Calculus 1 - Math4You session 2 solutions

October 18, 2024

Exercise 1. Let E ⊆ R. In the lecture of October 11, we saw that s := sup E satisfies the following
property:
For every b < s, there exists a ∈ E such that b ≤ a ≤ s. (1)
Show that this is equivalent to the following statement (also given in the lecture):

For every ε > 0, there exists a ∈ E such that s − ε ≤ a ≤ s. (2)

In other words, show that statement (1) implies statement (2) and that statement (2) implies (1).

Now write down analogous statements for i := inf E.

Solution. Suppose statement (1) is true, and that we want to prove statement (2). Let ε > 0. By
applying statement (1) with b = s − ε, we conclude that s − ε ≤ a ≤ s. Thus statement (2) is true.

Now suppose statement (2) is true, and that we want to prove statement (1). Let b < s. Since b is
smaller than s, there must exist a real number ε > 0 such that b = s − ε. By applying statement (2), we
conclude that b = s − ε ≤ a ≤ s. Thus statement (1) is true.

The analogous statements for i := inf E are:

For every b > i, there exists a ∈ E such that i ≤ a ≤ b,
and
For every ε > 0, there exists a ∈ E such that i ≤ a ≤ i + ε.

1
Exercise 2. For each of the sequences (an )n∈N , do the same as the example below, namely:

• First, use your intuition to guess what limn→+∞ an should be.

• Next, use the definition from the lecture of October 14 to prove that your guess is the limit of the
sequence.
1
a) an = n;
5n−1
b) an = 7n+2 ;

2n+3
c) an = n2 +1 ;
1
n+ n
d) an = n+1 ;
√ √
e) an = n+1− n.

Solution. a) As n becomes larger and larger, it makes sense that 1/n should get closer and closer to
zero. So I claim that
1
lim = 0.
n→+∞ n

Now we prove it: we would like to show that for every ε > 0, there exists an integer n such that

1
n > n =⇒ −ε < < ε.
n
1
Let us choose n to be an integer greater than ε, which we can do no matter how small ε is. For
example, we could choose  
1
n= .
ε
The notation “⌈x⌉” means “the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to x”. Then
 
1 1 1
n> =⇒ n > =⇒ −ε < < ε,
ε ε n

as desired.
b) Let us rewrite the fraction by dividing the numerator and denominator by n:
1
5n − 1 5− n
= 2 .
7n + 2 7+ n

1
From part a) we know that limn→+∞ n = 0. Therefore, by looking at the fraction above, it makes
sense to guess that
5n − 1 5
lim = .
7n + 2
n→+∞ 7
Let us prove it: we want to show that for every ε > 0, there exists an integer n such that

5 5n − 1 5
n > n =⇒ −ε< < + ε. (3)
7 7n + 2 7

Firstly, notice that

5n − 1 5n 5n 5 5
< < = < + ε.
7n + 2 7n + 2 7n 7 7

2
 Therefore the inequality 5n−1 5
7n+2 < 7 + ε is always true. So we only need to worry about the other
inequality 75 − ε < 5n−1
7n+2 in the boxed statement. We work backwards:

5 5n − 1
−ε< ⇐⇒ (7n + 2)(5 − 7ε) < 7(5n − 1) ⇐⇒ 35n − 49εn + 10 − 14ε < 35n − 7
7 7n + 2
17 − 14ε
⇐⇒ −49εn + 10 − 14ε < −7 ⇐⇒ −49εn < −17 + 14ε ⇐⇒ n > .
49ε
So let us choose  
17 − 14ε
n= .
49ε
Then, indeed,  
17 − 14ε 17 − 14ε 5 5n − 1
n> =⇒ n > =⇒ −ε< ,
49ε 49ε 7 7n + 2
which is what we desired (the statement (3) in the box).
c) Let us do the same trick as in part b), where we divide both the numerator and the denominator
of the fraction by n:
2n + 3 2 + n3
= .
n2 + 1 n + n1
As n becomes larger and larger, the numerator gets closer and closer to 2, while the numerator
gets closer and closer to n. So the fraction gets closer and closer to n2 , so we expect that

2n + 3
lim = 0.
n→+∞ n2 + 1
To prove it, for every ε > 0 we want to find an integer n such that

