CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION REVIEWER

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

A. INTRODUCTION

Geotechnical Engineering - Technical specialty that deals with soil and rock as supporting materials for
structures. It also deals with the stability of soil and rock slopes.

B. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Geology – Basic science that is concerned with the history of the Earth; science of rocks and earth
processes.

Engineering Geology- deals with the application of geologic fundamentals to engineering.

Soils- formed from rock as it is acted upon by physical, chemical, and biological forces.

Basic Definitions of Soil

Engineering Viewpoint- Any earthy material that can be removed with a spade, shovel, or bulldozer; the
product of natural weathering; gravel and sand deposits.

Geological Viewpoint- The superficial unconsolidated mantle of disintegrated and decomposed rock
material.

Pedological Viewpoint- Weathered transformation of the outermost layer of the solid crust, differentiated
into horizons varying in type and amounts of mineral and organic constituents.

Rocks- Serve as parent material for natural soil formation; a hard, compact, and naturally occurring earth
material composed of one or more minerals and is permanent and durable.

Igneous Rocks- Rocks solidified from a molten or partly molten siliceous solution.

Metamorphic Rocks- Rocks that form as a result of subjecting igneous or sedimentary rocks to elevated
temperatures and pressures.

Sedimentary Rocks- Rocks that are naturally consolidated or unconsolidated transported materials and
are deposited in horizontal layers.

Magma- Molten siliceous solution.

Intrusive Formation- Cooling of magma in the subsurface.

Extrusive Formation- When magma cools and solidifies in direct contact with the atmosphere.

Structural Geology- Study of the ways in which rocks or sediments are arranged and deformed on the
Earth.

Formation- Any rock unit that is mappable and recognizable in the field.
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Contacts- Boundaries between formations.

Map View- Two-dimensional view of rock distribution.

Geologic Cross-Section- View of a vertical slice of the Earth.

Block Diagram- Combination of map view and geologic cross-section which gives a 3-D view of
formations and contacts.

Folds- Wavy undulations developed in the rocks of the Earth’s crust due to horizontal compression.

Fold Axis- An imaginary line where rocks are bent around.

Fracture- Is where the continuity of the rock mass breaks.

Faults- Are fractures in crustal strata along which appreciable shear displacement of the adjacent rock
blocks have occurred relative to each other, probably due to tectonic activities.

Fault plane- Fracture along which the shear displacement has taken place.

Joint- A fracture where little or no movement has taken place.

Anisotropic- A material whose physical, mechanical property, etc., are not all the same in each direction.

Plane of Unconformity or Unconformity- Surface plane of separation between two series of rock
beds/geological formations that belong to two different geologic ages and they are, in most cases,
different in their geologic structure.

Disconformity- Sedimentary layer deposited over eroded horizontal sedimentary layer.

Angular Unconformity- Sedimentary layer deposited over eroded angular (tilted or folded) rock.

Nonconformity- Sedimentary layer deposited over eroded igneous or metamorphic rock.

C. SOIL MECHANICS

Soil Mechanics- a branch of mechanics that studies the mechanical properties of various types of soil and
its strength at different moisture-content levels.

Karl Von Terzaghi- Father of Modern Soil Mechanics.

Soil Mass- a three-phase system which consists of solid particles, liquid, and gas.

Piping- a phenomenon in which the soil on the downstream sides of some hydraulic structures get lifted
up due to excess pressure of water.

Intergranular Pressure or Effective Pressure- the pressure transmitted through grain to grain at the
contact points through a soil mass; the pressure responsible for the decrease in the void ratio or increase
in the frictional resistance of a soil mass.
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Pore Water Pressure or Neutral Stress- termed if the pores of a soil mass are filled with water and if a
pressure induced into the pore water, tries to separate the grains; the effect of this pressure is to increase
the volume or decrease the frictional resistance of soil mass.

Elastic Theory- according to this theory, constant ratios exist between stresses and strains.

Consolidation- a process of gradual compression occurring simultaneously with a flow of water out of
the mass and with a gradual transfer applied pressure from the pore water to the mineral skeleton.

