Definition of Mathematical Literacy

An understanding of mathematics is central to a young person’s preparedness

for life in modern society. A growing proportion of problems and situations
encountered in daily life, including in professional contexts, require some level
of understanding of mathematics, mathematical reasoning and mathematical
tools, before they can be fully understood and addressed. Mathematics is a
critical tool for young people as they confront issues and challenges in personal,
occupational, societal, and scientific aspects of their lives. It is thus important to
have an understanding of the degree to which young people emerging from
school are adequately prepared to apply mathematics to understanding
important issues and solving meaningful problems. An assessment at age 15
provides an early indication of how individuals may respond in later life to the
diverse array of situations they will encounter that involve mathematics.
As the basis for an international assessment of 15-year-old students, it is
reasonable to ask: “What is important for citizens to know and be able to do in
situations that involve mathematics?” More specifically, what does competency
in mathematics mean for a 15-year-old, who may be emerging from school or
preparing to pursue more specialised training for a career or university
admission? It is important that the construct of mathematical literacy, which is
used in this report to denote the capacity of individuals to formulate, employ,
and interpret mathematics in a variety of contexts, not be perceived as
synonymous with minimal, or low-level, knowledge and skills. Rather, it is
intended describe the capacities of individuals to reason mathematically and use
mathematical concepts, procedures, facts and tools to describe, explain and
predict phenomena. This conception of mathematical literacy supports the
importance of students developing a strong understanding of concepts of pure
mathematics and the benefits of being engaged in explorations in the abstract
world of mathematics. The construct of mathematical literacy, as defined for
PISA, strongly emphasises the need to develop students’ capacity to use
mathematics in context, and it is important that they have rich experiences in
their mathematics classrooms to accomplish this. This is true for those 15-year-
old students who are close to the end of their formal mathematics training, as
well as those who will continue with the formal study of mathematics. In
addition, it can be argued that for almost all students, the motivation to learn
mathematics increases when they see the relevance of what they are learning to
the world outside the classroom and to other subjects.
Mathematical literacy naturally transcends age boundaries. However, its
assessment for 15-year-olds must take into account relevant characteristics of
these students; hence, there is a need to identify age-appropriate content,
language and contexts. This framework distinguishes between broad categories
of content that are important to mathematical literacy for individuals generally,
and the specific content topics that are appropriate for 15-year-old students.
Mathematical literacy is not an attribute that an individual either has or does not
have. Rather, mathematical literacy is an attribute that is on a continuum, with
some individuals being more mathematically literate than others—and with the
potential for growth always present.

For the purposes of PISA 2015, mathematical literacy is defined as follows:

Mathematical literacy is an individual’s capacity to formulate, employ, and interpret

mathematics in a variety of contexts. It includes reasoning mathematically and using
mathematical concepts, procedures, facts and tools to describe, explain and predict
phenomena. It assists individuals to recognise the role that mathematics plays in the
world and to make the well-founded judgments and decisions needed by
constructive, engaged and reflective citizens.

Some explanatory remarks are provided below to highlight and clarify aspects
of the definition that are particularly important.

