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HALL EFFECT 6.1

ADVANCED PHYSICS WORK

HALL EFFECT

GOALS: - Learn about a technique for characterizing the transport properties of materials; -
Measure
the Hall coefficient and Hall mobility of a germanium sample as a function
of temperature; - Highlight the phenomenon
of magnetoresistance.

1. INTRODUCTION

It was in 1879 that EH Hall 1 of Harvard University reported the results of an experiment which
allowed him to determine the sign of the charge carriers of a conductor. The figure below illustrates
the principle of Hall's experiment.

1It seems that the contribution of the shy physicist HA Rowland to the discovery of the Hall effect has often been
the subject of various comments. The reference cited at the bottom tells us that Hall (Rowland's student at John
Hopkins University) used "...an experimental device designed by Rowland", moreover, Rowland stated in 1894: "I
had already obtained the Hall effect on a small scale."
Ref.: Rowland's Physics. Physics Today, July 1976.
See also Hall's paper in: Source Book in Physics. by William Francis Magie, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1935, p.
541.
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HALL EFFECT 6.2

A conductive ribbon is placed in a magnetic induction field B perpendicular to the plane

of the leaf. The field gives rise to the appearance of a deflection force F which acts towards the
right, it doesn't matter if the charge carriers are positive or negative. It then appears a
voltage Vxy called Hall voltage whose sign makes it possible to determine the type of carriers
loads. If the carriers are positive (a), the potential at y is higher than that at x; if the
carriers are negative (b), the potential at y is lower than that at x. Experience demonstrates
that in most metals the charge carriers are negative.

2. THEORY
2.1 Case of the n-type semiconductor

We take up here in detail the derivation of the equations necessary for the study of the properties of
transportation of materials. We will focus mainly on the Hall coefficient, the
Hall mobility as well as magnetoresistance.

Consider an infinite semiconductor having a current density J according to x and immersed in

a magnetic field directed along z . We will deal with the case of an n-type semiconductor having
surfaces of constant energy which are spherical.

The electron drift velocity vx is given by J/ ne. The average transverse force acting
on an electron in the y direction is therefore -eBvx . The field which serves to counterbalance this
force is given by:
eÿ y
=ÿ=ÿ
eBv BJx n (1)
where B is the magnetic induction (which comes off the page in the figure below). The ÿx component
of the electric field, parallel to the current, is given by:
I don't =µ ÿex = ÿÿ x (2)
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HALL EFFECT 6.3

The angle ÿ between the current and the resulting electric field is therefore given by:

tan ÿ = ÿ ÿ = ÿB µ
y x e (3)

Or ÿ is called the Hall angle.

Question: Show that B µ e is a dimensionless quantity.

In a Hall effect measurement, we generally use a rectangular sample whose width

and the thickness are small compared to its length. If the x axis is in the direction of the length of
the sample and the y axis according to its width, the Hall voltage
ÿ e is the voltage necessary to have
y
a current that flows entirely in the x direction .

We use the Hall constant R to quantify the Hall effect. This constant is related to the density
of current J as follows:
ÿ H = RJB (4)

where ÿH is the Hall field. If t is the thickness of the sample and w its width, we have, if VH is the
Hall voltage and I current:

= t
V RIB
H (5)

Or:
R = tV H IB (6)

combining (2), (3) and (4):

ÿ H = R ÿÿ
xB = ÿB µ ÿex
And
(7)
R =ÿ
µ ÿ = ÿ1 born
e

As we will see later, this last equation is only valid if the time of
relaxation ÿ does not depend on the speed of the carriers.

Note: ÿ represents the relaxation time of carriers which undergo collisions (with the

phonons, charged or uncharged impurities, etc.).

To obtain the correct Hall coefficient, it is generally necessary to introduce a numerical factor r which
varies between 1 and 2 depending on the type of diffusion involved and the degeneration of the
conduction band. Apart from this correction factor, equation (7) gives us a good
measurement of the number of electrons present in the conduction band. In the case where these are the
holes which dominate the conduction, we obtain:
R = 1 pe (8)
or more precisely:
R = r pe (9)
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HALL EFFECT 6.4

The sign of the Hall coefficient therefore confirms whether it is an n-type semiconductor or
p-type.

Question: What are the units of the Hall constant R in the MKS system?

