact laws subject to Allah’s laws, and in this
sense, he did exercise the right of legislation under divine supervision and approval. “He (the
Prophet) does not speak from his own desire. It is but a divine inspiration” (Al Quran 53:3-4).
There are issues not addressed directly in the Qur’an. Prophetic rulings forbidding men to
wear silk or adorn themselves with gold, for example is not to be found in the Qur’an. There is
no choice for Muslims in matters which Allah and His messenger have decreed. Humans cannot
transgress the limits set by Allah by Prohibiting what is lawful and making unlawful permissible.

Allah’s injunction prohibiting something is because of its impurity and harmfulness.

Allah by His infinite wisdom knows what is ultimately good for humans and what is not. If
something is totally harmful, it is haram, and if it is entirely beneficial, it is halal. If the haram of
it outweighs its benefits, then it becomes haram, while if its benefit outweighs its harm, it
becomes halal.

Whatever leads to harmfulness is also haram. The sin of the haram is not limited to the
perpetrator of the sin, but extends to all those who have contributed to or have been a party to
that sinful act. Each one is held accountable according to his share. Good intentions do not
make the haram acceptable. The intention, the means employed, and the end should all be
honourable. The Prophet said, “Allah is pure and accepts nothing but what is pure.”

Allah has made it explicitly clear what is halal and what is haram. However, there are
matters which may doubtful. Some people may not be able to decide whether a particular
matter is permissible or forbidden. Muslims avoid doing what is doubtful in order to stay clear
of doing something haram. ‘Necessity dictates exception’ is one of the legal maxims formulated
Muslim jurists. Islam takes cognizance of the demands of life and to human weakness and
capacity to face them. After listing the prohibited foods in the form of dead animals, blood, and
pork, Allah says, “But if one is compelled by necessity, neither craving (it) nor transgressing,
there is no sin on him; indeed, Allah is Forgiving, Merciful” (Al Quran 2:173).

10.9 Shariah
Shariah is the legal practice derived from the teachings of the Quran, Islam’s holy
book, and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, or Sunnah. It serves as an ordained code
for fair, moral and righteous living for Muslims and provides guidance on a variety of aspects of
life.
 183

The primary objective of Shariah is the good of mankind. The Islamic Shariah removes
from human beings harmful, burdensome customs and superstitions, aiming to simplify and
ease the business of day-today living. Its principles are designed to protect man from evil and
to benefit him in all aspects of his life. And they are designed to benefit everyone in the community
-the rich and the poor, the rulers and the ruled, the men and the women -as well as to benefit
the whole of humanity throughout the earth in various countries and climes, with its multitude
of groupings, and in every period of time throughout succeeding generations.

Shariah is a combination of a comprehensive code of moral norms and ethical conduct

as well as a body of divinely ordained religious law. In following the Shariah Muslims are not
merely obeying the Sacred Law. They are, at the same time, fulfilling ethical values.

Check Your Progress III

1. What religious category is Islam?

2. Is Al Quran a progressive revelation?

3. What is referred as Sunnah?

4. Angels are created from what?

5. Who protects the Holy Quran?

6. Did the Messengers have a divine status in Islam?

7. How the Divine decree is referred to in Arabic terms?

8. Who is the ultimate judge of deeds on the day of judgment?

9. What has been made explicitly clear by Allah?

10. What is the primary objective of Shariah?

10.10 Summary
We learnt in this lesson about the Islamic faith, Sources of Islamic faith, Foundations of
Islamic faith, Articles of Islamic faith, Divine justice in Islam, Lawful and the unlawful in Islam
and about Shariah.
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10.11 Key Words

Monotheistic : Relating to the belief that there is only one God

Tawhid : Unity of the Creator.

Hadith : Prophetic Tradition

Shahadah : Profession of faith

Zakat : Obligatory charity

Kaabah : House of Allah

Salah : Prayer

Malak : Angel

Last day : Judgment day

Qadar : Predestination

Halal : Lawful

Haram : Unlawful

Shariah : Religious guidelines

10.12 Check your Answers

Answers to Check Your Progress I

1. True

2. True

3. False

4. True

5. True
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Answers to Check Your Progress II

1. The Holy Qur’an

2. Wahy

3. Light

4. Entire universe

5. Allah

Answers to Check Your Progress III

1. Monotheistic Religion

2. Yes

3. Collection of Prophet Muhammad’s sayings and actions.

4. Light

5. Allah

6. No

7. Qadar

8. Allah

9. Halal and haram

10. Good of mankind

10.13 Model Questions

1. Explain the concept of God in Islam

2. Describe the Five Pillars of Islam

3. Write a brief note on the Articles of Faith in Islam

186

4. How Muslims understand Divine Justice?

5. Explain Halal and Haram

6. Why Shariah is important for Muslims?

7. What are sources of Islam?

8. What are the religious foundations of Islam?

9. What are the Articles of faith in Islam?

10. What is Shariah?

10.14 Select Bibliography

• Ghulam Sarwar ‘Islam: Beliefs and Teachings’, The Muslim Educational Trust, 1998.

• Yusuf al-Qaradawi, ‘The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam’, Indianapolis, IN, USA:
American Trust Publications. 1999.

• Arif Abdul Hussain, ‘God-Centricity: Examining the Articles of Faith’, Sajjadiyya Press,
2020.

• Musharraf Hussain, ‘The Five Pillars of Islam: Laying the Foundations of Divine Love
and Service to Humanity’, Kube Publishing Ltd., 2012
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MODEL QUESTION PAPER

M.A. CHRISTIAN STUDIES

FIRST-YEAR – FIRST SEMESTER

Elective Paper - I

RELIGIONS IN INDIA
TIME: 3 hours Maximum: 80 Marks

SECTION A
Answer ANY TEN of the following
Answer in fifty words each, all questions carry equal marks: (10 X 2 = 20 marks)

1. Define religion.

2. Define Yoga

3. What does it mean Darshanas?

4. What is Tantrism?

5. What are the Four Noble truths in Buddhism?

6. What are the internal sects in Islam?

7. Who was the first Muslim to conquer Sind?

8. What are the internal sects in Islam?

9. What is hukam in Sikhism?

10. What is RatnaTraya in Jainism?

11. What is Dukkhain Buddhism?

12. Name the four Vedas

13. Who did analyze religion as the sacred and profane?

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SECTION B – (5 x 6= 30 marks)
Answer ANY FIVE of the following questions in 250 words each

14. Explain the role and function of rituals in religion.

15. Discuss the important of religious experience?

16. Describe the different approaches of phenomenology of religion

17. Explain the difference between Saivism and Vaishnavism

18. Narrate the importance of Ahimsa in Jainism.

19. Explain the influence of Sufism on Sikh religion.

20.Write an essay on any two major approaches of anthropology of religion

SECTION C – (3 x 10= 30 marks)

Answer ANY THREE of the following questions in 500 words each

21. Describe the relationship between philosophy and religion?

22. Explain in an essay the six systems of Indian Philosophy.

23. Write an essay on the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism.

24. How did the Gurus develop Sikhism? Write any five contributions of Sikh gurus in
Sikhism.

25. Write an essay on the various Islamic movements and their objectives in detail?