A view of students as active problem solvers in PISA 2015

The focus of the language in the definition of mathematical literacy is on active
engagement in mathematics, and is intended to encompass reasoning
mathematically and using mathematical concepts, procedures, facts and tools in
describing, explaining and predicting phenomena. In particular, the verbs
‘formulate,’ ‘employ,’ and ‘interpret’ point to the three processes in which
students as active problem solvers will engage. Formulating situations
mathematically involves identifying opportunities to apply and use mathematics
– seeing that mathematics can be applied to understand or resolve a particular
problem or challenge presented. it includes being able to take a situation as
presented and transform it into a form amenable to mathematical treatment,
providing mathematical structure and representations, identifying variables and
making simplifying assumptions to help solve the problem or meet the
challenge. Employing mathematics involves applying mathematical reasoning
and using mathematical concepts, procedures, facts and tools to derive a
mathematical solution. It includes performing calculations, manipulating
algebraic expressions and equations or other mathematical models, analysing
information in a mathematical manner from mathematical diagrams and graphs,
developing mathematical descriptions and explanations and using mathematical
tools to solve problems. Interpreting mathematics involves reflecting upon
mathematical solutions or results and interpreting them in the context of a
problem or challenge. It includes evaluating mathematical solutions or
reasoning in relation to the context of the problem and determining whether the
results are reasonable and make sense in the situation.
The language of the definition is also intended to integrate the notion of
mathematical modelling, which has historically been a cornerstone of the PISA
framework for mathematics (e.g. OECD, 2003), into the PISA 2015 definition
of mathematical literacy. As individuals use mathematics and mathematical
tools to solve problems in contexts, their work progresses through a series of
stages. Figure 1 shows an overview of the major constructs of this framework
and indicates how they relate to each other.
The outer-most box in Figure 1 shows that mathematical literacy takes place in
the context of a challenge or problem that arises in the real world. In this
framework, these challenges are characterised in two ways. The context
categories, which will be described in detail later in this document, identify the
areas of life from which the problem arises. The context may be of a personal
nature, involving problems or challenges that might confront an individual or
one’s family or peer group. The problem might instead be set in a societal
context (focusing on one’s community— whether it be local, national, or
global), an occupational context (centred on the world of work), or a scientific
context (relating to the application of mathematics to the natural and
technological world). A problem is also characterised by the nature of the
mathematical phenomenon that underlies the challenge. The four mathematical
content categories identify broad classes of phenomena that mathematics has
been created to analyse. These mathematical content categories (Quantity,
Uncertainty and data, Change and relationships, and Space and shape) are also
identified in the outer- most box of Figure 1.
 To solve such contextualised problems, individuals must apply mathematical
thought and action to the challenge, and the framework characterises this in
three different ways. First, Figure 1 acknowledges the need of the individual
to draw upon a variety of mathematical concepts, knowledge and skills
during the work. This mathematical knowledge is drawn upon as the
individual represents and communicates mathematics, devises strategies,
reasons and makes arguments, and so forth. These mathematical actions are
 characterised in the framework in terms of seven fundamental mathematical
capabilities which are listed in Figure 1 and described in detail later in the
document. as an individual works on the problem— which may require
problem formulation, employing mathematical concepts or procedures, or
interpretation of a mathematical solution—the fundamental mathematical
capabilities are activated successively and simultaneously, drawing on
mathematical content from appropriate topics, to create a solution.
 The visual depiction of the mathematical modelling cycle in the inner-most
box of Figure 1 portrays an idealised and simplified version of the stages
through which a problem solver moves when exhibiting mathematical
literacy. It shows an idealised series of stages that begin with the “problem in
context.” the problem solver tries to identify the relevant mathematics in the
problem situation and formulates the situation mathematically according to
the concepts and relationships identified and simplifying assumptions made.
The problem solver thus transforms the “problem in context” into a
“mathematical problem” amenable to mathematical treatment. The
downward-pointing arrow in Figure 1 depicts the work undertaken as the
problem solver employs mathematical concepts, procedures, facts, and tools
to obtain “mathematical results.” this stage typically involves mathematical
reasoning, manipulation, transformation and computation. Next, the
“mathematical results” need to be interpreted in terms of the original
problem (“results in context”). This involves the problem solver interpreting,
applying, and evaluating mathematical outcomes and their reasonableness in
the context of a real-world-based problem. These processes of formulating,
employing, and interpreting mathematics are key components of the
mathematical modelling cycle and also key components of the definition of
mathematical literacy. These three processes each draw on fundamental
mathematical capabilities, which in turn draw on the problem solver’s
detailed mathematical knowledge about individual topics.
Figure 1 A model of mathematical literacy in practice
The modelling cycle is a central aspect of the PISA conception of students as
active problem solvers; however, it is often not necessary to engage in every
stage of the modelling cycle, especially in the context of an assessment (Niss et
al., 2007). It is often the case that significant parts of the mathematical
modelling cycle have been undertaken by others, and the end user carries out
some of the steps of the modelling cycle, but not all of them. For example, in
some cases, mathematical representations, such as graphs or equations, are
given that can be directly manipulated in order to answer some question or to
draw some conclusion. For this reason, many PISA items involve only parts of
the modelling cycle. In reality, the problem solver may also sometimes oscillate
between the processes, returning to revisit earlier decisions and assumptions.
Each of the processes may present considerable challenges, and several
iterations around the whole cycle may be required.
An explicit link to a variety of contexts for problems in PISA 2015
The reference to “a variety of contexts” in the definition of mathematical
literacy is purposeful and intended as a way to link to the specific contexts that
are described and exemplified more fully later in this framework. The specific
contexts themselves are not so important, but the four categories selected for
use here (personal, occupational, societal, and scientific) do reflect a wide range
of situations in which individuals may meet mathematical opportunities. The
definition also acknowledges that mathematical literacy helps individuals
recognise the role that mathematics plays in the world and in helping they make
the kinds of well-founded judgments and decisions required of constructive,
engaged, and reflective citizens.
A visible role for mathematical tools, including technology in PISA 2015
The definition of mathematical literacy explicitly includes the use of
mathematical tools. These tools include a variety of physical and digital
equipment, software, and calculation devices. Computer- based mathematical
tools are in common use in workplaces of the 21st century, and will be
increasingly more prevalent as the century progresses. The nature of work-
related problems and logical reasoning has expanded with these new
opportunities—creating enhanced expectations for mathematical literacy.
A computer-based assessment of mathematics (CBAM) was an optional domain
offered within the PISA 2012 survey. For the 2015 cycle, computer based
assessment (CBA) will be the primary mode of testing, although an equivalent
paper-based instrument will be available for those countries who choose not to
test their students by computer. Reference to mathematical tools in the
definition of mathematical literacy is, therefore, particularly appropriate. The
use of calculators has been permitted in all PISA mathematics surveys to date,
where consistent with the policy of the participating country. While previous
PISA mathematics items have been developed to be as ‘calculator neutral’ as
possible, for some of the paper-based items presented to students in 2012, a
calculator would have been of assistance. The 2015 computer-based survey
includes tools such as an online calculator as part of the computer-based test
material provided for some questions. Since PISA items reflect problems that
arise in personal, occupational, societal, and scientific contexts, and calculators
are used in all of these settings, a calculator is of assistance in some PISA items.
The computer-based assessment could provide the opportunity to include a
wider range of mathematics tools, however to keep the assessment maximally
comparable to the paper based assessment of 2012 the only tool made available
will be the onscreen scientific calculator.