Equations (7) and (8) show that:

R ÿ = µ (10)

This relationship is only exact if r=1; generally, we instead have:

Rÿ r= µ (11)

We can therefore define the quantity µ H which has the dimensions of mobility through the relation:

Rÿ =µH (12)

where
µ H is the Hall mobility. This therefore means that the µ VS defined from the
conductivity mobility is linked
µ to H by the relation:

µ H
= rµ VS (13)

Question: Assume a sample of n-type Germanium with a width of 1 cm and a

thickness of 1 mm. What will be the Hall constant (MKS and CGS) if
n=3x1014cm-3 ? If the magnetic induction is B=2x103Gauss and the current
used is 1.5 mA, what will be the Hall voltage?

2.2 Cases where both types of carriers are present

In the case where both types of carriers contribute significantly to the conduction, we
must proceed otherwise. Let's start by writing the transverse component of the current due to
the Hall effect. Let us recall that the sign of the transverse current due to the electrons is different from that
caused by holes because for holes: tan h (remember ÿ h =-B
that
µ electrons and holes
are deviated to the same side. The transverse current density Jy , assuming small enough that tan ÿ h and ÿ e
is given by: ÿ h ÿ h and tanÿ e ÿ e,
ÿ ÿ

I =ÿ
ÿµe ÿ ex + ep µ ÿ ÿ (14)
y phx

The field ÿy necessary for Jy=0 is given by:

ÿ = ÿJ ÿ (15)
y y
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HALL EFFECT 6.5

Or:
(16)
( µh µ e )BJ x / ÿ
2 2 2
ÿ
y
= ep ÿn _

Which give:
2 2 (17)
1 p.n.
µh
ÿ

µe
R= 2
e (p.n.
µh + µ ) e

Equation (17) reduces to equation (7) when p=0 and to equation (8) when n=0.

If we introduce the quantity b = µ e µ h , equation (17) becomes:

1 pbn ÿ
2 (18)
R=
2
e ( nb
) +
p

We therefore have R=0 when p=nb2.

For an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor the value of the Hall coefficient is (with
n=p=ni ):

1 µ
ÿ

µ
(19)
R = h e
i
in
i
(µ e
+µ
h
)

The Hall coefficient of an intrinsic semiconductor is therefore given by:

1 b ÿ

1 (20)
Ri =ÿ

in i
b + 1

If b>1, as is generally the case, Ri will be negative, ie conduction by electrons

dominates the one by the holes.

2.3 Equations of motion (one type of carrier)

In the last demonstration, we assumed that is small for holes as for ÿ

and We
electrons, ie B h areµ small. Bµ can free ourselves from this restriction by
e
solving the equations of motion. Let's write these equations for electrons:

vx =ÿ
em ex
)ÿ ÿ

ÿ vy (21)

vy =ÿ ( em
( e
)ÿ y
+ ÿ vx
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HALL EFFECT 6.6

ÿ = eB me ( ÿ/2 ÿ is the cyclotron frequency). These last two equations are well known.
where They describe the movement of an electron in crossed electric and magnetic fields.
Question: Draw the movement of an electron in a semiconductor (as in
figure on page 1.2) in the presence of an electric field in the x direction and a
magnetic field in the z direction in the particular case where the electron does not undergo
no collision.

Using the complex variables Z = vx + i vy and z = x + iy equations (21) take the

following form:

(22)
Zÿi ÿ (
Z = ÿ em
e
)(ÿ x +i ÿ
y
)
whose general solution is:

ZZ =em (23)
0
+ ( e
)(ÿ x i + ÿ y )(1 e it ) / i ÿ ÿ
ÿ

whereo =Z vx
y 0 and which reduces to Z=Z0 at t=0. We can now average Z over
0
+ iv

all collision times taking Z0 = 0:

1 ÿ
(24)
Z live =x + =
y
Z exp [ÿ

ÿ ]
t dt
ÿ 0

=ÿ
( em e )(ÿ x i + ÿ y )ÿ (1 ÿ

i ÿÿ )

=ÿ
By taking the real and imaginary parts and setting J env x , etc., we obtain xthe densities

of current Jx and Jy :
2 ÿÿ
2
ÿ (25)
born ÿÿ
J = x ÿ
y
x
m 1 + ÿ ÿ22 1 + ÿ ÿ22
e

born
2 ÿÿ ÿÿ
2
ÿ (26)
J = y
+ x
y
m 1 + ÿ ÿ22 1 + ÿ ÿ2 2
e

The condition Jy=0 gives:

