GENERAL PSYSIOLOGY (BIO 2203)

Course outline:
- Physiochemical processes in animals and plants

- Diffusion, Osmosis (osmotic pressure, osmotic potential, Turgor and

Plasmolysis)

- Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)

- Henderson Hassel Balch Equation

- Buffers in Physiology

- Gaseous Exchange

- RQ in relation to Metabolism (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide exchange)

- Aspects of Respiration and Photosynthesis

Introduction
Physiology is the study of Physical and chemical process that take place in living organisms

during the performance of life functions such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, excretion

digestion, respiration, response to stimuli, muscle contraction etc. these physical and chemical

processes (physiochemical reaction) are carried out within fine structure i.e. the cell, tissues,

organs and systems of the body. Physical and chemical processes in animal and plant

physiology including homoestasis, movement of materials across cell membranes,

physiological principles of nutrition, food components such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,

vitamins etc. Enzyme systems, nervous and hormonal communications.

It is imperative to note that these integral parts require proper coordination for the organism to

function as a complete entity. To achieve this coordination, the hormonal and nervous systems

are responsible in ensuring the maintenance of a steady environment within the organism

(Homeostasis).

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Homeostatic balance is thus crucial for the organism to maintain a balance (equilibrium)

between the cell and its surrounding environment. This is because conditions within and

outside the cell could be different or at extremes. Both plants and animals exchange materials

between their cell and the external environment with the sole aim of maintaining homeostatic

balance.

Therefore, physiological processes are seen to evolve in efficiency and rate of functional

discharge between various groups of organisms along the evolutionary line. In other words, the

rate and efficiency at which for example human alveoli exchanges oxygen with carbon dioxide

during cellular respiration cannot be compared with that of gaseous exchange in say fish or

frog. This is because the respiratory structure in higher organisms is more evolved than in lower

life forms since its structure, form and function are all geared towards satisfying the particular

needs of the organism.

Homeostasis is achieved via material gain and loss (exchanges between the cells and their

corresponding environment). The materials exchanged are those that are required for life

(water, oxygen, food etc.). The general study of material exchange between the cell and its

immediate environment in order to maintain a steady and optimum internal condition by way

of maintaining equilibrium between extremes is known as physiology.

In lower forms, their body sizes or structural forms coupled with the close proximity their cells

have with the environment (surface area to volume ratio large), ensures material exchange

via ordinary diffusion and osmosis to and from the cells with the cell surface membrane acting

as the site of exchange. But as form increases, these simple physical processes becomes

inadequate and / or insufficient to satisfy cells with their needs since some cells are distant

from the site of exchange, thus a higher (developed) mechanism / system and well equipped is

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required to supply cells with these needed materials and remove those that are not required to

the outside environment.

Therefore, movement of materials in and out of cells that happens through processes that are

physicochemical in nature needs to be studied closely. This movement happens mostly by

passive means involving simple diffusion, osmosis, turgidity and plasmolysis. All of which

these depends on a gradient created by the difference existing between two extremes having

contact with each other. Hence, when no concentration gradient exists or when the molecules

are uniformly distributed throughout the system, the movement of molecules is equal in all

directions, and has therefore, reached the state of equilibrium because there is no longer a net-

movement (i.e. diffusion).

Thus, the basic structure for all of these physiochemical processes is the cell and it’s made up

of different organelles which enable it to perform such reactions. The cells as well as these

organelles are surrounded by membranes whose nature determines what materials can pass

through it. Example for a cell to stay alive, it must be able to exchange with its surrounding.

There are six (6) ways in which materials enters or leaves a cell:

• Diffusion

• Osmosis

• Facilitated diffusion

• Active transportation

• Endocytosis and

• Exocytosis

The same mechanisms are involved in the movement of materials across the membranes of

various cellular organelles such as Golgi body, mitochondria, chloroplast etc.

Diffusion: Is defined as the movement of molecules from the region of high concentration to

the region of lower concentration. The difference in concentration of molecule over a distance
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 is known as a concentration gradient or a gradient. Diffusion is therefore the movement of

molecules across concentration gradients.

Note:

- Diffusion happens when there is no barrier separating the two environments.

Rate of diffusion is given by;

𝑑𝑐
𝐽𝛼
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑐
𝐽 = −𝐷 ( )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑐
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 (−)
𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.,

𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Region of
higher conc. Region of
lower conc.

Direction of Diffusion

The rate at which diffusion takes place is determined by several other factors such as:

a) The size of the molecule: A small molecule at a given temperature move faster than a

large particle and thus the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the particle size.

b) Temperature: The rate of diffusion increases as the temperature increased; thus, the rate

of diffusion is directly proportional to temperature. At high temperature, particles move

faster because more energy is available to diffuse them.

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 c) Concentration difference: the rate of diffusion increases as the concentration difference

increases. A substance diffusing between two areas exhibits concentration differences

as the particle diffuses from one side of the wall to the other.

An example is when a living cell is immersed in a hypotonic solution; water molecules will

have complete access to the cytoplasm through the cell membrane. Hence Brownian motion

and kinetic theory states that “all molecules and minute particles might have the tendency to

move on their own accord”, therefore net movement of water molecules results from one region

to another along concentration gradient. This tendency is known as water potential(Ψ𝑤 ).

Water potential is due to the kinetic energy which depends on the concentration of molecules

and is measured in units of Pascal. Some relevant examples of diffusion in living things are;

• Gaseous exchange via the stomata in plants, the cell surface membrane in protists, the

skin in amphibians and the alveoli in higher vertebrates.

• Absorption of digested food in the intestinal villi

• Exchange of materials between the fetus and the mother via the placenta.

Diffusion is a passive process thus very important in supplying living organism with materials

necessary for their survival and the removal of unwanted products of metabolism outside the

body as seen in lower forms of life. This is an essential process in both anabolic and catabolic

reactions and can happen between solids, liquids and gasses. In diffusion, there is no barrier to

the free & net movement of molecules. But when a partially permeable membrane exists

between two systems containing ions/solutes in solution, the following is likely to happen;

some molecule can’t pass across the membrane, some but slowly, others move across very

rapidly and some like water molecules enters the membrane freely. The aforementioned is

referred as osmosis. Example of osmosis is the movement of water molecules through the root

hairs in plants and the water molecules through the stomata in transpiration.

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Osmosis

If a solution and its pure solvent are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, there is a

tendency that the solvent molecules diffuse into the solution. This diffusion of solvent

molecules into the solution through a semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis (sometimes

called osmotic diffusion)

“Osmosis can therefore be defined as the movement or passage of water molecules from region

of lower concentration to the region of higher concentration through selectively permeable

membrane”. In other words, “osmosis can be defined as the movement of water molecules from

the region of lower solute concentration to the region of higher solute concentration through a

semi-permeable membrane” (S.P.M).