ORGANISATION OF THE DOMAIN

The PISA mathematics framework defines the domain of mathematics for the
PISA survey and describes an approach to the assessment of the mathematical
literacy of 15-year-olds. That is, PISA assesses the extent to which 15-year-old
students can handle mathematics adeptly when confronted with situations and
problems – the majority of which are presented in real-world contexts.
For purposes of the assessment, the PISA 2015 definition of mathematical
literacy can be analysed in terms of three interrelated aspects:
 The mathematical processes that describe what individuals do to connect
the context of the problem with mathematics and thus solve the problem,
and the capabilities that underlie those processes;
 The mathematical content that is targeted for use in the assessment items;
and
 The contexts in which the assessment items are located.
The following sections elaborate these aspects. in highlighting these aspects of
the domain, the PISA 2012 mathematics framework helps ensure that
assessment items developed for the survey reflect a range of processes, content,
and contexts, so that, considered as a whole, the set of assessment items
effectively operationalises what this framework defines as mathematical
literacy.

Fundamental mathematical capabilities underlying the mathematical

processes
A decade of experience in developing PISA items and analysing the ways in
which students respond to items has revealed that there is a set of fundamental
mathematical capabilities that underpins each of these reported processes and
mathematical literacy in practice. The work of Mogens Niss and his Danish
colleagues (Niss, 2003; Niss and Jensen, 2002; Niss and Højgaard, 2011)
identified eight capabilities — referred to as “competencies” by Niss and in the
2003 framework (OECD, 2003) — that are instrumental to mathematical
behaviour. The PISA 2015 framework uses a modified formulation of this set of
capabilities, which condenses the number from eight to seven based on an
investigation of the operation of the competencies through previously
administered PISA items (Turner et al., 2013). There is wide recognition of the
need to identify such a set of general mathematical capabilities, to complement
the role of specific mathematical content knowledge in mathematics learning.
Prominent examples include the eight mathematical practices of the Common
Core State Standards in the United States (2010), the four key processes
(representing, analysing, interpreting and evaluating, and communicating and
reflecting) of the England’s Mathematics national Curriculum (Qualifications
and Curriculum authority, 2007), and the process standards in the national
Council of teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Principles and Standards for
School Mathematics (NCTM, 2000). These cognitive capabilities are available
to or learnable by individuals