ÿ ÿ =ÿ ÿÿ (27)
yx

The angle between Jx and the resulting field ÿ is therefore:

tan ÿ =ÿ
ÿÿ = ÿ Be ÿ µ (28)
me = ÿB e
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HALL EFFECT 6.7

This is simply equation (3) and justifies the simplistic treatment used previously for
get it. Substituting ÿy from equation (27) into (25) we find:

2
born ÿÿ
J = x = born µ ÿex = ÿÿ (29)
x x
me

Or µ e = em
ÿ
e . We therefore obtained the same result as before. We therefore see
that with constant energy surfaces which are spherical and a constant relaxation time ÿ,
there is no change in resistance due to a transverse magnetic field. We have
also:

1
R= (30)
born

As will be demonstrated in the following section, this independence of resistance in relation to

to a magnetic field is however no longer true when there are two types of carriers which
contribute to conduction.

2.4 Hall coefficient (two types of carriers)

Let us consider the case where we are in the presence of two types of carriers having times of
relaxation ÿe and ÿh . We must start by adding up their respective contributions to
current densities Jx and Jy . Let us take equations (25) and (26) in the form:

J.A.D.
x
=ÿ
ÿ
x
ÿ
y
(31)
=+
J.A.D. ÿ ÿ
x
yy

By taking Jy=0 we obtain:

ÿ=
BR DAD ( 2
+ 2
) (32)
2 2
ÿ = +(AD ) A

In the presence of two types of carriers, we can write the following equations:

=+
JAADD ) ÿ( ÿ+ )ÿ y (33)
x 1 2 x 1 2

= +( (
JAADD )ÿ y + +( )ÿ x
y 1 2 1 2

When Jy=0 we find:

ÿ =ÿA+A( )ÿ y / D( + D1 ) (34)
x 1 2 2

Substituting for ÿx , we have:

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HALL EFFECT 6.8

(35)
(DDÿ+ )
BR = 2
1 2
2
(AADD
+ + +) (
12 1 2
)

By noting the conductivities and the Hall coefficients of the two types of carriers ÿ1 , ÿ2 , R1 , R2 we
can write A1 , A2 , D1 and D2 in the form:

HAS =ÿ (1 + ÿ 12 BR
2 2
) (36)
1 1 1
2 22 2
D1 =ÿ ÿ
1 BR1 (1 +
ÿ
1 BR etc.
1 ),
.

After some manipulations, (35) is reduced to:

2
(1 + ÿ 22 BRR
2 2
) 2ÿ2 2 (1 + ÿ 12 BR
2 2
) (37)
R1ÿ 2 +
R= 1
2 2 2 2 2
1

(ÿ 1 + ÿ 2 ) + ÿ 1 ÿ 2 BRR( 1+ 2)

This equation was obtained by RG Chambers 2 and is valid even when ÿ depends on the
carrier speed. Substituting the relations (29) and (30) and those appropriate for the holes,
we find:

) 2 222 (38)
(() ÿ+ 1
R = p nb b B2 pn µ
ÿ

h
2 2 2 2
+ +b B ( p n) µe h
(bn p)
ÿ

This last expression is strictly valid only when ÿ is constant.

We obtain R=0 when:

( p = number 1+µ
2 2
B 21+
) (b µ B )
222 (39)
h h

It appears that the value of the ratio p/ n for which R=0 varies with B unless hBµis much
lower than unity. For Ge, b and for B=0.1 µ h=0.39m2/
Tesla, bB Vsec
h=0.039;
, there µ
variation of R with B is therefore quite small. On the other hand, for B=1 tesla, the difference with the value
obtained at low field begins to be appreciable. For very large values of B, we note
that:
1 (40)
Rÿ
e( pn ) ÿ

2.5 Magnetoresistance (two types of carriers and constant ÿ )

We saw previously that in the presence of constant energy surfaces which are spherical, it
no magnetoresistance appears when ÿ is also constant in the case where only one type of

2Proceedings of Physical Society A (1952), 65, 903.