Consider the simple experimental set-up below to demonstrate the process:

Thistle funnel
Sucrose solution

Pure H2O

Semi permeable
A Simple Osmo meter membrane

The mouth of thistle funnel is covered with a semi-permeable membrane such as cellophane

paper or dead goat bladder. The funnel when filled with a strong sugar solution and immersed

in a beaker containing pure water, quite quickly the level of the solution in the tube starts to

rise and the solution gradually became more diluted due to the movement of water through the

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membrane. This movement of molecules across the semi permeable membrane is what is

known as osmosis.

Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which water molecules continue to move across the

membrane until a hydrostatic pressure is developed in the funnel. Hydrostatic pressure

presses down on the semi permeable and eventually stops further net-movement of water across

the membrane. The potential of a solution to cause water movement into it across a S.P.M as a

result of dissolved solutes is called solute potential denoted by Ψ𝑠 , whereas the pressure

needed to balance the escaping tendency of water molecule between two systems at equilibrium

is known as osmotic pressure. In other words, this can be interpreted as the head pressure

which can be developed by a solution when permitted to take up water by osmosis.

Therefore, Osmotic pressure can therefore be defined as “the pressure that prevents the net

movement of pure water into an aqueous solution through a semi permeable membrane, thereby

preventing the volume of the solution from increasing”.

The pressure that is applied by the cell wall to maintain shape and prevent a cell from bursting

is known as pressure potential𝚿𝒑. . Animal cells burst when placed in a hypotonic solution

since their cell surface membrane is too delicate to prevent the expansion. This necessitates

Osmo-regulation (regulating the amount of water in the body).

Cell wall

Cell sap
Tonoplast
Plasmalemma layer

Diagram showing turgidity in an environment

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Osmosis in Living Cells

A proper amount of water is required if a cell is to function efficiently. High amount of water

in the cell may dilute the cell contents and interfere with the chemical reaction necessary to

keep the cell alive. Too little water in the cell on the other hand may result in buildup of

poisonous waste products. Thus the cell must remain in balance with its environment.

If a cell is surrounded by a solution whose solute concentration is lower than the cell’s content

(e.g. pure water), water molecules pass into the cell by osmosis and the cell swells up. In this

case the osmotic potential (i.e. the conc. of solute molecules in the solution) of the external

solution is lower than that of the cell, and hence the solution is said to be hypotonic to the cell.

On the other hand, if a cell is surrounded by a solution whose solute concentration is higher

than that of the cell, the osmotic potential exceeds that of the cell. Therefore, water molecule

passes out of the cell and the cell shrinks (Plasmolysis). In this case, the external solution is

said to be hypertonic to the cell. If the solute concentration of the cell and its surrounding

medium are the same however, there will be no net-movement of water in either direction and

the external solution is said to be isotonic with the cell.

The above properties can be demonstrated with the human erythrocytes i.e the red blood cells

(RBC), for example a solution of 0.9 % NaCl is isotonic with human cells and this means that

even if RBCs are placed in such a solution, they will neither shrink nor swell. However, if they

are placed in stronger (hypertonic) salt solution of about 1-2 % NaCl, the cells shrink and the

cell membrane wrinkled. This is because water molecules exit from the cell to the surrounding

environment (exosmosis).

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 B C
A

In (A) above; the RBC is placed in a hypertonic solution, (B) water drawn out by osmosis

leading to shrinkage of the cell and (C) wrinkling of the membrane.

If RBCs are placed in a weaker (hypotonic) solution they swell as a result of influx of water

into the cell, they may even burst, this phenomenon is known as hemolysis.

N.B Unicellular animal Amoeba for example has both marine and fresh water species. The

marine species are isotonic with sea water and hence there is no net loss or gain of water by

the cell. The fresh water species on the other hand are hypertonic to its surrounding medium,

and hence water continually passes into the cell across its semi-permeable plasma membrane.

The animal would swell up and assumed to burst just like in RBC, but this does not happen

because of the presence of contractile vacuole which collects water as fast as it enters, and

periodically discharges it to outside. By this means the cell is prevented from swelling and its

solute concentration and hence osmotic potential is kept constant.

When a plant cell is immersed in a solution which is strongly hypertonic to the cell sap, first

volume of the cell decreases as water is drawn out of the vacuole. Within few minutes, the

protoplasm pulls away from the cell, as water is exerted leaving a perceptible gap between the

cell wall and the cell membrane. The shrinkage of the protoplasm continues until the vacuole

is eventually no longer visible and the protoplasm rounds off into a ball shape at the centre of

the cells. This process of cell shrinkage due to water loss is called plasmolysis.

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 Cellulose wall Perceptible gap
Water drawn out of vacuole by osmosis

Protoplast Incipient Plasmolysis

Full Plasmolysis

Protoplast shrinks into ball shape (Turgidity decrease)

Plant cell placed in hypertonic solution

Plasmolysis is important in:

1. The process in being utilized during preservation of fishes and meat by salting

2. The addition of concentrated sugar solution to jams and jellies to check the growth of

fungi and bacteria which become plasmolysed in concentrated solution.

3. It is used to determine the osmotic potential of the cell sap i.e. the solute concentration

of cell sap.

In the case of plant cells when surrounded by hypotonic solution however, water is drawn into

the vacuole by osmosis. This brings about swelling of the cell, but the cell does not burst

because of the presence of cellulose cell wall, which once fully stretched, resists any further

expansion of the cell. At this moment, the protoplasm presses against the cell wall and an

internal pressure is developed called Turgor pressure which is equal to the back pressure

exerted by the cellulose wall against the cells contents. This back pressure exerted by the cell

wall is known as wall pressure. Thus turgor pressure reaches its maximum when the cellulose

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wall can no longer stretch, at this point a full Turgor is said to be achieved and the process is

called Turgidity.

Protoplast Water enter by osmosis Protoplast expands; turgidity Full tugor

increases

Cell wall

Plant cell placed in hypotonic solution

Turgidity is important in:

1) Supporting plants and maintaining their shape and form

2) The stems of herbaceous plants are held erect by being filled with full turgid cells

packed tightly together.

3) It’s also responsible for holding leaves in a flat, horizontal position. If the cells lose

water (e.g. in hot dry days) turgidity is reduced and the plant visibly drops and wilts.

