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DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

FIRST SEMESTER 2024-2025

BMED105: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

LESSON 3.1: Basic Overview of the Skeletal System

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Determine the basic types of bones based on their classical shapes or morphology
• Identify the major components and layers of the intact bone.
• Identify the bones of axial skeleton and their respective bone development process and their salient
features.
• Correlate clinical significance of axial bones, by given examples or case study.

The Skeletal System and its functions

The skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilages, and ligaments joined tightly to form strong,
flexible framework for the body. Cartilage is the forerunner of most bones that form during embryonic
development and childhood development. It also covers many joint surfaces in the mature human skeleton.
The ligaments hold the bones together at the joints. The functions of the skeletal system are summarized in
table 1:
Table 1. Functions of the Skeletal System
Function Examples/Explanation
Support Bones of the legs, pelvis, and vertebral column hold up the body; the mandible
supports the teeth; nearly all bones provide support for muscles; many other soft
organs are directly or indirectly supported by nearby bones.
Protection Bones enclose and protects the brain, spinal cord, lungs, heart, pelvis, viscera, and
bone marrow.
Movement Skeletal muscles would serve little purpose if not for the rigid attachment and
leverage provided by the bones. Leg and arm movements are the most obvious
examples of skeletomuscular movement; less obvious one is that ventilation of the
lungs depends on the movement of the ribs by skeletal muscles.
Blood formation Red bone marrow is the major producer of blood cells, including most cells of the
immune system.
Electrolyte balance The skeleton is the body’s main mineral reservoir. It stores calcium and phosphate
and releases them according to the body’s physiological needs.
Acid-base balance Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing
alkaline salts.
Detoxification Bone tissue removes heavy metals and other foreign elements from the blood and
thus reduces their effects on nervous and other tissues. It can later release these
more slowly for excretion.
Source: Saladin, KS. 2001. Anatomy and Physiology the unity of form and function. 2nd ed.Boston: McGraw-Hill Companie
 The skeleton is subdivided into two divisions: the axial skeleton, the bones that form the longitudinal
axis of the body, and the appendicular skeleton, the bones of the limbs and girdles that are “appended”
(attached) to the axial skeleton. Figure 1 shows bones of the human skeleton.

Figure 1. The Human Skeleton

(Source: Marieb, Elaine N. 2015. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology 11th edition. USA: Pearson Education)

Bone Markings

Bone surfaces are not featureless and smooth but are scarred with an array of bumps, holes, and
ridges called bone markings. Bone markings fall into two categories: projections, or processes that grow out
from the bone and serve as sites of muscle attachment or help form the joints; depressions or cavities,
indentions or openings in the bone that serve as passageways for nerves and blood vessels. The bone markings
are summarized in Table 2.
Classification of Bone

The 206 bones of the adult skeleton are composed of two basic kinds of osseus tissue that differ in
texture. Compact bone is dense and looks smooth and homogenous. Spongy bone is composed of trabeculae
(needle-like bars) of bone and with many open spaces. Bones may further be classified on the basis of their
gross anatomy into four groups: long, short, flat, and irregular bones.

• Long bones are typically longer than they are wide. As a rule, they have a shaft with heads at both
ends. Long bones are mostly compact bone. All the bones of the limbs, except the patella (kneecap)
and the wrist and ankle bones, are long bones.

• Short bones are generally cube-shaped and contain mostly spongy bone. The bones of the wrist and
ankle are short bones. Sesamoid (ses′ah-moyd) bones, which form within tendons, are a special type
 of short bone. The best-known example is the patella.

• Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. They have two thin layers of compact bone
sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them. Most bones of the skull, the ribs, and the sternum
(breastbone) are flat bones.

• Irregular bones are bones that do not fit one of the preceding categories. The vertebrae, which make
up the spinal column are irregular bones.

Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

A typical long bone consists of the following parts:

1. The diaphysis (dı¯-AF-i-sis growing between) is the bone’s shaft or body—the long, cylindrical, main
portion of the bone.