in order to understand and engage with the world in a mathematical way, or to

solve problems. As the level of mathematical literacy possessed by an
individual increases, that individual is able to draw to an increasing degree on
the fundamental mathematical capabilities (Turner and Adams, 2012). Thus,
increasing activation of fundamental mathematical capabilities is associated
with increasing item difficulty. This observation has been used as the basis of
the descriptions of different proficiency levels of mathematical literacy reported
in previous PISA surveys and discussed later in this framework.
The seven fundamental mathematical capabilities used in this framework are as
follows:
 Communication: Mathematical literacy involves communication. The
individual perceives the existence of some challenge and is stimulated to
recognise and understand a problem situation. Reading, decoding and
interpreting statements, questions, tasks or objects enables the individual to
form a mental model of the situation, which is an important step in
understanding, clarifying and formulating a problem. During the solution
process, intermediate results may need to be summarised and presented.
Later on, once a solution has been found, the problem solver may need to
present the solution, and perhaps an explanation or justification, to others.
 Mathematising: Mathematical literacy can involve transforming a problem
defined in the real world to a strictly mathematical form (which can include
structuring, conceptualising, making assumptions, and/or formulating a
model), or interpreting or evaluating a mathematical outcome or a
mathematical model in relation to the original problem. The term
mathematising is used to describe the fundamental mathematical activities
involved.
 Representation: Mathematical literacy very frequently involves
representations of mathematical objects and situations. This can entail
selecting, interpreting, translating between, and using a variety of
representations to capture a situation, interact with a problem, or to present
one’s work. The representations referred to include graphs, tables, diagrams,
pictures, equations, formulae, and concrete materials.
 Reasoning and argument: a mathematical ability that is called on throughout
the different stages and activities associated with mathematical literacy is
referred to as reasoning and argument. This capability involves logically
 rooted thought processes that explore and link problem elements so as to
make inferences from them, check a justification that is given, or provide a
justification of statements or solutions to problems.
 Devising strategies for solving problems: Mathematical literacy frequently
requires devising strategies for solving problems mathematically. This
involves a set of critical control processes that guide an individual to
effectively recognise, formulate and solve problems. this skill is
characterised as selecting or devising a plan or strategy to use mathematics
to solve problems arising from a task or context, as well as guiding its
implementation. This mathematical capability can be demanded at any of the
stages of the problem solving process.
 Using symbolic, formal and technical language and operations:
Mathematical literacy requires using symbolic, formal and technical
language and operations. this involves understanding, interpreting,
manipulating, and making use of symbolic expressions within a
mathematical context (including arithmetic expressions and operations)
governed by mathematical conventions and rules. It also involves
understanding and utilising formal constructs based on definitions, rules and
formal systems and also using algorithms with these entities. The symbols,
rules and systems used will vary according to what particular mathematical
content knowledge is needed for a specific task to formulate, solve or
interpret the mathematics.
 Using mathematical tools: the final mathematical capability that underpins
mathematical literacy in practice is using mathematical tools. Mathematical
tools encompass physical tools such as measuring instruments, as well as
calculators and computer-based tools that are becoming more widely
available. This ability involves knowing about and being able to make use of
various tools that may assist mathematical activity, and knowing about the
limitations of such tools. Mathematical tools can also have an important role
in communicating results.
These capabilities are evident to varying degrees in each of the three
mathematical processes. The ways in which these capabilities manifest
themselves within the three processes are described in Figure 2. More detail on
these capabilities, particularly as they relate to item difficulty, can be found in
Appendix A. In addition, each of the illustrative examples provided in
Appendix B describes how the capabilities might be activated by students
solving that particular problem.
Relationship between mathematical processes (top horizontal row) and
fundamental mathematical capabilities (left-most vertical column)
Formulating Employing Interpreting, applying
situations mathematical and evaluating
mathematically concepts, facts, mathematical
procedures and outcomes
reasoning
Communicati Read, decode, Articulate a solution, Construct and
ng and make sense show the work communicate
of statements, involved in reaching a explanations and
questions, tasks, solution and/or arguments in the
objects or summarise and context of the problem
images, in order present intermediate
to form a mental mathematical results
model of the
situation