Significance of Osmosis

1. Absorption of water by root of plants occur through the process of osmosis

2. Cell-to-cell movement of water and other substances dissolved in it involves this

process

3. Opening and closing of stomata depends upon the turgor pressure of the guard cell

4. Due to osmosis, the turgidity of the cells and hence the shape and forms of their organs

is maintained.

5. The resistance of plant to drought and frost increase with increase in osmotic potential

of their cell.

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 6. Turgidity of the cells of the young seedlings allows them to come out of the soil i.e.

during germination.

Facilitated Diffusion: This is the passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane

through specific carrier proteins and requires no energy input. When the rate of diffusion of a

substance or molecule is increased in the presence of a carrier, it is called facilitated diffusion

(it is the carrier protein that facilitates the movement across the membrane). Because this

movement is another kind of diffusion, the net direction of movement is in accordance with the

concentration gradient. Therefore, it is passive transport method that occurs only in living

organisms with the necessary carrier protein.

Facilitated diffusion is used especially in the case of large polar molecules and charged ions;

once such ions are dissolved in water, they cannot diffuse freely across cell membrane due to

the hydrophobic nature of fatty acid tails of the phospholipids that make up their bi-layers.

Only small, non-polar molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse easily across

the membrane. The type of carrier molecules used in facilitated diffusion is slightly different

from those used in active transport; this is because they do not need ATP to function, the

substrate is released into the cell via a carrier molecule only.

Example of facilitated diffusion is the movement of glucose molecule across the membranes

of certain cells. In order for the glucose molecules to pass into or out of the cell, specific

proteins are required to carry them across membranes.

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N.B: The carrier
Carrier proteins
proteins propels the
molecules or ions
Glucose molecules
from inside to
outside or from
outside to inside

Active Transport: Diffusion is a purely physical process in which molecules or ions move

from a region of higher to lower concentration. However, there are certain biological situations

where the reverse is the case (i.e.: molecules or ions move from a region of lower concentration

to higher concentration). Active transportation cannot be accounted for by purely physical

forces. It will only take place in a living system that is actively producing energy by

respiration. It has been found out that variables such as temperature and oxygen concentration

which influences the rate of respiration also influences the rate of active transport. Example of

active transport is the movement of sodium ion across the cell membrane during

electrochemical transmission of impulses across the neuron.

It is not yet certain how active transport takes place, but hypothesis proposed that there are

certain carriers in the plasma membrane which attach themselves to the molecules or ions and

deposited them in the cytoplasm. The carrier then returns to the outer membrane and repeats

the process. None of these carriers have been positively identified, but it’s certain that energy

(ATP) is required for the process, although the amount is uncertain. But it might be needed for

combining the carrier with the molecule or ion, for transport and for releasing the molecule or

ions from carrier and for returning the carrier to the other side of membrane.

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 Molecules at low conc. on
this side of plasma
ATP C membrane

Plasma membrane

ADP C

Molecules at higher conc. on this

side of plasma membrane

Endocytosis and Exocytosis: this involves the process by which large particles or collection

of materials is transported across the plasma membrane by being wrapped or engulfed in the

membrane. When molecules enter the cell in this way it is called endocytosis and when

transported out of the cell in this manner it is called exocytosis. Plant cells use exocytosis to

export materials needed to form cell wall. Also waste materials may be removed from cells by

exocytosis.

Endocytosis is of two types:

• pinocytosis and

• phagocytosis

Phagocytosis involves the engulfing of large solid materials by wrapping them in a membrane

and taking them into the cell. This is achieved when the material to be engulfed touches the

membrane causing the surface of the cell to be indented forming a sac like structure called a

vacuole. Once inside the cell membrane the vacuole fuses with the membrane of the lysosome

and the enzymes of lysosomes breakdown the contents of the vacuole and digest it. The soluble

products of digestion are absorbed into the surrounding cytoplasm and the indigestible

materials got discharged by exocytosis.

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 Exocytosis

Endocytosis Phagocytic vacuole

• Pinocytosis: it’s the process of engulfing liquids and the materials dissolved in them.

In this form of endocytosis, the sacs that are formed are very small, compared with

those formed during Phagocytosis. Because of their small size they are called vesicles

and can only be seen through electron microscope.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)

The degree to which a solution can be termed as acidic or basic is represented by a quantity

known as pH. The pH is a scale that measures the hydrogen ion concentration present in a

solution which determines the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It is also defined as

the negative logarithm to base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration in mol/dm3 of solution.

i.e. pH = -log10 [H+]

or pH maybe defined as the logarithm to base 10 of reciprocal of hydrogen ion conc.

i.e. pH = log10 1/[𝐻 + ]

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 14
Increasingly basic 13

12
11 Household (10.5 - 12.0)
ammonia
10
9
8
Human blood Pure water (7.0)
(7.2 - 7.5) Neutral 7
6

5
Increasingly acidic
4
3
2 Human gastric juice (<1-3.0)

The pH Scale

pH of other substances:

- House hold bleach (9.5)

- Human bile (7.5-9.0)

- Cow milk (6.5)

- Urine (4.5-8.0)

- Black coffee (5.0)

- Tomatoes (4.5)

- Soft drink and citrus juices (3.0-3.5)

A pH of 7 indicates that, the solution is neutral and as equal number of H+ ions and OH- ion to

balance each other. As other pH value gets smaller the number of H+ in the solution increases

and hence the solution becomes more acidic, while the number higher than 7 indicates that the

solution has more OH- than H+ and hence the solution is more basic.

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However, we should note: that pH been logarithmic, implies that a “change in one pH number

is actually a 10-fold change in real numbers of H+ or OH- ions. Example there are 10 times

more H+ ions in a solution of pH5 than in a solution of pH6, and 100 times more H+ ions in a

solution of pH 4 than in a solution of pH 6.

Henderson-Hassel Balch Equation

The Henderson-Hassel Balch equation describes the derivation of pH as measure of acidity

(using negative logarithm of the acid dissociation constant called the pKa). The equation is

useful for:

i. Estimating the pH of buffer solution

ii. Finding the equilibrium pH in acid-base reactions

The equation is given as:

[𝐴− ]
pH = PKa + log [𝐻𝐴]

Where [A-] = molar concentrate [ ] of conjugate base

[HA] = molar concentration of dissociating weak acid

PKa = -logKa

Where Ka = acid dissociation constant

Derivation of the equation:

HA ⇌H+ + A-

Just like CH3COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3COO-

[𝐻 + ][𝐴− ]
So the equilibrium constant = K eq or Ka = [𝐻𝐴]

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 But pH = log10 [H+]

1
Or log10 [𝐻 +]

Make [H+] subject of the formula

Ka [HA] = [H+] [A-]

Ka [HA]
[H+] = [𝐴− ]

Take – log of both sides

[𝐻𝐴]
- Log [H+] = - log Ka – log [𝐴−]

But – log [H+] = pH and – log Ka = PKa

Therefore:

[𝐻𝐴]
pH = PKa – log
[𝐴− ]

[𝐴− ]
pH = PKa + log 𝐻𝐴

Examples:

Exercise 1:

A buffer is prepared containing 1.00 molar acetic acid and 1.00 molar sodium acetate, calculate

its pH (Ka of acetic acid = 1.77 x 10-5)

Solution:

pH = pKa + log [A-]/[HA]

Data = [HA] = 1.00m, Ka = 1.77 x 10-5

[A-] = 1.00m, pH=?

