UNIVERSITY OF LAGHOUAT

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

Course of Fluid Mechanics I

Intended for Second-Year Students in common Technology

Dr, Hadjaissa Aissa

 Table of Contents
Chapter one: Properties of fluids 2-4 Pressure measurement

1-1 Introduction and basic concepts 2-5 Hydrostatic force

1-2 What is A fluid? * Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

1-3 The boundary layer * Hydrostatic force on a curved surface

1-4 Dimensions and units 2-6 Buoyancy and flotation
1-5 Analysis of fluid behavior 2-7 Applications
1-6 Measures of fluid mass and weight
1-7 Compressibility of fluids Chapter three: Fluid dynamics , Bernoulli and
energy equations
1-8 Vapor pressure
3-1 Conservation of energy principle
1-9 Applications
3-2 Force balance across streamlines
3-3 Flow along a streamline
Chapter two: Pressure and fluid statics
3-4 Conservation of mass principle
2-1 Pressure
3-5 Examples of use of the bernoulli equation
2-2 Variation of pressure with depth
3-6 Applications
2-3 Pascal’s law
Chapter one: Properties of fluids
Learning Objectives :

 Determine the dimensions and units of physical quantities.

 Identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior.

 Calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information.

 Explain effects of fluid compressibility.

 Use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure

 1-1 Introduction and basic concepts

What’s the Fluid Mechanics ?

• Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under
the influence of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called

STATICS, while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called DYNAMICS.
• The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at
rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other
fluids at the boundaries. Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by considering
fluids at rest as a special case of motion with zero velocity
• Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The study of the motion of fluids that

can be approximated as INCOMPRESSIBLE (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low

speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics. A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics,

which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.

liquid flows in pipes open channel flow

• Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as

the flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds (exp : jet engine). The category

aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such as aircraft,

rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds. Some other specialized categories such as

meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally occurring flows

Jet engine Air over aircraft

Characteristic values of some fluid flow
parameters for a variety of flows: (a) object
size, (b) fluid speed, (c) fluid pressure.
 1-2 What is a Fluid?
We remember from physics that a substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid, and gas. (At
very high temperatures, it also exists as plasma.) A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as

a Fluid. Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the substance’s ability to
resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape. A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence of a shear stress,
no matter how small.

In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids,

stress is proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear force is applied,

a solid eventually stops deforming at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops deforming
and approaches a constant rate of strain.
We recall from statics that stress is defined as force per unit area and is determined by
dividing the force by the area upon which it acts. The normal component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area is called the normal stress, and the tangential component of a force
acting on a surface per unit area is called shear stress (Fig). In a fluid at rest, the normal
stress is called pressure. A fluid at rest is at a state of zero shear stress. When the walls are
removed or a liquid container is tilted, a shear develops as the liquid moves to re-establish a
horizontal free surface.
 1-3 The boundary layer
The layer that sticks to the surface slows the adjacent fluid layer because of viscous forces
between the fluid layers, which slows the next layer, and so on. A consequence of the no-slip
condition is that all velocity profiles must have zero values with respect to the surface at the
points of contact between a fluid and a solid surface (Fig). Therefore, the no-slip condition is
responsible for the development of the velocity profile. The flow region adjacent to the wall in
which the viscous effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are significant is called the
boundary layer.
 1-4 Dimensions and units

Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as velocity
V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and
are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions. We accept as a
fundamental premise that all equations describing physical phenomena must be
dimensionally homogeneous
Where F is the basic dimensions of force. Since Newton’s law states that force is equal to mass
times acceleration, it follows that : F=MLT-2 or M=FL-1 T2
 1-5 Analysis of fluid behavior

The study of fluid mechanics involves the same fundamental laws you have
encountered in physics and other mechanics courses. These laws include:

• Newton’s laws of motion

• Conservation of mass

• First and second laws of thermodynamics

 1-6 Measures of fluid mass and weight

• Density : The density of a fluid, designated by (rho) ρ, is defined as its mass per unit
volume. Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid system. in SI
the units are kg/m3, The value of density can vary widely between different fluids,
but for liquids, variations in pressure and temperature generally have only a small
effect on the value of ρ
Specific Weight :
The specific weight of a fluid, designated by γ (gamma), is defined as its weight
per unit volume. Thus, specific weight is related to density through the equation

γ=ρg
As the density is used to characterize the mass of a fluid system, the specific
weight is used to characterize the weight of the system. In the SI the units are
N/m3
Specific Gravity :
The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the
ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at some
specified temperature. Usually the specified temperature is taken
as 4°C and at this temperature the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
In equation form, specific gravity is expressed as:
Viscosity:
The properties of density and specific weight are measures of the
“heaviness” of a fluid, some additional property is needed to
describe the “fluidity” of the fluid. When a fluid moves relative to a
solid or when two fluids move relative to each other; we move with
relative ease in air, but not so in water.
It appears that there is a property that represents the internal
resistance of a fluid to motion or the “fluidity,” and that property is
the VISCOSITY. The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the
flow direction is called the DRAG FORCE,
 Where : δβ is the shearing strain and τ is the shearing stress

The constant of proportionality is designated by the Greek symbol μ

(mu) and is called the absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or
simply the viscosity of the fluid, The kinematic viscosity is defined
as the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the fluid density ρ .
 1-7 Compressibility of Fluids

How easily can the volume of a given mass of the fluid be changed
when there is a change in pressure ?
A property that is commonly used to characterize compressibility is
the bulk modulus of elasticity or coefficient of compressibility
defined as :

It can also be expressed as :

 1-8 Vapor Pressure
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance

changes phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat.

Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure

substance changes phase is called the saturation pressure Psat.

For example at an absolute pressure of 1 atm or 101.325 kPa, the

saturation temperature of water is 100°C. The vapor pressure Pv

of a pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by its vapor

in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature, Pv is

a property of the pure substance, and turns out to be identical to

the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat)

Resume equations of chapter one
 1-9 Applications
Exercise 1:
The weight of a 500 ml volume of a liquid is 8N. Determine its specific gravity, density and specific gravity.

Exercise 2:
The kinematic viscosity of oxygen at 20°C and 150 kPa is 0.104 stokes. Determine the dynamic viscosity of oxygen under the same
conditions.
*We give the universal gas constant :R= 259.8 j/Kg.K

Exercise 3 :
Pressures are sometimes determined by measuring the height of a column of liquid in a vertical tube. What diameter of clean glass
tubing is required so that the rise of water at 20°C in a tube due to capillary action (as opposed to pressure in the tube) is less than 1.0
mm?
we give for water at 20°C : s = 0.0728 N/m, g = 9789 N/m3.
Chapter two : Pressure and fluid statics
Learning Objectives:

 Determine the pressure at various locations in a fluid at rest.

 Explain the concept of manometers and apply appropriate equations to determine

pressures.

 Calculate the hydrostatic pressure force on a plane or curved submerged surface.

 Calculate the buoyant force and discuss the stability of floating or submerged
objects.
 2-1 Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure
only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal
stress. Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square
meter (N/m 2), which is called a Pascal (Pa). That is : 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2
Pressure at a Point :
Pressure is a scalar quantity, or a vector !! the pressure at a point in a fluid is
the same in all directions ?! It can be demonstrated by considering a small
wedge-shaped fluid element of unit length (Δy = 1) in equilibrium. The mean
pressures at the three surfaces are Py, Pz, and Ps, and the force acting on a
surface is the product of mean pressure and the surface area. From Newton’s
second law, a force balance in the y- and z-directions gives:
It follows from the geometry that :

So :

Since we are really interested in what is happening at a point,

we take the limit as δx, δy and δz approach zero , it follows
that :