Swelling- a process which involves an increase in the water content due to an increase in the volume of
the voids; the complete opposite of consolidation.

Shear Strength- one of the most important and the most controversial engineering properties of soil; the
ability to resist sliding along internal surfaces within a mess.

Soil Exploration or Soil Investigation- the field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the
essential information on the subsoil; one of the most important parts of Foundation Engineering and at the
same time most neglected part of it.

Natural Slopes- are slopes that exist in nature and formed by natural cause; such slopes exist in hilly
areas.

Manmade Slopes- the slopes of embankments constructed for roads, sides of cuttings, railway lines,
canals, earth dams, etc.

Infinite Slopes- a term used to designate a constant slope of infinite extent; the long slope of the face of a
mountain is an example.

Finite Slopes- slopes that are limited in extent; the slopes of embankments and earth dams are examples.

Retaining Walls- are structures that are built to retain vertical or nearly vertical earth banks or any other
material; may be constructed of masonry and sheet piles.

Gravity Walls- walls that resist movement because of their heavy sections; no reinforcement is required
in these walls.

Semi-Gravity Walls- walls that are not as heavy as gravity walls; small amount of reinforcement is used
for reducing the mass of concrete.

Cantilever Walls- the stems of these walls are thinner in section; the base slab is the cantilever portion.

Counterfort Walls- walls that are similar to cantilever walls except that the stem of the walls span
horizontally between vertical brackets known as counterforts which are provided on the backfill side.

Buttressed Walls- walls that are similar to counterfort walls except the brackets or buttress walls are
provided on the opposite side of the backfill.

D. ROCK MECHANICS
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Minerals- small crystalline units; a naturally occurring inorganic substance composed of one or more
elements with a unique chemical composition, unique arrangement of elements (crystalline structure) and
distinctive physical properties.

Rock Mechanics – Study of the response of rock to an applied disturbance caused by natural or
engineering processes.

Rock Engineering – Deals with engineering applications of the basic principles and the information
available in the subjects of engineering geology and rock mechanics.

Rock Mass – Large extent of rock, from several meters to few kilometers, which can include many
discontinuities of different forms.

Dip (Ψ) or True Dip – the steepest inclination of the plane to horizontal having a range of 0° – 90°. A
horizontal plane has a dip of 0° and a vertical plane has a dip of 90°.

Dip Direction (α) or Dip Azimuth – is the direction of the horizontal line (projection) of the line of dip,
measured clockwise from the north which can be in the range of 0° to 360°.

Apparent Dip – is the inclination of any arbitrary line on the plane to horizontal, which is always less
than the true dip.

Strike – the trace (or intersection) of dipping plane with the horizontal reference plane. It is perpendicular
to the dip direction.

E. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Foundation- the interface between a superstructure and its supporting soil.

Foundation Engineering- the study of different types of foundation and their proper applications;
application and practice of the fundamental principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity- the maximum bearing capacity of soil at which the soil fails by shear.

Allowable Bearing Pressure- a pressure that is safe from shear failure criteria.

Safe Bearing Pressure- a pressure that is safe from settlement criteria.

Cantilever Footing- comprises two footings connected by a beam called strap.

Combined Footing- a long footing supporting two or more columns in one row.

Mat Foundations or Raft Foundations- a large footing, usually supporting several columns in two or
more rows.

Piles- are long slender columns either driven, bored, or cast-in-situ.

Vertical Piles- piles that are used in foundations to take normally vertical loads and small lateral loads.
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Batter Piles or Inclined Piles or Raker Piles- piles that are used when the horizontal load per pile
exceeds the value suitable for vertical piles; used in combination with vertical piles.

In-Batter Piles or Negative Batter Piles- if the lateral load acts on the pile in the direction of batter.

Out-Batter Piles or Positive Batter Piles- if the lateral load acts in the direction opposite to that of the
batter.

Piers- installed by excavating; belong to the same category as piles.