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But pKa = -log10Ka

pKa = -log 1.77 x 10-5

Substitute the values in the equation

pH = 4.752 + log [1.00]/[1.00]

pH = 4.752 + log 1

But log 1 = 0

Thus pH = 4.752

Exercise 2:

A buffer is prepared containing 0.80 molar acetic acid and 1.00 molar sodium acetate, calculate

its pH (Ka of acetic acid = 1.77 x 10-5)

Data [HA] = 0.80m

[A-] = 1.00m

Ka = 1.77 x 10-5

pH= ?

pH = pKa + log [A-]/[HA]

But pKa = - logka

Thus pka = - log 1.77 x 10-5

pKa = 4.752

Therefore, pH = 4.752 + log [1.00]/[0.80]

= 4.752 + 0.097

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pH = 4.849

Exercise 3:

A buffer is prepared containing 1.00 molar acetic acid and 0.80 molar sodium acetate, what

will be the pH if (Ka of acetic acid = 1.77 x 10-5).

BUFFERS
Buffers are solutions that resist large change in the hydrogen ion concentration or pH upon

addition of a small amount of acid or base. In other words, buffers are mixture of weak acids

and the salts of weak acids (called conjugate base) that tend to maintain constant pH, because

the mixture can either accept or release hydrogen ion (H+) e.g. CH3COOH, CH3COONa. The

human blood is an excellent example of natural buffer solution because blood maintained its

OH- value around 7.4 in spite solutions are of two types:

1. Acidic buffers

2. Basic buffers

Acidic buffers contain equivalent quantities of weak acid and its salt e.g. acetic acid

(CH3COOH) and sodium acetate (CH3COOHa). A solution containing these two maintains its

pH value around 4.74.

Basic buffer solution contains equivalent quantities of weak base and its salt e.g. Ammonium

hydroxide (NH3OH) and Ammonium chloride (NH3Cl).This solution maintain its pH value

around 9.25.

However, in the Red Blood Cells (RBC) just like in the plasma, the solution of CO2 and

formation of carbonic acid takes place in which the H+ react with Hb and acts as buffer. This

removal of H ion draws the reaction to the right and this leads more dissociation of carbonic

acid until the buffering by Hb is complete. The amount of bicarbonate produced is dependent

on CO2 but is much more affected by buffering capacity of the Hb. Deoxyhemoglobin binds

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more hydrogen ion than oxyhaemoglobin hence a much better buffer at a given PCO2 and also

more bicarbonate is formed in venous red blood cells than in the arteries red blood cells.

Most of the bicarbonate produce does not remain in the RBC but exported by passive diffusion

into the plasma across the cell membrane. The exit of the bicarbonate is compensated by

Chlorine. It is the exported bicarbonate that forms the bicarbonate concentration of the

Henderson Hassel Balch equation of the determination of pH.

MECHANISM OF BUFFER ACTION

If an alkali like NaOH is added to the buffer like CH3COOH/CH3COONa the weak acid

dissociates as follows:

Overall reaction:

CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COO- + H+ + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O

That is OH- + CH3COOH ---- CH3COO- + H2O

Then CH3COO- + Na → CH3COONa

Meaning that, the weak acid donated H+ for the neutralization to occur, hence the solution

cannot be affected by the addition of NaOH base. And a conjugate base is formed.

On the other hand if an acid like HCl is added, the H+ combines with the conjugates base to

form weak acid.

The overall reactions are as far below:

CH3COONa ⇌ CH3COO- + Na+

CH3COO- + H+ ⇌ CH3COOH weak acid and Na+ + Cl- → NaCl

CH3COONa + HCl → CH3COOH + NaCl

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IMPORTANCE OF BUFFERS

1- Physiological buffers play an important role in maintaining the pH of cytoplasmic fluids

and blood plasma constant.

2- Buffers are employed to maintain the optimum pH of enzyme activities in the body.

Because enzyme and certain proteins are easily denatured by large change in pH, the

situation that could be fetal, thus the pH must be maintained through the buffer

mechanism.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE
This refers to the exchange of respiratory gases between the cells of the organisms and the

environment. Aerobic organisms require oxygen for respiration, while both aerobic and most

anaerobic organisms must get rid of carbon dioxide as waste product of respiration. The area

where gaseous exchange with the environment actually takes place is called the respiratory

surface. Different organisms possess different types of respiratory surfaces each working

efficiently in a particular environment.

Gaseous exchange takes place in all organisms by the process of diffusion and for this to be

effective, the respiratory surface must possess the following characteristics:

a) It must be permeable, so that gases can pass through

b) It must be thin, because diffusion is only effective over a distance or thickness of 1mm

or less.

c) It should have a large surface area, so that sufficient amount of gas is trapped and be

able to exchange according to the organism’s need

d) It should possess a good supply e.g. in larger animals that used blood as a transport

medium, and good ventilation mechanisms which assist in ensuring rapid exchange of

gases between the animal and the surrounding by maintaining steep diffusion gradients

where large difference in concentration can occur across the respiratory surface.

COURSE TUTOR: DR. MANI MALAM AHMAD Page 22

Types of respiratory surfaces in animals

Different organisms possess different type of respiratory surfaces which have evolved to work

efficiently in a particular environment.

1. Cell surface membrane: this type of respiratory surface found in single cell organisms

like Amoeba it works efficiently in aquatic environment.

O2 (diffuses inn)

Cell membrane

Co2 (diffuses out)

2. Gills: Gills is of two types

a. External gills as in polychaete worms and tadpoles of frogs

b. Internal gills in bony fish. Both works efficiently in water

3. Epidermis: is a type of respiratory surface found commonly in Earthworms and it

works efficiently in semi-aquatic environments (such as wet land).

4. Tracheae: In insects, tracheal system serves as a respiratory surface where gaseous

exchange takes place. It works efficiently in terrestrial environment.