Mathematisin Identify the Use an understanding Understand the extent
g underlying of and limits of a
mathematical the context to guide or mathematical solution
variables and expedite the that are a consequence
structures in the mathematical solving of the mathematical
real world process, model employed
problem, and e.g. working to a
make assumptions context- appropriate
so that they can be level of accuracy
used
Representatio Create a Make sense of, relate Interpret mathematical
n mathematical and use outcomes in a variety
representation of a variety of of formats in relation
real-world representations when to a situation or use;
information interacting with a compare or evaluate
problem two or more
representations in
relation to a situation
Reasoning Explain, defend or Reflect on
Explain, defend or provide
and mathematical solutions
provide
argument a justification for and create
a justification for
the processes and explanations and
the identified or
procedures used to arguments that
devised
determine a support, refute
representation of
 a real-world mathematical result or qualify a
situation or solution mathematical solution
to a contextualised
Connect pieces of problem
information to
arrive at a
mathematical
solution, make
generalisations or
create a multi-step
argument
Devising Select or devise Activate effective and Devise and implement
strategies for a plan or sustained control astrategy in order to
solving strategy to mechanisms across interpret, evaluate
problems mathematically a multi-step procedure and validate a
reframe leading to a mathematical solution
contextualised mathematical to a contextualised
problems solution, conclusion, problem
or generalisation
Using Use appropriate Understand and Understand the
symbolic, variables, utilise formal relationship between
formal and symbols, constructs based on the context of the
technical diagrams and definitions, rules and problem and
language standard models formal systems as representation of the
and in order to well as employing mathematical solution.
operations represent a real- algorithms Use this understanding
world problem to help interpret the
using solution
symbolic/formal in context and gauge
language the feasibility and
possible limitations of
the solution
Using Use Know about and be Use mathematical
mathematic mathematical able to make tools to ascertain the
al tools tools in order to appropriate use of reasonableness of a
recognise various tools that may mathematical solution
mathematical assist in and any limits and
structures or to implementing constraints
portray processes and on that solution, given
mathematical procedures the context of the
relationships for determining problem
mathematical solutions
Theories of Learning Mathematics
Raymond’s Model
The study was conducted via a naturalistic inquiry approach. The participants in
the study were six beginning elementary teacher who were all graduates of
Indiana University and who had been placed in teaching positions within a 50-
mile radius of Bloomington, Indiana. Of the six teachers. five were females and
One was a male. The procedures for data collection included seven individual
interviews, five classroom observations, an analysis of the participants' lesson
planning styles, a take-home beliefs questionnaire, and an activity involving the
pieces of my model of the relationships between beliefs and practice.
The analysis of the data took place throughout the data collection phase and
beyond, and includes feedback the respondents. Each teacher's beliefs about
mathematics and mathematics pedagogy were categorized as traditional,
primarily traditional, and even mix of traditional and non-traditional, primarily
non-traditional, or non-traditional.
Similarly, each teacher's practice was categorized on the same "traditional/non-
traditional scale " by measuring the extent to which her practice, regarding the
classroom environment, types of mathematical tasks, the kinds of discourse, and
the means of evaluation, matches the "non-traditional 'type of practice described
in the Professional Teaching Standards.
Categorizations of beliefs and practices were compared and discussed in light of
the primary influences on beliefs and practices, and the reasons for
inconsistencies were identified by the teachers. The final stage of the analysis
consisted of the development of a revised model of the relationships between
mathematics beliefs and practices based on the findings from the study.
 The model suggests complex relationships between mathematics
teachers’ beliefs and their practice, and it contributes to a better understanding
of some factors that are considered to be important when teachers attempted to
explain the existence of inconsistencies between them. Raymond (1997)
suggested that the main causes of the inconsistencies reported in her study were
not so much teachers’ beliefs, but school and classroom practices. The
cumulative effect of these other influences (i.e., past school experiences, teacher
education program, personality traits of the teacher, social teaching norms, etc.)
was the main cause of inconsistencies between beliefs and practice. The
manifestation of teachers’ beliefs in mathematics classrooms would be likely to
be influenced by: (a) the teacher’s prior experiences of learning mathematics,
classroom teaching, peer interactions, awareness of research results in
mathematics education, using mathematics in other life experiences, teacher
education programs; and (b) by various socio-historical, socio-economic, socio-
political, and sociocultural factors.