Thus we conclude that the pressure at a point in a fluid has the same magnitude in all
directions. This result is applicable to fluids in motion as well as fluids at rest since pressure
is a scalar, not a vector..
 2-2 Variation of Pressure with Depth

To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with

depth, consider a rectangular fluid element of height Δz,
length Δ x, and unit depth Δ y = 1 in equilibrium, as
shown in Fig. Assuming the density of the fluid ρ to be
constant, a force balance in the vertical z-direction gives :

where W = mg = ρg Δ x Δ y Δ z is the weight of the fluid

element and Δ z = z 2- z 1 Dividing by Δ x Δ y and
rearranging gives :
where γ s = ρ g is the specific weight of the fluid. Thus, we conclude that the
pressure difference between two points in a constant density fluid is proportional
to the vertical distance Δ z between the points and the density ρ of the
fluid. Noting the negative sign, pressure in a static fluid increases linearly
with depth
An easier equation to remember and apply between any two
points in the same fluid under hydrostatic conditions is :
For fluids whose density changes significantly with elevation, a relation for the
variation of pressure with elevation can be obtained by dividing the equation :

by Δz, and taking the limit as Δ z → 0. This yields :

When the variation of density with elevation is known, the pressure difference
between any two points 1 and 2 can be determined by integration to be :
 2-3 Pascal’s law
Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the
container. It changes with the vertical distance, but remains constant in other
directions, A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the
horizontal direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount. This is called Pascal’s law
Application of the Pascal’s low:
Pascal’s machine : It has been the source of many inventions that are a part of
our daily lives such as hydraulic brakes and lifts. This is what enables us to lift a
car easily by one arm, the ratio of output force to input force is determined to be
For the compressible Fluids :
 2-4 Pressure Measurement

The Barometers: Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called

a barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the
barometric pressure. The Italian Torricelli (1608–1647) was the first to
conclusively prove that the atmospheric pressure can be measured by
inverting a mercury-filled tube into a mercury container that is open to
the atmosphere, The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric
pressure, and the pressure at point C can be taken to be zero since there
is only mercury vapor above point C and the pressure is very low The standard atmosphere, is
defined as the pressure
relative to Patm and can be neglected to an excellent approximation. produced by a column of
mercury 760 mm in height at
Writing a force balance in the vertical direction gives : 0°C
The Manometers :
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns
in vertical or inclined tubes. Pressure-measuring devices based on this
technique are called manometers, there are many other configurations possible
depending on the particular application. Three common types of manometers
include the piezometer tube, the U-tube manometer, and the inclined-tube
manometer.
1) Piezometer Tube:

To measure low values of pressures

2) U-Tube Manometer:

To measure high values of pressures

3) Inclined-Tube Manometer

To measure small pressure changes

 2-5 Hydrostatic Force (FR)

When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the
fluid. The determination of these forces is important in the design of storage
tanks,ships,dams,and other hydraulic structures,
* Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface :

In the incompressible fluids, we know that the pressure will vary linearly with depth as shown
in Fig(b). For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a liquid filled tank in Fig(a), the
magnitude of the resultant force FR = p / A , where : p = γ h is the uniform pressure on the
bottom and A is the area of the bottom. If the pressure on the ends of the tank is not uniformly

distributed Fig (b),determination of the resultant force for situations is important .

For the more general case in which a submerged plane surface is inclined

Note that the magnitude of the force is independent of the angle , it depends only on the specific weight of
the fluid, the total area, and the depth of the centroid of the area below the surface
The y coordinate (yR) of the resultant force can be determined by summation of moments
around the x axis. That is, the moment of the resultant force must equal the moment of the
distributed pressure force, or :
* Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
 2-6 Buoyancy and Flotation

Archimede’s Principle :When a stationary body is

completely submerged in a fluid such as the hot air balloon,
or floating so that it is only partially submerged, the resultant
fluid force acting on the body is called the buoyant force.
A net upward vertical force results because pressure
increases with depth and the pressure forces acting from
below are larger than the pressure forces acting from above
 2-7Applications

Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Chapter three : Fluid dynamics , Bernoulli and
energy equations

* Conservation of Energy Principle

* Conservation of Mass Principle

Learning Objectives

 Discuss the application of Newton’s second law to fluid flows.

