Basic Electricity for Seafarers

A Free Compilation

As per IMO Model Courses 7.02, 7.04 and 7.08

 Basic Electricity for Seafarers
A Free Compilation
As per IMO Model Courses 7.02, 7.04, 7.08
Elstan A. Fernandez
And Electro Technical Officer Cadets
Divyam Verma / Jatin Manghani /
Krishnakumar / Rahul Kumar / Bapu Sawant /
Aditya Parcha / Rakesh Kumar
Basic Electricity for Seafarers

A Free Compilation

By Elstan A. Fernandez, Divyam Verma, Jatin Manghani, Krishnakumar,

Rahul Kumar, Bapu Sawant, Aditya Parcha, Rakesh Kumar

First Edition: September 2021

Print ISBN: 978-81-947106-6-0

eBook ISBN: 978-93-925060-2-4

 Preface

No matter where we go or what we do in this world today, Electricity plays a pivotal role in day-to-day
operations and in our life as well. It is befitting to note that at the very beginning of the vast syllabus for
the IMO Model Courses 7.02 and 7.04 for Engineers at the Management and Operational Levels and also
7.08 for ETOs, great stress has been laid on the knowledge and understanding of Basic Elecrticity.

This little book has been compiled from various sources and hence is not for commercial benefits but
purely to help those who are interested to learn the subject. It thus aims at helping engineers to recap
their fundamentals and also apply the same in their work lives at sea and on land.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers v

 Acknowledgements
This book has been compiled from various resources, without which, it would not have been possible.
The following are the sources of our informations to whom we are grateful and sure that our readers would
be grateful too!
Sources

• https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-diagram-of-the-excitation-circuit-of-the-turbo-
alternator_fig1_316752406
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/rms-voltage.html
• https://www.vedantu.com/physics/electromagnetic-induction
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/magnetic-flux-induction-and-
faradays-law/
• https://byjus.com/physics/faradays-law/
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/
• www.brainly.in
• quora.com
• theelectricalguy.com
• https://byjus.com/physics/work-energy-power/
• https://brainly.in/question/31356397
• https://teleskola.mt/work-energy-power-and-efficiency/
• https://shiromaninstitute.in/frontend/pdf/bank/Work-Time-and-Energy.pdf
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_2.html
• https://www.vedantu.com/formula/power-formula
• https://physicsfos.blogspot.com/2021/05/power-formula-physics-example.html
• https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/calculate-the-electrical-energy-consumed-by-a-
class-12-physics-cbse-5fc926f0fe5c1049316cf5d5

vi Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Contents
Chapter 1 - Basic Laws in Electrical Theory
Article No. Article Page No.
1.1 The Origin of Ohm’s Law 2
1.2 Definition of Ohm’s Law 2
1.3 Facts 3
1.4 State And Applies Kirchhoff’s Laws 3
1.4.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) or Point Law 3
1.4.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) or Kirchhoff’s Second Law 4
1.5 Current Flow and the Voltage Drop Across Resistors in Simple Circuits 5
1.5.1 The Voltage Divider Formula 5
1.5.2 Voltage Drop and Current Calculation in a Series Circuit 6
1.5.3 Total Circuit Current Calculation 6
1.5.4 The Current Divider Formula 7
1.6 The Wheatstone Bridge 7
1.6.1 Finding an Unknown Resistance using a Balanced Wheatstone Bridge 9
1.6.2 Applications 9
1.7 Calculating the total (or equivalent) resistance of a parallel circuit with a given 10
voltage and total current
1.8 Given the values of resistances in a parallel circuit, calculate the total 11
resistance
1.9 Effect of Adding a Further Resistance to A Parallel Circuit, A Series Circuit 11
1.10 Effect Of Adding A Further Resistance In A Parallel Circuit 12
1.11 Comparison between Series Resistance Circuit and Parallel Resistance 13
Circuit
1.12 Effect on the e.m.f and the terminal potential difference of a supply by 14
calculations and by experiment
1.12.1 Electromotive Force 14
1.12.2 Hydraulic Analogy 14
1.12.3 Terminal Voltage 16
1.12.4 Calculating Terminal Voltage, power dissipation, Current and Resistance: 17
Terminal voltage and load
1.13 Effect of Internal Resistance on The Supply Source 20
1.14 Determination of current flows, resistance values and voltages in series 22
circuits and parallel circuits by calculation

Basic Electricity for Seafarers vii

 Contents
Chapter 2 - Concepts of Electrical Circuits
Article No. Article Page No.
2.1 Current Flow in A Closed Circuit 30
2.2 Differences between Conductors and Insulators 30
2.2.1 What are Conductors? 30
2.2.2 Properties of an Electrical Conductor 30
2.2.3 Applications of Conductors 31
2.2.4 Insulators 31
2.2.5 Examples of Insulators 32
2.3 Different Sources of Electrical Energy 32
2.4 Potential Difference and Electromotive Force 32
2.4.1 Electromotive force, EMF 33
2.4.2 Potential Difference 33
2.4.3 Similarities and Differences of EMF and Potential Difference 33
2.5 Current Flow 34
2.5.1 The Basics 34
2.5.2 Current Strength Is Measured in Amperes, Represented by A 34
2.5.3 Direct Current (D.C.) 35
2.5.4 Alternating Current (A.C.) 35
2.5.5 Main Supply in Modern Ships 36
2.5 Static Electricity 36
2.5.1 Electrostatic Charging and The Principles of Overcoming Potential
Hazards 36
2.5.1.1 Contact-induced charge separation 37
2.5.1.2 Pressure-Induced Charge Separation 37
2.5.1.3 Heat-Induced Charge Separation 37
2.5.1.4 Charge-induced Charge Separation 37
2.5.2 Some Dangers Posed by Static Electricity 37
2.5.2.1 Charge Separation 38