The Pirie–Kieren Theory outlines eight levels of mathematical

understanding, ranging from "primitive knowing" to "inventising" (see Figure
1). This model suggests that as learners progress, their understanding becomes
more general and abstract. Learning is not strictly linear; instead, it involves
recursive loops where students may revisit and refine earlier concepts.
Levels of Understanding
1. Primitive Doing: Learners use physical objects or visuals to grasp
concepts, serving as a foundation for further understanding.
2. Image Making: Students begin to form mental images of the concepts,
linking actions to their understanding.
3. Image Having: This level marks the first abstract thinking, where
learners understand concepts independently of physical actions.
4. Property Noticing: Here, students identify specific properties and
relationships within their mental images, deepening their understanding.
5. Formalizing: Learners create formal definitions and general statements
based on their previous insights, demonstrating higher-order thinking.
6. Observing: Students organize their formal knowledge, leading to the
creation of theorems based on their observations.
7. Structuring: At this level, learners develop theories by connecting
related theorems and validating their ideas.
8. Inventizing: This final stage represents a comprehensive understanding,
enabling learners to generate new concepts and questions.
 Different kinds of mathematical knowing (Mason and Spence) (1998).

Kind of Knowing-That Knowing-How Knowing-Why Knowing-To

Knowing
Knowing Knowing how Knowing why Seizing the
something (e.g., to do something is true opportunity to
the sum of something or works (e.g., use a technique
interior angles (e.g., finding the algorithm to that comes to
Description of a triangle is the area of a divide fractions) mind in the
180 degrees) triangle) moment of
working on a
problem.

"The sum of the "Knowing the "Understanding "Recognizing

interior angles algorithm to why the that a particular
of a triangle is divide one algorithm to problem can be
180 degrees." fraction by divide fractions solved using a
Example another fraction works involves specific
involves inverting and theorem or
inverting and multiplying." formula."
multiplying."
Different stages of cognitive development of children and their implication
in teaching abstract ideas in mathematics
The stages of cognitive development, based largely on Piaget’s theory, reveal
how children’s thinking evolves over time and how they process abstract
concepts differently at each stage. Understanding these stages can guide
educators on when and how to introduce abstract ideas effectively.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