 Explain the development, uses, and limitations of the Bernoulli equation.

 Use the Bernoulli equation (stand-alone or in combination with the continuity

equation) to solve simple flow problems.

 Apply the concepts of static, stagnation, dynamic, and total pressures.

Newton’s Second Law :
• We assume that the fluid motion is governed by pressure and gravity forces
only and examine Newton’s second law as it applies to a fluid particle in the
form:
• For steady flows (nothing changes with time at a given location in the flow field ) each particle slides along
its path, and its velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path. The lines that are tangent to the velocity
vectors throughout the flow field are called STREAMLINES. In two-dimensional flow, the acceleration can
𝑑𝑉
be decomposed into two components: streamwise acceleration : as = along the streamline and normal
𝑑𝑡

acceleration an in the direction normal to the streamline, which is given as: an = V2/R
 3-1 Conservation of Energy Principle
Force Balance along Streamlines (Bernoulli Equation )
• since the last two terms are exact differentials. In the case of incompressible flow, the first
term also becomes an exact differential, and integration gives

This is the famous Bernoulli equation which is commonly

used in fluid mechanics for steady, incompressible flow along a streamline
in inviscid regions of flow. The Bernoulli equation was first stated in words
by the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) :
 3-2 Force Balance across Streamlines

Note that streamwise acceleration is due to a change in speed along a streamline,

and normal acceleration is due to a change in direction. For particles that move
along a straight path, an = 0 since the radius of curvature is infinity and thus
there is no change in direction,
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation :

• Steady flow
• Negligible viscous effects
• No shaft work (is not applicable in a flow section that involves a
pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine)

• Incompressible flow (ρ = constant)

• Negligible heat transfer (The density of a gas is inversely
proportional to temperature )
 3-3 Flow along a streamline

The Bernoulli equation P/ρ +V2/2 + gz = C is applicable along a streamline, and the value of the constant
C is generally different for different streamlines. However, when a region of the flow is irrotational and
there is no vorticity in the flow field, the value of the constant C remains the same for all streamlines )
 3-4 Conservation of Mass Principle

• Mass flow rate : The amount of mass passing through a section per unit time
is called mass flow rate and is denoted by :

• Volume flow rate : The amount of volume passing through a section per unit
time is called volume flow rate and is denoted by :
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a
control volume does not change with time (mCV = constant). Then the
conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of mass entering a
control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.
• Many engineering devices such as nozzles, diffusers, turbines,
compressors, and pumps involve a single stream (only one inlet and
one outlet).

• Incompressible Flow : The conservation of mass relations can be

simplified even further when the fluid is incompressible, which is
usually the case for liquids. Canceling the density from both sides
of the general steady-flow relation gives
 3-5 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

• Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures (Pitot Tubes)

Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term
represents some kind of pressure:

P is the STATIC PRESSURE (it does not incorporate any dynamic effects); it
represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid.

ρV2/2 is the DYNAMIC PRESSURE; it represents the pressure rise when the
fluid in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.

ρgz is the HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE term, which is not pressure in a real

sense since its value depends on the reference level selected; it accounts for the
elevation effects.
• The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called the total
pressure. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure
along a streamline is constant. The sum of the static and dynamic pressures is
called the Stagnation Pressure (measured by Pitot tubes), it is expressed as :
• Free Jets

• Flowrate Measurement
 3-6 Applications
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
 References
• Fluid Mechanics - Fundamentals and Applications 3rd Edition Cengel
and Cimbala(2014)

• Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 7th Munson (2013)

• Fluid Mechanics 4th ed - F. White (1997)

• Engineering Fluid Mechanics 9th ED Book – Crowe(2009)

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