5. Lungs: It is found in man and other mammals; it also works in terrestrial environment

Single-celled organism, amoeba for example possesses a large surface area to volume ratio and

the respiratory surface been the cell surface membrane diffusion of gases occurs over the whole

surfaces of the animal, and is fast enough to satisfy its metabolic needs. Oxygen enters the cell

through the process and carbon dioxide leaves, each own its own diffusion gradient.

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In the earthworm for example, gaseous exchange is achieved between the cuticle covering that

is highly vascularized and the available soil moisture. The cylindrical shape of the worm assists

in providing the needed large surface area for diffusion to happen. Although oxygen

consumption is low here, it’s due to the relative inactivity of the worm.

However, in insects like locust gaseous exchange occurs by means of a system of tubes called

the tracheal system. This allows oxygen to diffuse from outside directly to the tissue without

the need for blood to transport it.

In this system, pair of holes called spiracles found on the thoracic and abdominal segments

leads into air filled sacs. Extending from the cells branches tube called tracheae (singular

tracheae). In each body segment, the tracheae branched into numerous smaller tubes called

tracheoles, which spread among the insect tissues, and in more active tissues such as flight

muscles it ends within the cells. It is through this system of ramifying air passage that oxygen

is conveyed direct to the tissue.

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The overall flow of air in and out of the insect is regulated by a valve mechanism at the spiracles

opening.

On the contrary, higher animals have blood with a pigment (hemoglobin) responsible for

binding with oxygen under high tension to form oxyhaemoglobin O2 + Hb ⇌ HbO2 with the

bound oxygen is released only under low tension. Meanwhile respiration in higher plant is

achieved through the intercellular air spaces present in the leaves, stem and some respiratory

roots. Most of the oxygen needed comes from photosynthesis and the stomatal, cuticular and

enticular openings ensure exchange with carbon dioxide.

In general oxygen demand in plants is very low compared to animals since the former is

relatively inactive compared to the latter and form the fact that energy requirements in plants

is just to allow some physiological activities like translocation, enzyme and hormone secretion,

transpiration and other anabolic functions like making of proteins process. These little

specialized structures are found in plants than in animals.

Need for Special Respiratory Structures and Pigments

As the animals increase in size, their surface area to volume ratio decreases (Inverse Relation).

This makes simple diffusion over the body surface inadequate to supply enough oxygen to any

cell of the organism that is not in direct contact with the surrounding medium. Also increase in

metabolic activities of many larger animals’ increases their rate of oxygen consumption. In

humans and other vertebrates, gaseous exchange requires respiratory pigments that can bind

reversibly with oxygen and transport it, example hemoglobin in red blood cells. At high oxygen

concentration the pigment combines with oxygen as follows:

Hb + O2 ------------------------- HbO2

Whereas, at low oxygen concentration the oxygen is release for the tissue to utilize as;

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HbO2 ------------------------ Hb + O2

Respiratory surface of mammals consists of many air sacs called alveoli inside pair of lungs.

The lungs are situated along within the thoracic cavity and are connected to the atmosphere by

tubes and air passes into the lungs through these tubes. As air enters through two nostrils, it

passes through the pharynx into the trachea. At the lower end, the trachea splits into two bronchi

that enter the lungs. Within the lungs, each bronchus subdivides many times into much smaller

tubes called bronchioles. These in turn branch into finer tubes ending with alveolar ducts which

lead into a sac called alveolar sacs, opens a group of alveoli. The alveoli form the gas exchange

surface or respiratory surface.

Overall, there are over 700 million alveoli present in human lungs representing total surface

area of about 70-90 m2. On its outside is a dense network of blood capillaries, all of which

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originated from pulmonary artery and at the surface of alveoli rejoin to form pulmonary vein.

It is through this network of capillaries that the gaseous exchange occurs.

During the gaseous exchange process, oxygen passes first into the blood plasma and then

combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells (RBC) to form oxyhaemoglobin, where it

then diffuses across the thin barrier represented by the epithelium of the alveolus and the

endothelium of the capillary. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the reverse direction.

CARBAMINO COMPOUNDS
These are compounds of CO2 and free amino groups or proteins such as Hb. These compounds

are formed in tissues as the formation is dependent on the PCO2 (plasma carbon IV oxide) and

are given off in the lungs there by assisting in the transportation of CO2. The formation of these

compounds is affected by the degree of oxygenation of the Hb.

OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVE

A single molecule of haemoglobin can combine with 4 oxygen molecules. The partial pressure

(PO2) of oxygen primarily determines the degree of oxygenation. At very high PO2 all binding

sites on the Hb molecules are occupied by oxygen. The pigment exists as HbO2

(oxyhaemoglobin) and becomes fully saturated. If the PO2 falls some of the bounded O2

becomes unstable and detach from the haemo group and be released as free molecular oxygen.

The oxygen content of blood at full saturation is known as the 'Oxygen capacity' which varies

in different category of animals because of the quality of blood and the activity of the organism.

In seals for example, the oxygen capacity is 26% by volume due to the number of binding sites

in a given volume of blood.

The higher the number of binding sites the higher is the carrying capacity and vice versa. In

general oxygen capacity varies in the volume of RBC per unit volume of blood in different

vertebrate species. The percentage saturation of Hemoglobin will vary over a wide range of

partial pressures of oxygen. This when noted graphically is known as oxygen dissociation

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curve. The curve depicts the various areas in the body where respiratory gasses are exchanged

at the expense of their partial pressures.

y
% saturation of Hb

Shows where the amount of O2 bound to

Hb is influenced by changes in PO2
0 6Kpa 10 12 15 x

At 12Kpa, Haemoglobin is saturated with O2. If the PO2 is lower than 6KPa, number of binding

sites which O2 is attached to Hb is reduced if the partial pressure is reduced. I.e. The number

of sites which O2 is bound to hemoglobin is reduced because some proportion of the bounded

O2 is released. If the PO2 is increased to 12 KPa, an equivalent amount of free O2 will become

bounded to hemoglobin and the percentage saturation of Hb returns to the original volume.

TRANPORT OF CO2
There is substantial amount of CO2 in both the artery and the blood. For every volume of CO2

that is been transferred to tissues, a lower volume of CO2 must return to the lungs. However,

there is more CO2 in the venous blood than in arterial blood. This is because of the extra CO2

present. The concentration of CO2 on both sides of circulation (pulmonary and systemic) helps

in determining blood pH. Regulation of blood pH is achieved in the following manner:

CO2 dissolved in the plasma and it slowly react with H2O. This produces a weak acid called

carbonic acid. This acid dissociates reversibly to form bicarbonate and hydrogen ion.