Small Diameter Pile- a pile, cast-in-sity, with a diameter less than 0.75m (2.5 ft).

Large Diameter Bored Cast-In-Situ Pile- a pile with a diameter greater than 0.75m (2.5 ft); also called
a drilled piers, drilled shafts, and drilled caissons in the USA.

Straight-Shaft End Bearing Piers- piers which develop their support from end-bearing on strong soil,
“hardpan” or rock; the overlying soil is assumed to contribute nothing to the support of the load imposed
on the pier.

Straight-Shaft Side Wall Friction Piers- piers which pass through overburden soils that are assumed to
carry none of the load and penetrate far enough into an assigned bearing stratum to develop design and
load capacity by side wall friction between the pier and bearing stratum.

Combination of Straight Shaft Side Wall Friction and End Bearing Piers- piers with combined side
wall friction and end bearing assigned a role in carrying the design load.

Belled or Underreamed Piers- piers with a bottom bell or underream; piers where a greater percentage
of the imposed load on the pier top is assumed to be carried by the base.

F. SOIL IMPROVEMENT

Soil Improvement- frequently termed soil stabilization; in its broadest sense, an alteration of any
property of a soil to improve its engineering performance.

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

A. INTRODUCTION
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Water Resources Engineering- is a specialty dealing with the use of water in support of modern living,
including the agricultural, industrial, domestic, recreational, and environmental needs.

B. WATER RESOURCES SYSTEM ENGINEERING

Hydrologic Cycle- The process where water is conserved and neither created nor destroyed.

Precipitation- occurs when atmospheric moisture becomes too great to remain suspended in the clouds.

Ocean Evaporation- greatest source of precipitation, about 90%.

Rainfall- predominant form of precipitation and its distribution over the world or within a country.

Runoff- is the water that flows across the land surface after a storm event.

Storage- Portion of the precipitation falling on land surface which does not flow as runoff gets stored as
either water bodies like Lakes, Reservoirs and Wetlands or as sub-surface water body, called
groundwater.

Groundwater- sub-surface water body.

Groundwater Storage- water infiltrating through the soil cover of a land surface and travelling further to
reach the huge body of water underground.

Lakes- Large, naturally occurring inland body of water.

Reservoirs- Artificial or natural inland body of water used to store water to meet demands.

Wet Lands- Natural or artificial areas of shallow water or saturated soils that contain or could support.

Evapotranspiration- Combination of evaporation and transpiration. It includes all evaporation from

water and land surfaces, as well as transpiration from plants.

Groundwater Recharge- Recuperation of groundwater to increase table elevation.

C. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

Hydraulic Engineering- Deals with the design of artificial waterways and manage water movement.

Fluid – a term that describes both liquid and gas.

Surface Tension- Results from different molecular bonding condition at the free surface compared to
bonds within the liquid.

Cohesion- enables water to resist tensile stress.

Adhesion- enables water to adhere to another body.

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Capillarity- property of liquids that results from surface tension in which the liquid rises up or is
depressed down a thin tube.

Specific Weight- weight per unit volume

Density- mass per unit volume.

Specific Gravity- Liquid is the ratio of its specific weight to that of pure water at a standard temperature
and should not be confused with specific weight.

Hydrostatics- Study of water at rest.

Piezometer- A simple tube connected to a body of water with its other end open to the atmosphere.

Manometer- Measures high pressure by a heavy liquid such as mercury.

Buoyancy- Uplifting force exerted by water on a submerged solid object.

Hydrodynamics or Hydrokinetics- Study of water in motion.

Velocity- The rate of change of position of the water particles.

Velocity of Flow- The average speed of all the particles crossing an imaginary plane perpendicular to the
direction of motion at a particular location along the conduit.

Discharge- Describes the amount of water passing through an plane per unit time.

Laminar Flow- Smooth flow of water with relatively low velocity.

Turbulent Flow- Rougher flow with pulsating crosscurrents within the conduit.

Steady Flow- Discharge is unchanged over time.

Unsteady Flow- Relatively rapid change of discharge.

