LESSON 1 attention focused on the topic or

task at hand.
FACILITATING LEARNER- CENTERED
TEACHING o Meta-memory- awareness of
memory strategies that works best
The term metacognition has its own origin
for you
from the Greek word "meta" means higher or
beyond and Latin word "cognitio" means
thinking.
The term “metacognition” was coined by
John Flavell. Born: August 9, 1928 in Rockland,
Massachusetts, United States, is an American Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate
developmental psychologist specializing in Learning
children's cognitive development who serves
as Anne T. and Robert M. Bass Professor,  Fang and Cox showed that
Emeritus at Stanford University. A foundational metacognitive awareness was evident
researcher of metacognition and metamemory, in preschoolers and in students as
he is a member of both the National Academy young as 8 years old; during these
of Sciences and the American Academy of years, children have the capacity to be
Arts and Sciences. more aware and reflective of their own
learning.
Metacognition, simply put, it “thinking
about thinking” or learning how to learn. It  The challenge for future teachers, is to
refers to higher order thinking which involves integrate more activities that would
active awareness and control over the build your students' capacity to reflect
cognitive processes engaged in learning. on their own characteristics as learners
(self-knowledge), the tasks they are to
Metacognitive knowledge refers to do (task knowledge) and the strategies
acquire knowledge about cognitive processes, that they can use to learn (strategic
knowledge that can be used to control knowledge). Metacognition involves
cognitive processes. ‘knowledge and skills which you and
 Person Variable: how one views himself as your students can learn and master.
a learner and a thinker. It is how human TEACHING STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP
beings learn and process information as METACOGNITION.
well as an individual’s knowledge of one
learning process 1. Have students monitor their own
learning and thinking (Example: have a
 Task Variable: knowledge about the nature student monitor a peer’s
of the task as well as the type of processing learning/thinking/behaving in dyad.)
demands that will place upon the individual.
knowing what is needed to be 2. Teach students study or learning
accomplished strategies.

 Strategy Variable: awareness of the

strategy you are using to learn a topic and TQLR - This can be taught to younger students
evaluating whether this is an effective (primary grades). It is a metacognitive strategy
strategy before listening to a story a presentation.
o Meta-attention- awareness of  T is for Tune in. It is first important for
specific strategies to keep your the learner himself be aware that he is
 paying attention, and that he is read to going on around them (Have you asked
learn. a good question today?)
 Q is for Question. The learner is given 6. Help students to know when to ask for
questions or he thinks questions about help. (He/she must be able to self-
what he will soon learn. monitor; require students to show how
they have attempted to deal with the
 L is for Listen. The learner then
problem of their own.)
intentionally exerts effort listen. He
becomes aware if he is momentarily 7. Show students how to transfer
detracted and goes back to listen again. knowledge, attitudes, values, skills, to
other situations or tasks.
 R is for Remember. The learner uses
ways or strategies remember what was Novice and Expert Learner
learned.
In the last twenty years cognitive
PQ4R -This is usually for older students in the psychologist have studied the distinction
intermedia levels and onwards. This strategy is among learners in the manner they absorb or
used to study a or chapter. process information. They were able to
differentiate expert learners from novice
 P - Preview. Scan the whole chapter
learners. A very important factor that
before delving paragraph.
separated these two types of learner’s mention
 Q - Question. Read the guide is metacognition.
question provided, or think of your
Two types of learners.
own questions about the topic.
 Expert Learners - Employed
 R - Read. Check out sub headings
metacognitive strategies learning.
as you read. Find out the meaning
of words that are not clear to you.  Novice Learners- A person who has just
started learning or doing something.
 R - Recite. Work on answering the
questions you had earlier.
 R - Review. Pinpoint topics you may  Declarative Knowledge: Knowing "what"
need to go back and read in order to – facts and information about cognitive
understand better. processes.
 R - Reflect. Think about what you  Procedural Knowledge: Knowing "how"
read. – understanding how to perform various
cognitive tasks.