 Characteristics: Children learn through sensory experiences and
movement. They understand the world through direct physical interaction
and do not yet form abstract ideas.
 Implications for Teaching Mathematics: Formal math instruction is not
appropriate at this stage, but foundational concepts like counting,
recognizing shapes, and understanding spatial relationships can be
introduced informally through play. For instance, stacking blocks, shape-
sorting toys, and counting objects in daily activities help children start
recognizing quantity and spatial awareness.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
 Characteristics: Children develop symbolic thinking (using objects or
words to represent other things) and have a growing vocabulary. They
think intuitively but lack logical reasoning skills and cannot yet
understand abstract ideas or hypothetical situations.
 Implications for Teaching Mathematics: At this stage, children need
concrete, tangible experiences to understand math concepts. Abstract
symbols like numerals should be tied to physical objects to make
meaning. For example:
 Counting with Objects: Use manipulatives like blocks or counters
to represent numbers.
 Simple Addition and Subtraction: Encourage children to add or
remove objects from a group rather than writing equations.
 Visual Aids: Pictures and real-world examples help children
associate numbers with quantities.
 Avoid pure abstractions, as children understand math better through
hands-on experiences and direct manipulation of objects.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
 Characteristics: Children develop logical thinking but still need
concrete, hands-on materials to grasp more abstract ideas. They
understand conservation (the idea that quantity remains the same even if
its appearance changes), reversibility, and basic problem-solving.
 Implications for Teaching Mathematics: At this stage, students can
begin working with slightly more abstract concepts but still benefit from
concrete examples. Effective teaching methods include:
 Introduction of Multiplication and Division: Use arrays,
grouping, and repeated addition to explain these operations.
 Fractions and Decimals: Use visual aids like fraction strips, pie
charts, or money to represent parts of a whole, helping students see
tangible representations.
 Early Algebraic Thinking: Begin introducing simple algebraic
concepts with the help of visual patterns, number lines, or
manipulatives.
 Students can start transitioning to mental math, but concrete
materials like base-ten blocks, fraction models, and visual
representations still reinforce abstract ideas.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up)
 Characteristics: Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly,
reason logically, and solve hypothetical problems. They can understand
abstract symbols, complex problem-solving, and theoretical concepts
without the need for concrete materials.
 Implications for Teaching Mathematics: This stage supports a broader
range of abstract math concepts:
 Algebra and Higher-Level Math: Students can understand
variables and work with symbolic representations and algebraic
equations. Introducing symbolic manipulation in algebra becomes
possible without the need for concrete examples.
 Advanced Geometry and Trigonometry: Concepts like proofs,
theorems, and trigonometric ratios are accessible, allowing students
to work with spatial reasoning in an abstract form.
  Hypothetical and Theoretical Problem-Solving: Encourage
students to engage in hypothetical reasoning, apply mathematical
logic, and work on more complex, open-ended problems.
 Problem-solving strategies can include discussions, mental
calculations, and exploring relationships between different
mathematical ideas without visual aids.

Effective strategies for teaching Mathematics

1. Starter/Motivation (5-10 minutes)
 Goal: Get students interested in the lesson.
 Activity:
o Start with a fun math problem or riddle.
o Show a short video or real-life example related to the topic.
2. Lesson Introduction (5 minutes)
 Goal: Introduce the topic clearly.
 Activity:
o Share what students will learn today.
o Explain why the topic is important.
3. Active Participation (10 minutes)
 Goal: Encourage student involvement.
 Activity:
o Use “think-pair-share” to let students discuss their ideas.
o Use quick polls or digital tools for feedback.
4. Questioning (Open-Ended Questions) (10 minutes)
 Goal: Promote critical thinking.
 Activity:
o Ask open-ended questions (e.g., "What are different ways to solve
this?").
o Encourage students to ask their own questions.
5. Teaching Aids (5 minutes)
 Goal: Use tools to help learning.
 Activity:
o Show charts, graphs, or use physical objects (manipulatives).
o Use technology, like smart boards or educational apps.
6. Main Activity (Presentation of the Topic) (15-20 minutes)
 Goal: Teach the core content.
 Activity:
o Present the topic with clear explanations and examples.
o Demonstrate how to solve problems.
7. Practice (Classwork and Homework) (15-20 minutes)
 Goal: Reinforce what students learned.
 Activity:
o Give classwork to apply the new concepts.
o Assign homework that extends their practice.
8. Differentiation (Work Distribution) (Throughout the lesson)
 Goal: Support different learning needs.
 Activity:
o Provide tasks at different difficulty levels.
o Group students based on their abilities.
9. Prompt/Feedback (Throughout the lesson)
 Goal: Guide and support students.
 Activity:
o Give immediate feedback during practice.
o Use quick checks to see if students understand.
10. Summary (Plenary Session) (5-10 minutes)
 Goal: Reinforce key points.
 Activity:
o Summarize what was learned.
o Ask students to share something they learned or a question they
still have.
o End with a thought about the next lesson.
  Mathematical Belief and Practices of its Stockholders