CO2 + H2O ⇌H2CO3⇌ HCO3 + H+

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The amount of CO2 dissolved in the plasma at normal PCO2 of 6.3kpa is 1.2ml-1, the amount

of CO2 dissolved is directly proportional to partial pressure. This reaction depends on the

relative concentration of H2O, CO2 and the rate at which the carboxylic acid is produced. Blood

plasma contain 25mml~ 'bicarbonate which is as a result of the reactions that are taking place

in the Red Blood Cell (RBC) and this pushes equilibrium to the left causing the formation of

more carbon acid.

Virtually, no bicarbonate is formed from CO2 as the dissociation is prevented (stopped) at the

corner of the bicarbonate that is already present. The pH changes markedly as the PCO 2 is

changed, because the concentration of bicarbonate is the same.

RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ)

The respiratory quotient, also known as the respiratory ratio (RQ), is defined as the volume of
carbon dioxide released over the volume of oxygen absorbed during respiration. It is a
dimensionless number used in a calculation for basal metabolic rate when estimated from
carbon dioxide production to oxygen absorption. The uptake of oxygen is a form of indirect
calorimetry and is measured by a respirometer directly at the tissue or mouth.

Respiratory Ratio

RQ = Vol CO2 released/Vol O2 absorbed

It is calculated for a particular substrate i.e., carbohydrates, organic acid, fat, and protein.
Carbohydrates are oxidized through aerobic respiration resulting in an equal ratio of CO2
release and oxygen consumption. Subsequently, the RQ for fat, protein, and anaerobe is 0.7,
0.8, and 0 respectively. If a mixture of the substrates is consumed, then the RQ ratio collectively
is 0.8.

Function

When inspired oxygen is collected in the alveolar sac, perfusion occurs through the capillary
network surrounding the alveoli. This perfused oxygen is transported by the red blood cell to
the surrounding tissues. As blood is traveling through the capillary bed, oxygen is released
from the RBC to the respective tissue site. Concurrently, the tissue releases CO2 through
metabolic processes into the red blood cell, delivering it to the lungs.

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Normal Respiration

• Vol CO2 = 200 mL/min and Vol O2 = 250 mL/min, resulting in 0.8 respiratory ratio

In the presence of macronutrients, oxygen is required for the breakdown of carbohydrates, fat,
and protein. Carbohydrates (C6H12O6 + 6O2) have a 6-carbon chain and metabolize via
glycolysis to form 2 pyruvate substrates, releasing CO2 as a by-product when converting to
acetyl CoA. CO2 is also a by-product in the Krebs cycle when 2 carbon acetyl CoA reacts with
a 4 carbon citrate, making a total of 3 CO2 in each metabolizing cascade. If the starting
molecule is a fatty acid, which contains 12, 18, 20, or 22 carbon molecules, it goes through the
process of B - oxidation to form acetyl Co-A which does not generate carbon dioxide.
Therefore, when using fat over carbohydrates as a form of fuel, less CO2 is generated for every
oxygen consumed.

RQ is the measure of the ratio of carbon dioxide produced in relation to oxygen consumed

during cellular respiration i.e. the ratio of CO2: O2 during chemical oxidation of food.

RQ = Volume of CO2 produced/Volume of O2 consumed

Example considering the equation below

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

RQ = CO2/O2 = 6/6 = 1

This means that during chemical oxidation of carbohydrate, the amount of oxygen consumed

is equal to the amount of carbon dioxide produce, thus the RQ = 1.

Example 1: the equation for the respiration of the fat Tripalmatin is:

C51H98O6 + 145O2 → 102CO2 + 98H2O

Calculate the R.Q from the equation

Solution

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RQ = CO2/O2 = 102/145 = 0.70

Theoretically, the RQs for the complete oxidation of (a) carbohydrates = 1.9 (b) Fats = 0.7, (c)

Proteins = 0.9.

Therefore, we might expect an organism to give one of these three (3) RQs, of a close

approximation of it, depending on the type of food been utilized. Many factors however, may

influence these values. Example; if the respiration substrate is rarely oxidized fully.

Importance of RQ

• RQ value indicates the type of food being used

• It tells us what sort of metabolism is going on

• Example high RQ value (exceeding 1.0) indicate that, the organism’s tissues involved

are short of oxygen and thus resort to anaerobic respiration with the result that the

amount of carbon dioxide produced exceeds the oxygen used.

• High RQs also results from the conversion of CHO to fat in which CO2 is liberated

during the process and it is believe that the higher the amount of CO2 in the process the

higher will be the RQ.

• Low RQ on the other hand may indicate that some or all of the CO2 released in

respiration is being put to some sort of use by the organism; example in animals is used

for the construction of calcareous shells.

Exercise: write the balanced equation for anaerobic respiration of glucose that produce ethanol

and carbon dioxide, and calculate the RQ from the equation.

Solution

C6H12O6 + 2O2 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy

RQ = CO2/O2 = 2/0 =2

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RESPIRATION:
Respiration is the process by which the respiratory substrate is broken down to release energy.

The two main operating factors of cell respiration are aerobic and anaerobic respiration, where

aerobic respiration requires the presence of oxygen and anaerobic respiration does not. The

most common respiratory substrate is glucose, which has a 6-carbon compound. The

substrate is metabolized through glycolysis, the TCA cycle, electron transport chain, and

oxidative phosphorylation. Through these cycles, cells are able to produce and store ATP, and

carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product. It is important to understand the levels of carbon

dioxide produced from different substrates because toxic levels can be destructive to the body.

Living cells requires energy from food in a usual form. This energy is derived from the

chemical oxidation of organic foods; this is what respiration is all about.

“Respiration is therefore, the process by which a chemical energy from organic molecules is

released by oxidation”. The energy is then made available to living cells in the form of ATP.

The biochemical process which occur within the cells leading to the released of energy in the

form of ATP is called Cellular respiration.

If the process involved the use of oxygen (O2), it is often described as Aerobic respiration.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ---------6H2O + 6CO2 + 2,880KJ --------- equation i

If the process occurs in the absence of oxygen, it is described as anaerobic respiration.

This is also called alcoholic fermentation in plants;

C6H12O6 ------- 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 210KJ ----- equation ii

Ethanol
In animal cells however, anaerobic respiration yields Lactic acid and energy as follows:

C6H12O6 ------- 2CH3CH(OH)COOH + 150KJ ------ equation iii

Lactic acid

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The organic molecules most commonly used as substrates in cellular respiration are

carbohydrates e.g. glucose or fats. They are broken down gradually in a series of enzymes-

controlled reactions. Each step of this reaction releases a small amount of energy, some of

which are stored or transferred in the form of molecules called Adenosine tri-phosphate

(ATP), while the rest of the energy is lost as heat.