3. Have students make predictions about  Conditional Knowledge: Knowing

information to be presented next based "when" and "why" – recognizing the
on what they have read appropriate times and reasons to use
particular strategies.
4. Have students relate ideas to existing
knowledge structures. (It is important to Metacognitive Regulation
have relevant knowledge structures well  Planning: Deciding on the strategies and
learned.) resources needed to approach a
5. Have students develop questions; ask cognitive task.
questions of themselves, about what’s
 Monitoring: Keeping track of one's
 cognitive processes and strategies on Psychology in Education. This task force
during task performance. was led by prominent figures in psychology
and education, including:
 Evaluating: Assessing the effectiveness
of cognitive strategies and processes  John Bransford: A cognitive
after the task is completed. psychologist known for his work on
learning and instruction.
 Ann Brown: Renowned for her research
on cognitive development and learning.
 Rodney C. Schulte: Noted for his
contributions to educational psychology.
CONSTRUCTIVIST
The constructivist perspective in the context of
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
primarily draws on the ideas of influential
theorists such as:
 Jean Piaget: Known for his theory of
cognitive development, Piaget's work
emphasizes how learners construct
knowledge through interactions with
their environment.
 Lev Vygotsky: His sociocultural theory
highlights the role of social interactions
and cultural tools in cognitive
development, contributing significantly
to constructivist approaches.
 Jerome Bruner: Bruner's work focuses
on the ways learners actively construct
their own understanding and knowledge
LESSON 2 through experiences and problem-
solving
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES
WHAT IT IS? 1. Nature of the learning process. The
learning of complex subject matter is most
The learner-centered principle is rooted in a
effective when it is an intentional process
long-held constructivist idea that
of constructing meaning from information
acknowledges people learn best when they
and experience.
actively construct knowledge that builds on
prior understanding based on firsthand There are different types of learning processes, for
experiences with data and evidence. example, habit formation in motor learning and
earning that involves the generation of knowledge
The Learner-Centered Psychological
or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
Principles were developed by the American
Psychological Association's (APA) Task Force  Learning in schools emphasizes the use
 of intentional processes that students of forms, such as adding to, modifying,
can use to construct meaning from or reorganizing existing knowledge or
information, experiences, and their own skills. How these links are made or
thoughts and beliefs. develop may vary in different subject
areas, and among students with varying
 Successful learners are active, goal-
talents, interests, and abilities. However,
directed, self-regulating, and assume
unless new knowledge becomes
personal responsibility for contributing
integrated with the learner's prior
to their own learning. The principles set
knowledge and understanding, this new
forth in this document focus on this type
knowledge remains isolated, cannot be
of learning.
used most effectively in new tasks, and
2. Goals of the learning process. The does not transfer readily to new
successful learner, over time and with support situations.
and instructional guidance, can create
 Educators can assist learners in
meaningful, coherent representations of
acquiring and integrating knowledge by
knowledge.
a number of strategies that have been
 The strategic nature of learning requires shown to be effective with learners of
students to be goal directed. varying abilities, such as concept
mapping and thematic organization or
 To construct useful representations of
categorizing
knowledge and to acquire the thinking
and learning strategies necessary for
 They also continue to expand their
continued learning success across the repertoire of strategies by reflecting on
life span, students must generate and the methods they use to see which work
pursue personally relevant goals. well for them by receiving guided
Initially, students' short-term goals and instruction and feedback, and by
learning may be sketchy in an area, but observing of interacting with appropriate
over time their understanding can be models.
refined by filling gaps, resolving  Learning outcomes can be enhanced if
inconsistencies, and deepening their educators assist learners to developing,
understanding of the subject matter so applying and assessing their strategic
that they can reach longer-term goals. learning skills.

4. Strategic thinking

o Successful learners use strategic thinking

in their approach to learning reasoning,
problem solving and concept learning.
o They understand and can use a variety of
strategies to help them reach learning and
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful
performance goals, and to apply their
learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in novel situations
knowledge in meaningful ways. o They also continue to expand their
 Knowledge widens and deepens as repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
students continue to build links between methods they use to see which work well
for them by receiving guided instruction and
new information and experiences and
feedback, and by observing of interacting
their existing knowledge base. The
with appropriate models.
nature of these links can take a variety o Learning outcomes can be enhanced if
 educators assist learners to developing,
applying and assessing their strategic
learning skills