Uniform Flow- Cross-sectional area of the conduit remains constant.

Nonuniform Flow- Change in pipe size and flow.

Energy Head- Used to describe the energy of water in solving hydraulic problems.

Potential Energy- Described as potential energy head and has length units.

Kinetic Energy- Described as kinetic energy, called velocity head, and also has units of length.

Position Head- Potential energy per unit weight of a mass of water due to the height of the water above
some datum.

Pressure Head- Potential energy per unit weight of a mass of water due to the pressure exerted from
above.
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Velocity Head- Kinetic energy per unit weight of a mass of water due to kinetic energy resulting from its
motion.

Head Loss- Loss of energy per unit weight of a mass of water due to friction and turbulence.

Hydraulic Devices- Structures that use hydraulic principles to control the flow of water.

Orifice- Hole in the wall of a container through which water may flow.

Vena Contracta- Point where flow lines are parallel and closest together.

Weir- Regulates the flow of water out of an impoundment or reservoir.

Open Channel Hydraulics- Study of the mechanics of water flowing in open conduits.

D. FLOOD CONTROL

River Flooding- This is the major cause of flooding extensive areas as a result of heavy rains in the
catchment areas as well as local areas thereby increasing the river levels.

Flash Floods- This result due to heavy rains in hilly areas which cause local rivers and small streams to
rise to dangerous levels within a short period of time say 6 to 12 hours. Heavy and continuous rains in
local areas can cause flash floods.

Urban Flooding- Local heavy rains up to 100 mm or more in a day over the city and larger towns can
cause damaging and disruptive flooding due to poor or choked drainage and rapid runoff.

Storm Surge or Tidal Flooding- This result mostly due to tropical disturbances, developing to cyclones
and crossing surrounding coastlines. Cyclone induced storm surges have devastating consequences in
coastal areas and such surge induced floods may extend many kilometers inland.

Floods Arising due to Failure of Dam- Due to poor maintenance and due to exceptionally high
precipitation a severe flood may result causing failure of the dam. This causes a surging water front
travelling with high velocity causing destruction of properties and loss of life.

Flood Management Measures- Can be classified into short-term and long-term measures depending on
the nature and extent of flooding and local conditions.

Short-term Measures- Adopted for giving quick results when immediate relief to some pockets or
locations is felt necessary.

Long-term Measures- The effectiveness of short-term effects are dependent on these.

Flood Strategies:

Modify Flooding by Structural Means- Keep water away from the potential damage areas.

Flood Forecasting- Keep people away from inundated areas.

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Modify Susceptibility to Flood Damage- Regulations are framed to avoid undesirable or unwise rise of
food plains.

Spillways- Provided in storage dams for safe disposal of the excess water flowing into the reservoir after
it has filled up.

Types of Spillways:

Controlled Crest Spillway- Permit controlled release of surplus water in excess of the reservoir
capacity.

Uncontrolled or Automatic Crest Spillway- Come into action immediately after the water level reaches
the crest of the spillway.

Overfall Spillways- Act as orifices under partial control of gates and as open crest weirs when full gate
openings are made.

Chute Spillways- Commonly adopted for Earth dams.

Side Channel and Shaft Spillways- Most suitable for narrow canyons.

Siphon Spillways- Usually used to provide approximately constant headwater flow under varying flow.

Emergency Spillway- Auxiliary spillway provided to take care of the possibility of having a flood geater
than the spillway design flood.

E. IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

Irrigation- Used in farming to enable plants to grow when there is not enough rain, particularly in arid
areas.

Water Requirement of a Crop

Crop Period- the total required water for crop growth is not uniformly distributed over its entire life
span.

Base Period- the watering stops same time before harvest and the time duration from the first irrigation
during sowing up to the last before harvest.

Paleo Irrigation- sometimes, in the initial stages before the crop is sown, the land is very dry. In such
cases, the soil is moistened with water as to helps in sowing the crops.

Kor watering- is used to describe the watering given to a crop when the plants are still young. It is
usually the maximum single watering required, and other watering are done at usual intervals.