Philosophical views of Mathematics

Relationship among beliefs about the nature of mathematics, mathematics
learning and mathematics teaching
Beliefs about the Beliefs about Beliefs about
nature of Mathematics Mathematics
Mathematics Teaching learning
1. Instrumentalist/ Mathematics is Mathematics Skill mastery
Traditional considered as a set teachers holding passive reception.
perspective/ of tools and instrumentalists
Toolbox aspect: knowing view will consider
mathematics is to themselves as
know about what masters having and
tools we have and imparting
how to use that. knowledge content
Thus mathematics focused with an
is seemed as a set emphasis on
of unrelated but performance.
utilitarian rules and
facts.

2.Platonist/System Mathematics as a Mathematics Active construction

aspect/ drill and static body of teacher holding the of understanding
practice approach: absolute and Platonist view
certain knowledge would try to find
comprising links among the
abstract entities. Mathematical
concept rather than
considering them
as unrelated rules
and facts content
focused with an
emphasis on
understanding
3. Problem solving Mathematics as a Mathematics Autonomous
approaching/ dynamic and teachers who adopt exploration for
Inquiry expanding field of a problem solving own interest.
view/Process human creation. or inquiry view of
aspects mathematics see
their roles as
passing questions
and challenging
students to think
and reasoning

Important aspects of problem solving in teaching Mathematics

There are three ways to solve problems:
 teaching for problem solving,
 teaching about problem solving, and
 teaching through problem solving.

Teaching for problem solving begins with learning a skill. For example,
students are learning how to multiply a two-digit number by a one-digit number,
and the story problems you select are multiplication problems. Be sure when
you are teaching for problem solving, you select or develop tasks that can
promote the development of mathematical understanding.

Teaching about problem solving begins with suggested strategies to solve a

problem. For example, “draw a picture,” “make a table,” etc. You may see
posters in teachers’ classrooms of the “Problem Solving Method” such as: 1)
Read the problem, 2) Devise a plan, 3) Solve the problem, and 4) Check your
work. There is little or no evidence that students’ problem-solving abilities are
improved when teaching about problem solving. Students will see a word
problem as a separate endeavour and focus on the steps to follow rather than the
mathematics. In addition, students will tend to use trial and error instead of
focusing on sense making.

Teaching through problem solving focuses students’ attention on ideas and

sense making and develops mathematical practices. Teaching through problem
solving also develops a student’s confidence and builds on their strengths. It
allows for collaboration among students and engages students in their own
learning.
Key features of a good mathematics problem includes:
 The problem requires high-level thinking and problem solving.
 The problem creates an opportunity for the teacher to assess what his or
her students are learning and where they are experiencing difficulty.
 The problem can be approached by students in multiple ways using
different solution strategies.
 The problem encourages student engagement and discourse.
 The problem connects to other important mathematical ideas.
 The problem provides an opportunity to practice important skills.

Q. What does problem solving means in learning mathematics?

Elements of Effective Teaching

Six key principles for effective teaching of mathematics

Principle 1: Articulating goals

Identify key ideas that underpin the concepts you are seeking to teach,
communicate to students that these are the goals of the teaching, and explain to
them how you hope they will learn.
Principle 2: Making connections
Build on what students know, mathematically and experientially,
including creating and connecting students with stories that both contextualise
and establish a rationale for the learning.
Principle 3: Fostering engagement
 Engage students by utilising a variety of rich and challenging tasks that
allow students time and opportunities to make decisions, and which use a
variety of forms of representation.
Principle 4: Differentiating challenges
Interact with students while they engage in the experiences, encourage
students to interact with each other, including asking and answering questions,
and specifically plan to support students who need it and challenge those who
are ready.
Principle 5: Structuring lessons
Adopt pedagogies that foster communication and both individual and
group responsibilities, use students’ reports to the class as learning
opportunities, with teacher summaries of key mathematical ideas.
Principle 6: Promoting fluency and transfer
 Fluency is important, and it can be developed in two ways: by short
everyday practice of mental processes; and by practice, reinforcement and
prompting transfer of learnt skills.