2n + 3
n > n =⇒ −ε < < ε. (4)
n2 + 1

The inequality −ε < 2n+3 2n+3

n2 +1 is always true since 0 ≤ n2 +1 . Therefore we only worry about the
inequality 2n+3
n2 +1 < ε in the boxed statement. Let us change the fraction to make our lives a little
bit easier, in the following way:
2n + 3 2n + 3 2n + 3n 5n 5
2
< 2
≤ 2
= 2 = .
n +1 n n n n
5
< ε then 2n+3 5
 
Therefore, if n n2 +1 < ε. So let us choose n := ε . Then, indeed,
 
5 5 5 2n + 3
n> =⇒ n > =⇒ < ε =⇒ 2 < ε,
ε ε n n +1

which is what we desired (the statement (4) in the box).

d) Using the same initial trick as parts b) and c), we guess

n + n1
lim = 1.
n→+∞ n + 1

To prove this, we want to show that for every ε > 0 there exists an integer n such that

n + n1
n > n =⇒ 1 − ε < < 1 + ε. (5)
n+1

3
 Firstly, notice that
n + n1 n+1
≤ = 1 < 1 + ε.
n+1 n+1
1
n+ n
So the inequality n+1 < 1 + ε is always true. Therefore we only need to worry about the inequality
1
n+ n
1−ε < n+1 in the boxed statement. Let us change the fraction to make our lives a little bit easier,
in the following way:
n + n1 n + n1 n + n1 1 1 1
> = = + 2 > 2.
n+1 n+n 2n 2 2n 2n
1
1 n+ n 1
Therefore, if 1 − ε < 2n2 , then 1 − ε < n+1 . So choose n := √ . Then, indeed,
2(1−ε)

1 1 n + n1
n> p =⇒ 1 − ε < 2
=⇒ 1 − ε < ,
2(1 − ε) 2n n+1

which is what we desired (the statement (5) in the box).

Here is an alternative proof: we can write
n + n1 n2 + 1 n2 + n − n + 1 n−1
= 2 = =1− 2 .
n+1 n +n n2 + n n +n
Therefore
n + n1 n−1
lim = 1 − lim .
n→+∞ n + 1 n→+∞ n2 + n

Since the last fraction has a term of higher degree in the denominator, a similar argument to part
c) gives
n−1
lim = 0,
n→+∞ n2 + n

which gives us our answer.

√ √
e) Intuitively, as n becomes larger and larger the difference between n + 1 − n becomes less and
less significant. Thus we claim √ √

lim n + 1 − n = 0.
n→∞
To prove this, we need to show that for every ε > 0 there exists an integer n such that
√ √
n > n =⇒ −ε < n+1− n < ε. (6)
√ √
Since
√ + 1 − n > 0, the first inequality is always true, so we only need to worry about
n√
n + 1 − n < ε. Let us work backwards:
√ √ √ √
2 p
n + 1 − n < ε ⇐⇒ n + 1 − n < ε2 ⇐⇒ 2n + 1 − 2 n(n + 1) < ε2
p
2
⇐⇒ 2n + 1 − ε2 < 2 n(n + 1) ⇐⇒ 2n + 1 − ε2 < 4n(n + 1)
⇐⇒ 4n2 + 4n + 1 − 4ε2 n − 2ε2 + ε4 < 4n2 + 4n ⇐⇒ 1 − 4ε2 n − 2ε2 + ε4 < 0
1 − 2ε2 + ε4
⇐⇒ n > .
4ε2
l 2
m
+ε4
Therefore let us choose n = 1−2ε
4ε 2 . From the previous calculation, we know that

1 − 2ε2 + ε4 1 − 2ε2 + ε4 √ √
 
n> =⇒ n > =⇒ n + 1 − n < ε,
4ε2 4ε 2

which is what we desired (the statement (6) in the box).

4
Exercise 3. In the lecture of October 14, you saw the addition formulae for sine and cosine:

sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = sin θ1 cos θ1 + cos θ1 sin θ2 ;

cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 .