Motivational and Affective Factors

5. Thinking about thinking 7. Motivational and emotional influences on

learning.
 Successful learners can reflect on how they
think and learn, set reasonable learning or What and how much is learned is
performance goals, select potentially influenced by the motivation. Motivation to
appropriate learning strategies or methods, learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's
and monitor their progress toward these emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals,
goals and habits of thinking

 The rich internal world of thoughts,

beliefs, goals, and expectations for
 In addition, successful learners know what success or failure can enhance or
to do if a problem occurs or if they are not interfere the learner's quality of thinking
making sufficient or timely progress toward and information processing.
a goal. They can generate alternative  Students' beliefs about themselves as
methods to reach their goal (or reassess learners and the nature of learning have
the appropriateness and utility of the goal). a marked influence on motivation.
 Instructional methods that focus on helping Motivational and emotional factors also
learners develop these higher order influence both the quality of thinking
(metacognitive) strategies can enhance and information processing as well as
student learning and personal responsibility an individual's motivation to learn.
for learning.  Positive emotions, such as curiosity,
generally enhance motivation and
6. Context of learning facilitate learning and performance. Mild
anxiety can also enhance learning and
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. performance by focusing the learner's
Teachers play a major interactive role with attention on a particular task. However,
both the learner and the learning intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety,
environment. panic, rage, insecurity) and related
 Cultural or group influences on students thoughts (e.g., worrying about
can impact many educationally relevant competence, ruminating about failure,
variables, such as motivation, orientation fearing punishment, ridicule, or
toward learning and ways of thinking. stigmatizing labels) generally detract
 Technologies and instructional practices from motivation, interfere with learning,
must be appropriate for learners' level of and contribute to low performance.
prior knowledge, cognitive abilities and their
learning and thinking strategies. 8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner's
creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
 The classroom environment, particularly the
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.
degree to which it is nurturing or not, can
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of
also have significant impacts on student
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
learning.
personal interests, and providing for personal
choice and control.