Delta- the total depth of water required to raise a crop over a unit area of land.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING deals with the efficient transport of people and goods. The
content of transportation engineering changes whenever a new mode of transportation becomes viable.

TRANSPORTATION PLANNING considers policy formation processes, cost, financing, and projected
performance of potential transportation systems, including intermodal transportation that involves more
than one mode of travel such as sea-land-air travels.

TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE is mostly government funded or at least government

approved. Before any physical facilities are designed and built for moving people and goods, decisions
must be made from policy and political considerations.

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION TO THE ECONOMY

i. Transportation of Exploited Natural Resources

ii. Transport and Place Utility
iii. Time Utility of Transport
iv. Transport Helps Preserve the Quality of Perishable Goods
v. Transport Reduces the Cost of Goods
vi. Transport Accelerates Agricultural Development
vii. Transport and Tourism Promotion
viii. Transport is Vital for Defense and Strategic Needs
ix. Transport Facilitates International Trade
x. Transport Facilitates Administration of Vast Areas
xi. Transport Facilitates the Specialization and Economies of Scale
xii. Transport Influences Growth of Cities

THE IMPORTANT MODES OF TRANSPORT

1. Roads and Road Transport

2. Railways
3. Air Transport
4. Water Transport

THE TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM AS COMPOSED OF A FEW KEY DIMENSIONS:

 Safety - including fatalities, injuries, and property damage due to accidents;

 Efficiency - optimal allocation of resources in moving people and goods; access, provision of
enabling technologies and services to people that need to reach and use opportunities;
 Comfort - travel in environments without causing unnecessary stress and strain due to noise or
other factors;
 Environmental Pollution - production of contaminants in the air, water, or soil that are at higher
levels than naturally found and that cause harm to animals, plants, and humans.

TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM ENGINEERING entails the efficient management and operation

practices, design, and assessment of the cost-effectiveness of transportation systems.

SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TRANSPORT PLANNING

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• The transport plan should be in conformity with the nation’s overall economic development
plan.
• The transport plan should be a harmonious mix of various alternatives and modes so as to give
the maximum benefits such as economy in cost of operation, conveniences, comfort, safety and
speed.
• Environmental considerations and sustainability should be given importance.
• Transport development should be in step with the development plans for other sectors such as
agriculture, industry, mining, forestry, employment generation and export/ import trade.
• A balanced development of urban settlements and rural habitations should be aimed at.
• Conservation of energy should be given high priority in the plans.
• Public transport should be given priority over use of personalized vehicles.
• Pedestrians and cyclists should get adequate attention.

THE STAGES INVOLVED IN THE TRANSPORT PLANNING PROCESS ARE:

1. Inventory, survey and analysis of existing conditions.

2. Forecast, analysis of future conditions.
3. Formulation of feasible alternatives.
4. Evaluation of the alternatives
5. Adoption of the preferred alternative and implementation.
6. Continuing study

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING sometimes is considered as synonymous to transportation engineering but it

is usually defined as the narrower field of management of traffic flow.

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES are installed along travel routes to ensure safe, orderly, and
predictable traffic movement. They provide guidance and warnings to the motorists.

REGULATORY SIGNS are usually rectangular with a black legend on a white background.

WARNING SIGNS are used to indicate intersections, traffic signals, changes in grade, entrances, and
crossings. They are usually diamond shaped with black legend and border on a yellow background.

GUIDE SIGNS vary in size and usually feature white messages on a green background.

RECREATIONAL AND CULTURAL INTEREST AREA SIGNS, which are included under guide
signs, have a white symbol on a brown background.

ROAD MARKINGS are provided on the road pavement (carriageway markings) or on objects which are
part of the road.

STREET LIGHTING is needed for guiding road users to see the carriageway and the immediate
surroundings clearly.

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING focuses on the planning, design, construction, and operation and
maintenance of highways.
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STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE is the distance required by a driver of a vehicle travelling at a given
speed to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the roadway becomes visible.

OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE is that distance which should be available to enable the driver to
overtake another vehicle safely and comfortably without interfering with the speed of an oncoming
vehicle travelling at the design speed should it come into view after the overtaking maneuver is started.

RAILWAY ENGINEERING focuses on the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance
of railways.

ROLE OF RAILWAYS

1. Facilitated the industrialization

2. Serves as bulk carriers
3. Suitable for long haulage
4. Suitable for high density traffic
5. Serves as mass rapid system in metropolitan areas
6. Serves as a cheap mode for long distance passenger travel
7. Helps administer large areas
8. Supports military movements
9. Provides public utility services for movement of low-rated goods

AIRPORT SITE SELECTION requires extensive study of regional topography, including local
constructed structures, prevailing winds, and, for airplane safety, movements of birds.

CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

A BUILDING is an assemblage that is firmly attached to the ground and that provides total or nearly
total shelter for machines, processing equipment, performance of human activities, storage of human
possessions, or any combination of these.

An environment that is created by a man with or without the help of natural environment is called a
BUILT ENVIRONMENT.

BUILDING DESIGN is the process of providing all information necessary for construction of a building
that will meet its owner’s requirements and also satisfy public health, welfare, and safety requirements.

ARCHITECTURE is the art and science of building design.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION is the process of assembling materials to form a building.

DRAWINGS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

• LOCATION DRAWINGS AND SITE PLANS: used to locate site, buildings, define site levels,
indicate services to buildings, identify parts of site such as roads, footpaths and boundaries and to
give setting-out dimensions for the site and buildings as a whole. Suitable scale not less than
1:2500
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• FLOOR PLANS: used to identify and set out parts of the building such as rooms, corridors,
doors, windows, etc. Suitable scale not less than 1:100
• ELEVATIONS: used to show external appearance of all faces and to identify doors and
windows. Suitable scale not less than 1:100
• SECTIONS: used to provide vertical views through the building to show method of construction.
Suitable scale not less than 1:50
• COMPONENT DRAWINGS: used to identify and supply data for components to be supplied
by a manufacturer or for components not completely covered by assembly drawings. Suitable
scale range 1:100 to 1:1
• ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS: used to show how items fit together or are assembled to form
elements. Suitable scale range 1:20 to 1:5 All drawings should be fully annotated, fully
dimensioned and cross-referenced.
• SKETCH: this can be defined as a draft or rough outline of an idea; it can be a means of
depicting a three-dimensional form in a two-dimensional guise.

The basic objective of SITE INVESTIGATION is to collect systematically and record all the necessary
data which will be needed or will help in the design and construction processes of the proposed work.

BULLDOZERS These machines consist of a track or wheel mounted power unit with a mould blade at
the front which is controlled by hydraulic rams.

SCRAPERS These machines consist of a scraper bowl which is lowered to cut and collect soil where site
stripping and levelling operations are required involving large volume of earth.

GRADERS These machines are similar in concept to bulldozers in that they have a long, slender,
adjustable mould blade, which is usually slung under the centre of the machine.

EXCAVATING MACHINES These are one of the major items of builders plant and are used primarily
to excavate and load most types of soil.

TRANSPORT VEHICLES These can be defined as vehicles whose primary function is to convey
passengers and/or materials between and around building sites.

RUBBLE CHUTES AND SKIPS These apply to contracts involving demolition, repair, maintenance
and refurbishment. The simple concept of connecting several perforated dustbins is reputed to have been
conceived by an ingenious site operative for the expedient and safe conveyance of materials.

CRANES These are lifting devices designed to raise materials by means of rope operation and move the
load horizontally within the limitations of any particular machine.

ESTIMATING is the process of determining the expected quantities and costs of the materials, labor,
and equipment for a construction project.

A CONTRACT is a legal document that specifies the responsibilities of both the contractor who delivers
the service and the owner who receives the service.
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SPECIFICATIONS are also legal documents that the contractor must follow throughout the project.
Specifications are often based on well-developed construction practices but sometimes may include
special requirements added by the owner.