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HALL EFFECT 6.9

carrier is present. However, this is no longer true when there are two types of carriers. Indeed,
according to equations (33) and (34):

ÿ =J ÿ = A( + A + D +) D
(/A+A 2
)( ) (41)
x x 1 2 1 2 1 2

According to (35), it comes:

RDDBAA
ÿ =ÿ+) )/ ( + ) (42)
1 2 1 2

=
R ÿ
1
2
1
( (1 + ÿ
22
2
BRR 2+
2 22
ÿ
2
(1 + ÿ 22
1
BR 2
1
)
(ÿ 1B2ÿ+ +) 2
ÿÿ
1 2
(ÿ 1
R +
1
2
ÿ
22
R
)2

and so:
ÿ + ÿ
2
+ ÿÿ
2 22
BRR + )
2 (43)
ÿ = 1 2 1 2 1 2

( ÿ( ++ÿ )) B 2ÿ ÿ (ÿ( RR2 +

1 2 12 11 2) 2

As ÿ1 and ÿ2 are independent of B when ÿ is constant, we have, to first order in B2:

ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿÿ
2 2
(RR1 +
2
) ÿÿ (ÿ R2 + ÿ R2) (44)
ÿ =
ÿ

ÿ
= 1 2 2 + 12 11 22
2 2 2
ÿ 0B ÿ 0B ÿ
0
ÿ
0

ÿ = ÿ 1+ ÿ ) and ÿÿ is
where ÿÿ is the change in conductivity from zero field (B) where ÿ0 (the corresponding 0 2

change in resistivity. Using the relationships obtained for R2 , for electrons and holes, we find: ÿ 1 , R1 and ÿ 2 ,

ÿ ÿ ÿ ( +µ h )
2 (45)
ÿ
= ÿ = n.p.µ µ
eh µ e

ÿ
0
B 2
ÿ 0B
2
(n.p.
µ e
+ µ h )2

(46)

= npb µ h
2
(1 + b)2
2
) p+
( nb

Using the expression for the low-field Hall coefficient R0 (see eq. 19), equation (46)
can be written in the form:
ÿ ÿ ÿÿ 2 22
ÿ==
ÿ R.B.
0
ÿ
0 (47)
ÿ ÿ
0 0

Or:
()
2
(48)
npb b1+
ÿ = 22
( p nb )
ÿ
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HALL EFFECT 6.10

The quantity ÿ is called the transverse magnetoresistance coefficient. ÿ is zero when n=0 or
p=0. We therefore see that this type of semiconductor does not present magnetoresistance at
unless you have two types of carriers that contribute to conduction.

2.6 Magnetoresistance (only one type of carrier, ÿ depends on energy)

Let us return to equations (25) and (26) which will allow us to deduce an expression for the
change in resistivity when ÿ depends on energy. For a semiconductor having
closed energy surfaces:

2
born
2 23
J x = ÿÿ x ÿ

ÿÿ ÿ ÿ

ÿÿÿ x (49)
y
me

2
born
= 2
J ÿÿ + ÿÿÿ (50)
y y x
me

Now averaging over the allowed values of E using the weight functions
appropriate, and by imposing that Jy=0 we obtain:
2
born 2
2 2 23
J x = ÿx ÿ + ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ

ÿ ÿ (51)
me

By asking:
born
2 (52)
ÿ = =1 ÿ
0 ÿ 0
me

ÿ = ÿ ÿ ÿ ) (53)
0 ( 1ÿÿ 0

(54)
ÿ = ÿ 0
(1+ ÿ ÿÿ 0
)
When ÿ ÿÿ <<1,
0

22
ÿ
3
ÿ ÿ
2 2 (55)
ÿ ÿ
ÿ

ÿ ÿ eB
ÿ
= =
2 2
ÿ ÿ ÿ
0 0 me

Like R0 , the low field Hall coefficient, can be written as 3:

2
r ÿ
R0 =ÿ
with r = (56)
2
born ÿ

3c.f. RA Smith in Semiconductors. Cambridge University Press, 1959 p. 118. (Qc611.S45)

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HALL EFFECT 6.11

then equation (55) takes the following form:

ÿÿ ÿ ÿ 2 22
= ÿ = RB ÿ ÿ
ÿ
0 0 (57)
ÿ 0 0

where ÿ is the magnetoresistance coefficient given by:

2
3 2
ÿ +1 = ÿ ÿ ÿ (58)

Obviously, the value of ÿ will depend on the diffusion processes that will be involved (discuss this
with the monitor).

3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The figure below shows an overview of the experimental setup used:

The support where the sample is located is shown below:

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HALL EFFECT 6.12

The Ge sample is stuck using grease on a copper support. The latter is attached to the end of the cold
finger of the cryostat. A heating resistor is inserted into the sample holder and is connected to a temperature
controller. This measures the knee voltage of a diode calibrated to Si, also inserted in the sample holder. A
constant current is injected into the sample using contacts a and b. The resistivity voltage is measured at
the cd contacts while the Hall voltage appears at the ef terminals.