 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking,

and creativity are major indicators of the
 learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, Developmental and Social Factor
which is in large part a function of
meeting basic needs to be competent 10. Developmental influences on learning
and to exercise personal control. Individuals develop, there are different
Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on opportunities and constraints for learning.
tasks that learners perceive as
Learning is most effective when differential
interesting and personally relevant and
development within and across physical,
meaningful, appropriate in complexity
and difficulty to the learners' abilities, intellectual, emotional an social domains is
and on which they believe they can taken into account.
succeed.
 Individuals learn best when material is
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on
appropriate to their development level
tasks that are comparable to real-world
situations and meet needs for choice and is presented in an enjoyable and
and control. Educators can encourage interesting way.
and support learners' natural curiosity
and motivation to learn by attending to  Because individual development varies
individual differences in learners' across intellectual, social emotional and
perceptions of optimal novelty and physical domains, achievement in
difficulty, relevance, and personal choice different instruction domains may also
and control. vary.
 Overemphasis on one type of
9. Effects of motivation on effort. developmental readiness, such as
reading readiness, may preclude
Acquisition of complex knowledge and learners from demonstrating that they
skills requires extended learner effort and are more capable in other areas of
guided practice. Without learners' motivation performance.
to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is  The cognitive, emotional and social
unlikely without coercion. development of individual learner and
how they interpret life experiences are
 Effort is another major indicator of affected by prior school in home, culture
motivation to learn. The acquisition of and community factors.
complex knowledge and skills demands  Early and continuing parental
the investment of considerable learner involvement in schooling, and the quality
energy and strategic effort, along with of language interactions and two-way
persistence over time. communications between adults and
 Educators need to be concerned with children can influence these
facilitating motivation by strategies that developmental areas.
enhance learner effort and commitment  Awareness and understanding of
to learning and to achieving high developmental differences among
standards of comprehension and children with and without emotional,
understanding. physical or intellectual disabilities, can
 Effective strategies include purposeful facilitate the creation of optimal learning
learning activities, guided by practices contexts.
that enhance positive emotions and
intrinsic motivation to learn, and 11. Social influences on learning
methods that increase learners'
perceptions that a task is interesting Learning is influenced by social interactions,
and personally relevant. interpersonal relation and communication
with others.
LESSON 3
 Learning can be enhanced when the
 learner has an opportunity interact and expand or modify them, if necessary.
to collaborate with others on  When learners perceive that their
instructional tasks. individual differences in abilities,
 In interactive and collaborative backgrounds, cultures and experiences
instructional contexts, individuals have are valued, respected and
an opportunity for perspective-taking accommodated in learning tasks and
and reflective thinking that may lead to contexts, levels of motivation and
higher levels of cognitive, social, and achievement are enhanced.
moral development, as well as self-
esteem.
 Learning settings that allow for social
interactions and that respect diversity
encourage flexible thinking and social
competence.
 Quality personal relationships that
provide stability, trust and caring can
increase learners' sense of belonging,
self-respect and self- acceptance, and
provide a positive climate for learning.
 Family influences, positive interpersonal 14. Standards and assessment
support and instruction in self-
motivation strategies can offset factors Setting appropriately high and
that interfere with optimal learning such challenging standards including assessing the
as negative beliefs about competence in learner as well as learning progress diagnostic
a particular subject, high levels of test process and outcome assessment - are
anxiety, negative sex role expectations, integral parts of learning process.
and undue pressure to perform well.
 Positive learning climates can also help  Assessment provides important
to establish the context for healthier information to both the learner an
levels of thinking, feeling and behaving. teacher at all stages of the learning
Such contexts help learners feel safe to process
share ideas, actively participate in the  Effective learning takes place when
learning process, and create a learning learners feel challenged towards
community. appropriately high goals; therefore,
appraisal of the learner cognitive
12. Individual differences in learning strengths and weaknesses, as well as
current knowledge an skills, is important
Learners have different strategies, for the selection of instructional
approaches and capabilities for learning that materials of Pri optimal degree of
are a function of prior experience and heredity. difficulty.
 Ongoing assessment of the learner's
 Individuals are born with and develop understanding of the curriculum
their own capabilities and talents. material can provide valuable feedback
 In addition, through learning and social to both learners and teacher about
acculturation, they have acquired their progress toward the learning goals.
own preferences for how they like to  Standardized assessment of learner
learn and the pace at which they learn. progress and outcomes assessment
However, these preferences are not provides one type of information about
always useful in helping learners reach achievement levels both within and
their learning goals. across individuals that can inform
 Educators need to help students various types of programmatic
examine their learning preferences and decisions.
  Performance assessments can provide regulate their thoughts and behaviors in
other sources of information about the order to learn more effectively
attainment of learning outcomes. (metacognition).

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 3. Motivation and affect.

14 principles and distilled them into five areas:
Factors such as intrinsic motivation
1. The knowledge base. (from within), reasons for wanting to
2. Strategic processing and control. learn, personal goals an enjoyment of
3. Motivation and affect. learning tasks all have a crucial role in
4. Development and Individual the learning process.
Differences.
5. Situation or context. 4. Development and Individual Differences

 Alexander P. Likely refers to: Patricia A. Learning is a unique journey for each
Alexander person because each learner has his
 Field: Educational Psychology own unique combination of genetic and
 Focus: Research on persuasion and environmental factors that influence him.
conceptual change -
 Key Publications: 5. Situation or context
 "Persuasion as a Dynamic,
Multidimensional Process: An Learning happens in the context of
Investigation of Individual and society as well as within an individuals
Intraindividual Differences" (2004) -
Chapter in the "Handbook of Research
on Conceptual Change" (2008)

 Murphy P. Likely refers to: P. Karen

Murphy
 Field: Educational Psychology
 Focus: Collaboration with Patricia
Alexander on research projects
 Key Contribution: Co-developed the "14
Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles"
LESSON 4
1. The knowledge base.

One's existing knowledge serves: the REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO THE

foundation of all future learning. The LEARNERS DEVELOPMENT
learner's previous knowledge will
influence new learning specifically on The ideas of the theorists Freud, Erikson,
how represents new information, makes Piaget, Kohlberg, Vygotsky, and
associations and filters new Bronfenbrenner remain to be foundational in
experiences. the teacher's understanding of the learners'
development. Let us recall highlights of their
2. Strategic processing and control. theories.