Now prove:
a) sin(θ1 − θ2 ) = sin θ1 cos θ1 − cos θ1 sin θ2 and cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 ;

b) sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ and cos(2θ) = 2 cos2 θ − 1;

c) sin θ1 − sin θ2 = 2 sin θ1 −θ cos θ1 +θ θ1 −θ2 θ1 +θ2





2
2
2
2
and cos θ1 − cos θ2 = −2 sin 2 sin 2 ;
tan θ1 +tan θ2
d) tan(θ1 + θ2 ) = 1−tan θ1 tan θ2 .

Solution. a) Use the fact that sin(−θ) = − sin(θ) and cos(−θ) = cos(θ) for all angles θ:

sin(θ1 − θ2 ) = sin θ1 cos(−θ2 ) + cos θ1 sin(−θ2 ) = sin θ1 cos θ2 − cos θ1 sin θ2 ;

cos(θ1 − θ2 ) = cos θ1 cos(−θ2 ) − sin θ1 sin(−θ2 ) = cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 .

b) Substitute θ1 = θ2 = θ in the addition formulae:

sin(2θ) = sin θ cos θ + cos θ sin θ = 2 sin θ cos θ;

cos(2θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = cos2 θ − (1 − cos2 θ) = 2 cos2 θ − 1.

c) By the addition formulae, we have

   
θ1 ± θ2 θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2
sin = sin ± = sin cos ± cos sin ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
   
θ1 + θ2 θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2
cos = cos + = cos cos − sin sin .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Therefore
       
θ1 − θ2 θ1 + θ2 θ1 θ1 2 θ2 2 θ2 θ2 θ2 2 θ1 2 θ1
2 sin cos = 2 sin cos cos + sin − 2 sin cos sin + cos .
2 2 | 2{z 2} | 2 {z 2} | 2{z 2} | 2 {z 2}
=sin θ1 =1 =sin θ2 =1

θ1 −θ2 θ1 +θ2



A similar computation of −2 sin 2 sin 2 gives the second equation.

d) Notice that
sin(θ1 + θ2 ) sin θ1 cos θ1 + cos θ1 sin θ2
tan(θ1 + θ2 ) = = .
cos(θ1 + θ2 ) cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2
Now divide the numerator and denominator by cos θ1 cos θ2 to get
sin θ1 sin θ2
cos θ1 + cos θ2 tan θ1 + tan θ2
tan(θ1 + θ2 ) = sin θ1 sin θ2
= .
1 − cos θ1 cos θ2
1 − tan θ1 tan θ2

5
Exercise 4. Find the solutions of the following inequalities in R:
1
a) 5x+6 ≥ −1;

b) 2x2 + 5x + 3 > 0;

c) −8x2 + 30x − 25 ≥ 0;
d) 4x2 − 12x + 9 ≤ 0;
e) 2x2 + 2x + 3 ≤ 0.

Solution. a) Clearly we must have x ̸= − 65 , otherwise the denominator is zero. If x > − 65 , then
1
5x + 6 > 0 so 5x+6 > 0 ≥ −1. On the other hand, if x < − 65 then 5x + 6 < 0 and so

1 7
≥ −1 =⇒ 1 ≤ −5x − 6 =⇒ 7 ≤ −5x =⇒ − ≥ x.
5x + 6 5
(
x > − 56 ,
So the solutions of the inequality are
x ≤ − 75 .
3
b) Factorize the polynomial: 2x2 + 5x + 3 = (2x ( + 3)(x + 1). The zeros are at x = − 2 and x = −1.
x < − 32 ,
Therefore the solutions of the inequality are (hint: draw the graph of the polynomial).
x > −1.

c) Factorize the polynomial: −8x2 + 30x − 25 = −(4x − 5)(2x − 5). The zeros are at x = 54 and x = 25 .
Therefore the solutions of the inequality are 54 ≤ x ≤ 25 (hint: draw the graph of the polynomial).

d) Notice that the discriminant of the quadratic polynomial is (−12)2 − 4 · 4 · 9 = 0. Therefore the
quadratic has a double zero: 4x2 − 12x + 9 = (2x − 3)2 . Then there is one solution to the inequality,
which is x = 32 (hint: draw the graph of the polynomial).
e) The discriminant of the quadratic polynomial is 22 − 4 · 2 · 3 = −20 < 0. Therefore the graph of
the polynomial will always lie above the x-axis, so there are no solutions to the inequality (hint:
draw the graph of the polynomial).