3.1 Principle of measurement

A constant current is circulated inside the sample using a current source (see source specifications). The
resistivity voltage, Hall voltage and analog output of the gaussmeter are sent to channels 1, 2 and 3 of the
scanner. We first stabilize the temperature using the temperature controller, then we measure, using the
multimeter, the voltages present across the three channels. These same measurements are carried out in
the presence of the magnetic field (in both polarities) as well as in its absence. It is the field inverter which
allows you to switch from one polarity to another without having to manually disconnect the current leads
from the electromagnet.

3.2 The Hall.exe program

You have a Windows program, Hall.exe, which will allow you to carry out a large number of measurements
and increase the precision of the results. This program allows:

- acquire experimental data by performing a temperature scan; - to carry out one or more
measurements at a single temperature.

You can come and start data acquisition during the morning and collect your results at the end of the day.

4. MANIPULATIONS

4.1 Connections

With the help of the monitor, remove the cryostat head so that you have access to the sample holder and
examine it carefully. Check the continuity of the contacts between the wires of the support and those located
at the end of the output connector. Gently insert the cryostat into the air gap and place it in the correct
orientation.

- Connect the current leads (ab) to the current source (via the AUX terminals on the control panel);

- Connect the wires c and d used to measure VR to the terminals identified CHANNEL 1;
- Connect the wires e and f used to measure VH to the terminals identified CHANNEL 2;
- Connect the analog output of the Gaussmeter to the terminals identified CHANNEL 3;
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HALL EFFECT 6.13

- Flow a current of 1 mA through the sample and check (by applying a field
magnetic) that the voltage values obtained for the 3 measurement channels are
consistent.

Note: Never exceed 20 amps to power the electromagnet.

4.2 Contacts on the sample

- At room temperature and with B=0, measure VR vs I (0.1<I<1mA) in both polarities

using only two contacts. Discuss.
- What is the effective misalignment of Hall contacts?

4.3 Hall effect and magnetoresistance

Note: Use logarithmic paper, or software that allows you to plot axes in one way
logarithmic when necessary.

- Check if the Hall voltage (average for the two directions of B) varies linearly with
the magnetic field at T=100K and T=300K.

- Obtain the temperature variation of the ÿ and RH (100K<T<400K), using the parameters
following:
1. ICoils=15 amp Isample=1mA
2. ICoils=5 amp Isample=1mA

Use MKS units to ÿ and HR.

- Plot a graph of RH vs T. What is the sign of the carriers?

- Estimate the concentration and mobility of holes at low temperatures.

- Do we have access to the mobility of electrons and holes over the entire range of
temperature?

- Plot a graph of ln() vs 1000/ T.ÿ Identify the intrinsic and extrinsic regions.
Knowing that in intrinsic region 4:

1 Eg
ÿ ÿÿ
exp
ÿ 2kT

determine the Eg value of germanium.

4Solid State Electronic Devices. Ben G. Streetman. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 1980. p.76.
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HALL EFFECT 6.14

- In the extrinsic conductivity region, we can assume that from 100K, all
acceptors are ionized, then like:
ÿ ÿe µ
(100< T<300 )p p

and p is assumed constant, we can determine how the mobility of the holes varies with the
temperature. Make a graph of log10 () vs ÿlog10 (1000/ T) and find the value of the coefficient
ÿ
of the following expression:

ÿ
µ = CteÿT

- Determine the behavior of the Hall mobility of holes (100K<T<300K) using

equation (12). To do this, plot a graph of log10 ( H) vs µlog10 (T) and determine the
value of the coefficient of ÿthe following expression:

ÿ
µ = CteÿT
H

- Knowing that for germanium ÿÿ

2, explain why ÿÿÿ .

- For T=100K and T=300K, plot a graph of the logarithm of the magnetoresistance

ÿ as a function of the logarithm of the magnetic field H (vary the current in the
ÿ
log 10
ÿ 0

coil from 0 to 20 amp.). Compare your results with theory.

CORRECTION SCALE
Theory: 2.5
Assembly and operation: 0.5
Presentation of results 1.0
Analysis: 4.5
Conclusion + Introduction: 1.0
General presentation and
quality of French: 0.5
___
10

© Guy Bernier, practical work coordinator

Department of Physics, U. of Sherbrooke

Last modifications: PF Tuesday, September 3, 2002