Learners can develop skills reflect and  SIGMUND FREUD:

 Freud said, "The mind is like an iceberg, it - theoretical notion that a portion of the
floats with one-seventh of its bulk above individual's libido has been permanently
water." This is of course the very famous 'invested' in a particular stage of his
analogy that Freud of referred to when he development.
explained the subconscious mind. He believed
that much of what the person is really about is STAGES:
not what we see in the outside and what is
 Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months)
conscious, but what is there hidden in the
subconscious mind. As teachers, it is Erogenous Zone: mouth
important that we remember not be too quick
in making conclusions about our students' - child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking)
intentions for their actions. Always consider - too much or too little satisfaction can end
that there are many factors that may influence
up with oral fixation or oral personality
one's behavior. Freud also emphasized the
three components that make up one's oral receptive: have a stronger tendency to
personality: the id, ego, and the superego. The smoke, drink alcohol overeats
id is pleasure-centered; the ego is reality-
centered, and the superego is related to the oral aggressive: tendency to bite nails, curse or
ego ideal or conscience. gossip

Freud believed that an individual goes through

five psychosexual stages of development. This
 Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
includes the oral, anal, phallic, latency and
genital stages. Each stage demands Erogenous Zone: anus
satisfaction of needs, and failure to do so
results in fixations - Child’s satisfaction is eliminating and
retaining feces
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual development
Anal Retentive: obsession with cleanliness,
Freud perfection and control
- Most popular psychologist that studies the Anal Expulsive: messy and disorganized
development of personality and most
controversial

- Theory of psychosexual includes five  Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years old)

distinct stages; a person goes through this Erogenous Zone: genitals
and along the way there are needs to be
met - Develop unconscious sexual desires

- Whether the needs are met or not Oedipus Complex: sexual attraction towards
determine a person’s personality mother, conflict, arises because the boy
develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his
Erogenous Zones – specific pleasure area in mother. He wants to possess his mother
each stage that becomes a focal point for each exclusively and get rid of his father to enable
stage him to do so. Irrationally, the boy thinks that if
Fixation his father were to find out about all this, his
father would take away what he loves the most.
- if needs in each are not met fixation occurs During the phallic stage what the boy loves
most is his penis. Hence the boy develops
castration anxiety. Identification means - Sexual urge is once again awakened
internally adopting the values, attitudes, and
- Focused sexual urges towards opposite sex
behaviors of another person. The consequence
of this is that the boy takes on the male gender peers
role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that
become the superego
FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
- In Greek mythology, Oedipus unintentionally
1. Id
killed his father and married his mother
Jocasta 2. Ego
Electra Complex: sexual attraction towards 3. Superego
their father. desires the father, but realizes that
First to develop is Id followed by Ego then
she does not have a penis. This leads to the
Superego
development of penis envy and the wish to be
a boy. The girl resolves this by repressing her  Id
desire for her father and substituting the wish
for a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl - Child is born with Id
blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and - Pleasure principle, immediate
this creates great tension. The girl then gratification of satisfaction of needs
represses her feelings (to remove the tension)
and identifies with the mother to take on the - Nothing else matters except
female gender role satisfaction of own needs
- First to develop because of animal
instinct
 Latency Stage ( 6 to puberty)

- Sexual urges remain repressed

 Ego
- No further psychosexual development
- Operates the reality principle
takes place during this stage (latent means
hidden). The libido is dormant. - Deciding agent of the personality
- Freud thought that most sexual impulses - Our conscious mind
are repressed during the latent stage, and
- Balance Id and Superego
sexual energy can be sublimated (re:
defense mechanisms) towards school work,
hobbies, and friendships.
 Superego
- Much of the child's energy is channeled into
- Embodies personal moral aspect
developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely - Linked with conscience
confined to other children of the same
Topographical Model
gender.
 The Unconscious

 Genital Stage (puberty onwards) - Deep within us and are not available at
conscious mind
- Not aware and not in control
- Where feelings hide

 The Conscious  ERIK ERIKSON:

- Present awareness Erikson said, "Healthy children will not fear life
if their elders have integrity enough not to fear
death." He believed in the impact of the
significant others in the development of one's
 The Subconscious view of himself, life and of the world. He
- Also called preconscious presented a very comprehensive framework of
eight psycho-social stages of development. It
- Reach if prompted but in in our active is Erikson who described the crisis (expressed
conscious in opposite polarities) that a person goes
through; the maladaptations and malignancies
- Right below the surface but not hidden
that result from failure to effectively resolve
- We are aware of what is stored in the crisis; and the virtue that emerges when
conscious mid balance and resolution of the crisis is attained.