N.B: ATP is the carrier of the cells. The energy in ATP can be use when required by the cells.

When used, ATP can be converted to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi), this reaction releases

energy.

ATP + H2O ------------------ ADP + Pi + Energy (about 30.6 KJ per mole of ATP)

The reaction above is reversible in the sense that ADP and phosphate can be reconverted to

ATP, but in this case the process requires the same amount of energy released during the

previous reaction i.e. 30.6KJ per mole of ATP.

Addition of phosphate to ADP is known as phosphorylation and the enzyme which catalyses

these reaction is known as ATPase.

Pathways of cellular respiration

The equations above are mere summary of the process of cellular respiration the detail can be

understood when considering the series of enzyme controlled reactions or pathways of cellular

respiration, through the following processes:

• Glycolysis (break down of sugars) and

• Krebs’s or citric acid cycle

Glycolysis

Glycolysis can be defined as the oxidation of sugar (Glucose) to pyruvic acid. It is the first

stage of respiration in which a sugar mainly glucose (6C-atom) is broken down step by step to

COURSE TUTOR: DR. MANI MALAM AHMAD Page 33

pyruvic acid, (a compound of 3-carbon atom). Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cells

and the process take place in 3-stages as follows:

i. Phosphorylation of the sugar: this is the beginning of glycolysis it involves the

addition of phosphate group to the sugar with the aim of activating or raising the

energy level of the sugar to produce more ATPs during the later reactions.

ii. Lysis: Is the second stage of glycolysis in which the phosphorylated 6-carbon sugar

is split into two 3-carbon sugar phosphates. This stage is the origin or whole

process, (glycol-sugar and Lysis-split).

iii. Oxidation by dehydrogenation: Here the 3-carbon sugar is oxidized by the removal

of hydrogen and thus converted to pyruvic acids. In this process, the hydrogen

carrier NAD is reduce to NADH2 by picking the hydrogen atom removed during

the process. i.e. the NAD is reduced while 3-carbon sugar is oxidized.

*NAD+ + 2H --------> NADH2

The enzyme that catalyses the process is called dehydrogenase

*NAD- Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide.

Glycolysis

6-carbon sugar (e.g. GLucose)

2ATP→↓Phosphorylation stage

Phosphorylated 6carbon sugar

↓ Lysis of 6C-sugar to two 3C-sugars

3-Carbon sugar (e.g. glyceraldehyde-P)

2H2←↓→2ATP-Oxidation stage

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Pyruvic acid (3-carbon)

N.B Note that the process occurs twice i.e. one for each 3C-sugar, therefore, the overall

output or product of one complete glycolysis are:

• 2 molecules of pyruvic acids (2 x 3C)

• 4ATP (i.e. 2ATP from each 3C atom) and

• 2NADH2 (i.e. 1 from each 3C atom)

The fate of pyruvic acid produced depends on two factors i.e. presence or absence of oxygen

in the cell. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvic acid remains in the cytoplasm and undergoes

the process of an anaerobic respiration yielding lactic acid in animal cells or ethanol in plant

cell (Equations ii & iii above).

In the presence of oxygen however, the process proceeds into the mitochondrion (cell power

house) to undergo aerobic respiration yielding CO2, H2O and energy in the form of ATP,

through the process called citric acid or Krebs’s cycle.

Krebs cycle / citric acid cycle or Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA)

In the presence of oxygen however, the process proceeds into the mitochondrion (cell power

house) to undergo aerobic respiration yielding CO2, H2O and energy in the form of ATP,

through the process called citric acid or Krebs’s cycle.

• Citric acid (6C) to cisaconitic acid (6C) (- H2O and the enzyme involved is aconitase).

• Cis aconitic acid (6C) to Iso-citric acid (6C) (by aconitase)

• Iso-citric acid (6C) to oxalosuccinic acid (6C) (yield 3ATP and 2H, the enzyme

involved is Isocitric dehydrogenase)

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 • Oxalosuccinic acid (6C) to oxoglutaric acid (5C) (yield CO2 the enzyme is

oxalosuccinic decarboxylase).

• Oxoglutaric acid (5C) to succinyl Co-enzyme A (4C) (yield 3ATP, 2H and CO2 by the

action of oxaloglutaric dehydrogenase)

• Succinyl Co-enzyme A(4C) to succinic acid (4C) (yield 1ATP, by the action of succinic

dehydrogenase)

• Succinic acid (4C) to fumaric acid (4C) (yield 2ATP by the action of fumarase)

• Fumaric acid (4C) to malic acid (4C) (-H2O by malic dehydrogenase)

• Malic acid (4C) to oxalo-acetic acid (4C) (yielding 3ATP and 2H)

Total amount of ATP produced during the process

= 12ATP + 3ATP between pyruvic acid and the formation of acetyl COA = 15

15 x 2 = 30 ATP

The amount of ATP produced is multiplied by 2 because to each 6C sugar two Pyruvic acids

are produced.

Therefore, the overall output or product of one complete Krebs cycle is:

• 2CO2

• 1ATP

• 2NADH2

• 1 FADH

Since the process occurs twice i.e. one for each 2C-sugar (i.e. 2 cycles per glucose molecule).

Thus, we therefore multiply each of the above output by 2.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Almost all life on earth depends on photosynthesis either directly or indirectly. Photosynthesis

is the process by which green plants and certain other organisms use the energy of light to

convert carbon dioxide and water into the simple sugar (glucose). In so doing photosynthesis

provides the basic energy source for all organisms.

6CO2 + 12H2O + light→ C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

Photosynthesis occurs in green plants, sea weeds, algae and certain bacteria. These organisms

are veritable sugar factories; producing millions of new glucose molecule per second. Plants

use much of this glucose as carbohydrates, and as an energy source to build leaves, flower,

fruits and seeds of plants also convert glucose to cellulose (a cell wall material). Most plants

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produce more glucose than they can use, therefore, they store it in the form of starch and other

carbohydrates in roots, stems and leaves.

SITES FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis in plants occurs in leaves and green stems within specialized cell structures

called chloroplasts. Each plant cell contains 40-50 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is an oval

shape structure, which is divided by membranes into numerous disk-shaped compartments.

These disk-shaped compartments are called thylaki and are arranged vertically inside a chlori

which is like a stack of plates or pancakes. A store of thylakoid is called granum (pl. grana),

these grana lie suspended in a fluid known as stroma.