2. The epiphyses (e-PIF-i-se¯z growing over; singular is epiphysis) are the proximal and distal ends of
the bone.

3. The metaphyses (me-TAF-i-se¯z; meta- between; singular is metaphysis) are the regions between the
diaphysis and the epiphyses. In a growing bone, each metaphysis contains an epiphyseal (growth)
plate (ep-i-FIZ-e¯-al), a layer of hyaline cartilage that allows the diaphysis of the bone to grow in
length (described later in the chapter). When a bone ceases to grow in length at about ages 18–21,
the cartilage in the epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone; the resulting bony structure is known as the
epiphyseal line.
 4. The articular cartilage is a thin layer of hyaline
cartilage covering the part of the epiphysis
where the bone forms an articulation (joint)
with another bone. Articular cartilage reduces
friction and absorbs shock at freely movable
joints.

5. The periosteum (per-e--OS-te--um; peri-

round) surrounds the external bone surface
wherever it is not covered by articular
cartilage. It is composed of an outer fibrous
layer of dense irregular connective tissue and
an inner osteogenic layer that consists of
cells. Some of the cells of the periosteum
enable bone to grow in thickness, but not in
length. The periosteum also protects the
bone, assists in fracture repair, helps nourish
bone tissue, and serves as an attachment
point for ligaments and tendons. It is attached
to the underlying bone through perforating
(Sharpey’s) fibers, thick bundles of collagen
fibers that extend from the periosteum into
the extracellular bone matrix.

6. The medullary cavity (MED-u--lar-e-; medulla- marrow, pith) or marrow cavity is a hollow, cylindrical
space within the diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults.

7. The endosteum (end-OS-te--um; endo- within) is a thin membrane that lines the internal bone
surface facing the medullary cavity. It contains a single layer of cells and a small amount of connective
tissue.

Microscopic structure of compact bone

Compact bone tissue contains few spaces and is the strongest form of bone tissue. It is found beneath
the periosteum of all bones and makes up the bulk of the diaphyses of long bones. Compact bone tissue
provides protection and support and resists the stresses produced by weight and movement.
Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves from the periosteum penetrate compact bone through
transverse perforating or Volkmann’s (FOLK-mans) canals. The vessels and nerves of the perforating canals
connect with those of the medullary cavity, periosteum, and central or haversian canals (ha-VER-shun). The
central canals run longitudinally through the bone. Around the central canals are concentric lamellae (la-MEL-
e¯)—rings of calcified extracellular matrix much like the rings of a tree trunk. Between the lamellae are small
spaces called lacunae (la-KOO-ne¯ little lakes; singular is lacuna), which contain osteocytes. Radiating in all
directions from the lacunae are tiny canaliculi (kan-a-LIK-u¯-lı¯ small channels) filled with extracellular fluid.
Inside the canaliculi are slender fingerlike processes of osteocytes. Neighboring osteocytes communicate via
gap junctions. The canaliculi connect lacunae with one another and with the central canals, forming an
intricate, miniature system of interconnected canals throughout the bone. This system provides many routes
for nutrients and oxygen to reach the osteocytes and for the removal of wastes.
 The components of compact bone tissue are arranged into repeating structural units called osteons
or haversian systems. Each osteon consists of a central (haversian) canal with its concentrically arranged
lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi. Osteons in compact bone tissue are aligned in the same direction
along lines of stress. In the shaft, for example, they are parallel to the long axis of the bone. As a result, the
shaft of a long bone resists bending or fracturing even when considerable force is applied from either end. The
osteons of a long bone can be compared to a stack of logs; each log is made up of rings of hard material, and
together it requires considerable force to fracture them all.

SSS

The areas between osteons contain interstitial lamellae (in-ter-STISH-al), which also have lacunae
with osteocytes and canaliculi. Interstitial lamellae are fragments of older osteons that have been partially
destroyed during bone rebuilding or growth. Lamellae that encircle the bone just beneath the periosteum or
encircle the medullary cavity are called circumferential lamellae.

REFERENCES

Eroschenko VP. 1995. di Fiore’s atlas of histology with functional correlations 8th edition. Canada:
Williams & Wilkins
Marieb, EN. 2015. Essentials of human anatomy and physiology 11th edition. USA: Pearson Education
Marieb, EN. 2009. Essentials of human anatomy and physiology laboratory manual 4th edition. USA:
Pearson Education
Tortora, G. and Derrickson B. 2009. Principles of anatomy and physiology 12th edition USA: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
Van Putte C, Regan J, Russo A.2016. Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology .9th edition.
International student edition.