- Mostly memories

 JEAN PIAGET:
Piaget said, "The principle goal of education in
the schools should be creating men and
women who are capable of doing new things,
not simply repeating what other generations
have done."
Piaget's theory centered on the stages of
cognitive development. He described four details/background
stages of cognitive development, namely the knowledge/categories we have in mind
sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete-
- Cognitive structure
operational and formal operational stages.
Each has characteristic ways of thinking and
perceiving that shows how one's cognitive
abilities develop.  Accommodation

 Jean Piaget - If it doesn’t match the schema in mind

- Swiss psychologist - We recognize thoughts and create new

schema
- Students learn through constructive
manner FOUR STAGES

- A constructivist 1. Sensori Motor Stage (birth to 2 years old)

Learning is an active process of construction  Sensori

- Active learning is about how you create - we develop senses first

meaning and relate to your past - (sensori are reflexes, we use to identify
experiences if senses are active through behavior
- We see children as little scientist, and action. These are uncontrolled
through gathering information they  Motor Skills
create their own meaningful experience
 Gross
HOW DO WE LEARN CONSTRUCTIVISM?
 Fine
Two State of Mind
- Gross Motor Skills Movement –
1. Equilibrium
movements with coordination with large
2. Disequilibrium muscle (walking and jumping) from
crawling-sitting-standing-walking-
running to jumping
 Equilibrium
- Fine Motor Skills – connected with thin
- Balance or fine muscle

- Same idea with the reality  Object Permanence

 Disequilibrium - out of sight, out of mind

- Not same idea with the reality - If they don’t see it they think it doesn’t
exist
- Not balance
If they have object permeance, they are still
- Curiosity that we must solve aware about things even if they can’t see it
How we learn EQUILIBRIUM 2. Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years old)
 Assimilation
- Matching external reality to our “schema”  Egocentric/Egocentrism
Schema are the mental
 - The only thing they know is their  Analogical reasoning
perception and situation
- Analogy
 Irreversibility
- Can compare point of view to others
- They cant reverse their mind
- Compare two things as reasoning
- - if they do something they cant undo it

 Conservation
 Deductive reasoning
- They cant identify based on one criteria
- Use general concept to understand
only
other specific concept
 Symbolic learning
Problem with this stage: in reality other child
- They can understand symbol are more advance compared to this