6
Exercise 5. Let E ⊂ R and let f : E → R be a function. In the lecture of October 16, you saw that
the limit of the function f as x → x0 , which we denote by

ℓ := lim f (x),
x→x0

is characterized by the following property (if ℓ ∈ R):

For every real number ε > 0, there exists a real number δ > 0 such that

x ∈ (x0 − δ, x0 + δ) \ {x0 } =⇒ f (x) ∈ (ℓ − ε, ℓ + ε).

We refer to this as the ε − δ (“epsilon-delta”) definition (notice its similarity to the definition of a limit
of a sequence). Now, for the following functions, use the ε − δ definition to show:
a) limx→0 (2x + 1) = 1;
b) limx→1 (2x2 + 3) = 5;
2
c) limx→1 7x−3 = 12 ;
x−2 1
d) limx→2 x2 −4 = 4 (Hint: simplify the fraction first).
Solution. a) It is clear that the limit should equal 1, since we could just substitute x = 0. However,
to formally prove it, we have to use the ε − δ definition. Let ε > 0. We would like to show that
there exists a δ > 0 such that

−δ < x < δ and x ̸= 0 =⇒ 1 − ε < 2x + 1 < 1 + ε.

To find such a δ, notice that

ε ε
1 − ε < 2x + 1 < 1 + ε ⇐⇒ −ε < 2x < ε ⇐⇒ − <x< .
2 2
Therefore we can take δ = 2ε , and the proof is complete.
b) Let ε > 0. We wish to find a δ > 0 such that

1 − δ < x < 1 + δ and x ̸= 1 =⇒ 5 − ε < 2x2 + 3 < 5 + ε.

Firstly, let us rewrite the inequality in a nicer way:

ε ε
5 − ε < 2x2 + 3 < 5 + ε ⇐⇒ 2 − ε < 2x2 < 2 + ε ⇐⇒ 1 − < x2 < 1 + .
2 2
Therefore we want to prove that
ε ε
1 − δ < x < 1 + δ and x ̸= 1 =⇒ 1 − < x2 < 1 + . (7)
2 2

I claim that δ := ε/16 will satisfy statement (7) in the box. Can you figure out why that is the
case?
c) Let ε > 0. We want to find a δ > 0 such that

1 2 1
1 − δ < x < 1 + δ and x ̸= 1 =⇒ −ε< < + ε.
2 7x − 3 2

We work backwards to find δ. Firstly,

2 2 2
if 1 − δ < x, then < = .
7x − 3 7(1 − δ) − 3 4 − 7δ

7
 2 1
In light of this, in order for 7x−3 < 2 + ε to be true, we can just show that

2 1
< + ε.
4 − 7δ 2
If we rearrange the inequality above for δ, we get
4ε
δ< 7 . (8)
2 + 7ε

Secondly,
2 2 2
if x < 1 + δ, then > = .
7x − 3 7(1 + δ) − 3 4 + 7δ
1 2
In light of this, in order for 2 −ε< 7x−3 to be true, we can just show that

1 2
−ε< .
2 4 + 7δ
If we rearrange the inequality above for δ, we get
4ε
δ< 7 . (9)
2 − 7ε

By looking at the inequalities (8) and (9) for δ, we conclude the proof by choosing δ to be a real
4ε
number that is smaller than both numbers in the inequalities, for example δ = 7+7ε .
d) When x ̸= 2, we can simplify the fraction:
x−2 x−2 1
= = .
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x+2

So
x−2 1
lim = lim .
x→2 x2 − 4 x→2 x + 2
1
To show that this limit is equal to 4, we have to show that for every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such
that
1 1 1
2 − δ < x < 2 + δ and x ̸= 2 =⇒ −ε< < +ε .
4 x+2 4
The proof of this is similar to part c). The steps are more or less:
1 1 1 1 4ε
2 − δ < x =⇒ < = < + ε =⇒ δ < 1 ,
x+2 2−δ+2 4−δ 4 4 +ε
1 1 1 1 4ε
x < 2 + δ =⇒ > = > − ε =⇒ δ < 1 .
4 −ε
x+2 2+δ+2 4+δ 4
4ε 4ε 4ε
So just take δ to be a number smaller than 1 and 1 , such as δ = 1+ε .
4 +ε 4 −ε