Embedded within the membranes of the thylakoids are hundreds of molecules of chlorophyll.

Photosynthetic Pigments
- A pigment is molecules that absorb some visible wave length and transmit or reflects

others. While enzymes are used during the light independent reaction to catalyze (speed

up) the process.

The photosynthetic pigments of higher plants fall into the following classes; the chlorophylls

carotenoids and phycobillins.

a) Chlorophylls: chlorophylls absorb mainly red and blue-violet light, thereby reflecting

green light. This gives plants their characteristics green color unless masked by other

pigment. The chlorophyll molecules have a flat light absorbing head end which has a

magnesium atom at its centre. Hence magnesium deficiency reduces chlorophyll

production and causes yellowing of the leave. Chlorophyll a is the most abundant

photosynthetic pigment also the key light capturing pigment. It is also the main

photosynthetic pigment and the only pigment capable of converting light energy to

chemical energy; others include chlorophyll b, c and d. Chlorophylls c and d for

instance are found in diatoms, brown algae and red algae.

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 b) Carotenoids: These are yellow, orange, red or brown pigments that absorbed light

strongly in the blue-violet range. They are called accessory pigments because they pass

the light energy they absorb onto chlorophyll.

Carotenoids have three absorption peaks in the blue violet region (range) of the spectrum.

They also protect chlorophylls from excess light and from oxidation by oxygen produced in

photosynthesis. Carotenoids are of two types which are:

Carotenes and xanthophylls, the most abundant carotene is β-carotene (orange) which gives

carrot its orange color. The xanthophylls also called zeaxanthin (yellow) gives corn kernels

their bright yellow color.

These pigments and enzymes are arranged into two types of units which are:

- Photo system one (PSI) and

- Photo system two (PSII)

Process of photosynthesis
The process of photosynthesis occurs in two stages which are interdependent to each other:

- The light dependent reaction or photophosphorylation stage. This is achieved

through two distinct cycles (i.e. cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation)

- The light independent reaction or Dark reaction stage also called Calvin /C3

cycle.

Generally, the light dependent reaction stage involves the trapping of light energy by

chloroplast. The chloroplast converts the light energy into chemical energy in the form of

Nicotinamide Adenine Di-nucleotide Phosphate (NADP) and Adenosine Tri-phosphate (ATP),

Photolysis of water, and evolution of molecular oxygen (from water) which escapes into the

atmosphere.

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The above process involves two photosystems PSI and PSII. Light energy is absorbed

separately by these photosystems. In photosystem I (PSI) about 200-400 molecules of

chlorophyll a is present at p683 and P700 molecule (reaction center) and about 50 molecules

of accessory pigment carotenoids. Light excites electrons of chlorophyll-a at P683 molecule

the electrons are passed onto P700 molecule which expels them. These electrons are accepted

by ferredoxin (Fd). Two electrons are transferred from ferredoxin to NADP molecule. The

NADP molecule becomes negatively charged and develops an affinity for hydrogen ions (from

water).

Light is also absorbed by pigment system which contains chlorophyll-a p683 and chlorophyll-

a P700 molecule, which expels high energy electrons. The high energy electrons are picked up

by electron carriers which utilize the energy for the formation of ATP molecules. Finally this

electron is transferred to the chlorophyll molecule of PSI. Meanwhile non cyclic photo

phosphorylation involves the photolysis of water formation of NADH2 and evolution of oxygen

from water.

However, in PSII the NADP molecules continue to receive electrons and develop affinity for

hydrogen ions from water, this means that more water gets ionized into hydrogen ions and

hydroxyl ions (OH). Two of these hydrogen ions join a molecule of NADP (which is negative

charged), which then becomes electrically neutral and forms NADP.H2 therefore, twenty four

(24) molecules of water undergoes ionization for the production of 12 molecules of NADP.H2.

Each of the 24 OH- ions formed loses an electron to become an OH radical. The 24 OH- radicals

combine to give rise to 12 molecules of H2O and 6 molecules of oxygen (O2). The oxygen

escapes to the outer atmosphere and water molecules are left behind. The electrons lost by

hydroxyl ions replace the electrons that expelled pigment system II. This closed circuit flow of

electrons is known as cyclic photo phosphorylation.

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 Electron carrier Electron Carrier
(Ferredoxin) (cytochrome)

ADP + P ATP

ADP + p

ATP -
e
(at ground state)

Reaction centre (P 700)

Antenna Chlorophyll-a
Molecules (200-400)

Cyclic photo phosphorylation

NADP.H 2
Eletron carrier NADP
H- C
(ferredoxin) (2e )3
+
2H
-
e
+
24H ions

24 molecules of water -
Puigment system - I 24 OH ions

electron lost
Pigment system e
sun light II

24OH radica
with high energy
ADP+P ATP

12H2O 6O 2
e Electron Carrier
(at ground state)

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

COURSE TUTOR: DR. MANI MALAM AHMAD Page 41

THE LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION (DARK REACTION)
On the other hand, the second stage that is the light independent reaction (Dark reaction)

involves the reduction of CO2 by NADP H2 and the participation of ATP, a series of enzymes

and ribulose-bi phosphate (carbondioxide acceptor) carrier. During the transfer of the electron

from one carrier to another, the high energy lost is used for ATP synthesis. Finally, this excited

electron gets back to its ground state and is returned to chlorophyll (ground state). Thus the

chlorophyll gets back the same lost electron.

These reactions constitute the second phase of photosynthesis and are not dependent on light

and chlorophyll. This reaction takes place in the stomata of the chloroplast and the process uses

the energy (ATP) and reducing power of NADP.H2 produced by the light dependent reactions

to reduce carbon dioxide. The reaction are controlled by enzymes and the sequence determined

by the Calvin cycle.

The dark reaction begins with the carbon fixation step. The enzyme Ribose attaches CO2 to

Ribulose bi-phosphate (RuBP), a 5-carbon sugar. The resulting six carbon molecule is unstable

and immediately splits into two moles of three carbon molecules called 3-phosphoglyceric acid

(3-PGA) for 3mol of CO2 entering six molecules of 3-PGA is generated.

The next stage is the reduction phase; the 3-PGA is phosphorylated by ATP and then reduced

by electrons from NADP.H2 the product is phosphorylated sugar compound glyceraldehydes-

3-phosphate (G-3-P). Some of the manufactured G3P is used to synthesize glucose and fructose

and other organic compounds.

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is the net product of photosynthesis and the first carbohydrate

produced.

However RuBP needs to be regenerated, this is achieved through a series of chemical reactions

with ATP providing the needed energy.

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 THE CALVIN CYCLE

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