 Animism
- They try to animate object  LAWRENCE KOHLBERGE

- Helps child be creative Kohlberg said, "Right action tends to be

defined in terms of general individual rights
and standards that have been critically
3. Concrete Operational ( 7-11 years old) examined and agreed upon by the whole
society." Kohlberg proposed three levels of
moral development (pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional) which are
 Not Egocentric
further subdivided into the stages. Influenced
-can understand others by Piaget, Kohlberg believed that one's
cognitive development influenced the
 Reversibility
development of one's moral reasoning.
- They can do and undo things (Moral Theory of Development)
 Conservation Aligned with cognitive theory of development
- Can differentiate things Morality (right or wrong)
 Animism - We cant identify morality if we don’t
- Is disappearing develop cognitive thinking
- He adopted and built on Piaget’s work.
 Symbolic Learning
- Transform to “concrete reasoning” - He believed that children form ways of
thinking through their experiences which
include understandings of moral
concepts such as justice, rights, equality,
4. Formal Operational (12-15 years old)
etc.
 Hypothesis learning
-
- Ask questions about “what if” and
Things that move/develop:
consequences
Self-Centered to Group Centered
External Authority to Internal Authority - Not afraid of aiming for benefits and
because of majority of people do it
External – decision of other or their influence
because you have your own ideas and
to you. Relying to other people
belief
Internal- own decision
- Only 25% get to level 6
3 Level of Moral Cognition
- Changes unjust things
1. Pre-Conventional (Self Centered)
Stages of Pre-Conventional
 LEV VYGOTSKY:
1. Punishment / Obedience
Vygotsky said, "The teacher must orient his
- scared to be scolded work not on yesterday's development in the
child but on tomorrow's." Vygotsky
2. Mutual Benefit/Reward
emphasized the role of social interaction in
- We get something in exchange learning and development. SCAFFOLDING the
systematic manner of providing assistance to
- As long as there is benefit
the learner that helps the learner to effectively
2. Conventional ( Group of people/norm) acquire a skill. He believed that guidance from
a more knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead
Stages of Conventional a learner to a higher level of performance than
3. Social approval ( good girl&boy) if he were alone. This higher level of
performance then eventually becomes the
- Decision based on asking for approval learner's actual performance when he works
- You want to be accepted by other independently in the future. His concept of
zone of proximal development (ZPD) illustrates
people
this.
4. Law and Order
Lev Vygotsky
- Basing the decision on regulations to
(Socio Cultural Theory of Development)
avoid chaos
- Studies how a child develops in terms of
cognition
3. Post Conventional
A child learn through SOCIAL INTERCATION
and LANGUAGE (based on culture )
Stages of Post Conventional Cognition
- Personal child itself is the focus
5. Social Contract Socio-Cultural
- We question things - Learning because of social interaction
- Based decisions to reason Social Interaction
- Hate bias and prejudice - How a child learns
6. Universal /Ethical Principle Language
- All about moral responsibility - Self-speech/private speech
MKO- More Knowledgeable Others then, we must look not only at the child and
his/her immediate environment, but also at the
Zone of Proximal Zone
larger environment with which the child
space between what a learner can do without interacts.
assistance and what a learner can do with
Biological System Theory
adult guidance or in collaboration with more
- Influence of the environment
- Develops within the context of
relationship that compromises the
child’s environment
- He states that as a child develops, the
interaction within these environments
becomes more complex. This
complexity can arise as the child's
physical and cognitive structures grow
and mature.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological model:
Structure of Environment
 The microsystem is the layer nearest the
capable peers child. It compromises structures which the
child directly interacts with. It includes
structures such as one’s family, school, and
neighborhood.
In this layer, relationship effects happen in two
directions – both away from the child and
toward the child.
 BRONFENBRENNER: A child's parents may affect his beliefs and
Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the behavior; however, the child also affects the
Bioecological Systems Theory presents child behavior and beliefs of the parent.
development within the context of relationship Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional
systems that comprise the child's environment. influences, and he shows how they occur
The model is composed of microsystem, among all levels of the environment.
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and This is quite similar to what Erikson termed as
the chronosystem. Each layer is further made “mutuality” in his psychosocial theory.
up of different structures. The term
"bioecological" points out that a child's own  The mesosystem. This layer serves as the
biological make-up impacts on his/her connection between structures of the
development. The child's growing and child’s microsystem.
developing body and the interplay between
The family and the school are perhaps the two
his/her immediate family/community
most important microsystems that impact a
environment, and the societal landscape fuel
child’s psycho-social development.
and steer his/her development. Changes or
conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout
other layers. To study a child's development
 The ecosystem. This layer refers to the
 bigger social system in which a child does
not function directly. This includes the city
government, workplace, and the mass
media.
An example includes parents' jobs, in terms of
whether their jobs may trigger a relocation to a
new location.
 The macrosystem. This layer is found in the
outermost part of the child’s environment.
This includes the cultural values, customs,
and laws.
A macrosystem is the broad, all-encompassing
influences that impact the child and all the
systems that surround the child. Several
examples of macrosystems are the education
system, the law systems, the cultural systems,
and the geographic location in which a child is
raised.
 The chronosystem. Covers the element of
time as it relates to a child’s environment.
The Chronosystem, the final level of
Bronfenbrenner's ecological model, focuses
on the role of time in shaping an individual's
development. This dimension
acknowledges the influence of historical
events, personal experiences, and major life
transitions on developmental processes.