viii Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Contents
Chapter 2 - Concepts of Electrical Circuits
Article No. Article Page No.
2.5.2.2 Charge Accumulation 39
2.5.5.2.1 Causes of Charge Accumulation 39
2.5.5.3 Electrostatic Discharge 39
2.6 Impedance and Inductance 40
2.6.1 Impedance 40
2.6.2 Impedance of AC versus Resistance in DC 41
2.6.3 Relationship between Voltage, Current, Impedance 41
2.6.4 Effects of Resistance and Inductance in AC and DC circuits 41
2.6.5 What is Meant by Reactance? 42
2.6.6 The Impedance Triangle 43
2.6.7 Power Factor 43
2.6.8 Calculating the Impedance and Power Factor When Resistance and
Reactance are Given 43
2.6.9 Effect of Changing Current on Induced EMF 44
2.6.10 Lagging Nature of Reactance 44
2.6.11 Graph for Current, Voltage, Back EMF of a Resistive Circuit. 45
2.6.12 Graph for Current and Voltage of a Pure Inductive Circuit 45
2.6.13 Phasor Diagram of An Inductive Circuit with Resistance 46
2.6.14 Current Lag in Inductive Circuits 46
2.6.15 Shipboard Installations Produce Lagging Power Demand 47
2.6.16 Effect of Varying Power Factor on Power Consumed 47

Chapter 3 - Fundamentals of Alternating Current

Article No. Article Page No.
Production of AC in a Simple Conductor Loop Rotating in a Magnetic
3.1 50
Field
3.2 Fleming's Right-Hand Rule 51
3.3 Fleming's Left-Hand Rule 52

Basic Electricity for Seafarers ix

 Contents
Chapter 3 - Fundamentals of Alternating Current
Article No. Article Page No.
Position of the loop & the voltage wave form for one cycle at 90O
3.4 53
intervals of rotation
Relationship between instantaneous voltage, conductor velocity, the sine
3.4.1 55
of the displaced angle
3.4.1.1 Displacement of a Coil within a Magnetic Field 56
3.5 Wave form of an A.C. voltage 56
3.6 Peak Value 57
3.7 A Simple Circuit for A Three-Phase Supply from An Alternator 58
3.7.1 The Unique Features 59
3.7.2 The Exciter 59
3.7.3 The Exciter Field 60
3.7.4 The Exciter Armature 61
3.7.5 The Rotating Rectifier 61
3.7.6 Pilot Exciter 62
3.8 Phase Sequence of 3-phase Alternator 63
Complete Cycle of a Sine Wave by Vertical Components of a Rotating
3.9 65
Vector
3.10 Degrees and Radians Superimposed on The Wave Sine 66
3.11 Angular Velocity 67
3.12 Calculating the Instantaneous Voltage, Given the Unknown
e = Blv to produce; e = Emax sin , where e is the instantaneous voltage,
3.13 68
Emax, is the maximum voltage and is the displaced angle
3.14 Factors Affecting the Induced Voltage 68
3.14.1 The EMF Equation 69
3.15 Phase Difference Between Voltage and Current 71
3.16 Use of Root Mean Square (r.m.s.) Values 72
RMS Value for Given Values of Instantaneous Voltage or Current for a
3.16.1 72
Half Cycle
3.17 RMS Voltage Analytical Method 74
3.18 Principles of Electromagnetic Induction and its Main Applications 74
3.18.1 Principle of Electromagnetic Induction 75
3.18.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction 76
3.19 Lenz’s Law 76

x Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Contents
Chapter 4 - Work, Power and Energy
Article No. Article Page No.
4.1 Introduction 80
4.2 Work 80
4.3 Electrical Power 80
4.4 Electrical Energy 81
4.5 Work = Current × Time × Voltage 82
4.6 Simple calculations to determine energy and work 82
The Definition of Power, giving the units and symbols used; from the 85
4.7 above objective, derive the expression Power = Voltage × Current (P =
VI), giving the units used
4.7.1 Electric Power Formula 87
4.7.2 The Power Equation 88

Chapter 5 - Basic Measuring Instruments

Article No. Article Page No.
5.1 Fundamentals of Test Equipment 91
5.1.1 Multi-meters 91
5.1.2 Voltage Measurement 92
5.1.3 Current Measurement 93
5.1.4 Current Clamp Meters 94
5.2 Portable Measuring Instruments 95
5.2.1 Procedure to Measure Continuity in a Circuit 99
5.2.2 Procedure to Measure Resistance 99
5.2.3 Procedure to Measure AC Voltage 100
5.2.4 Procedure to Measure DC Voltage 100
5.2.5 Procedure to Measure Direct Current 101
5.2.6 Procedure to Measure Alternating Current with a Clamp Meter 102
5.2.7 The Megger 103
5.2.7.1 Constructional Features of an Analog Megger 103
5.2.7.2 Safety Features 106
5.2.7.3 Procedure to Use a Portable Megger / Insulation Tester 106

Basic Electricity for Seafarers xi

 To Our Fellow Seafarers
and Would Be Seafarers Too
 Chapter 1
Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

Sir! My basics in
electricity are not
clear. What can i do
to improve them?

It is very important to know

the basics of a subject if you
are to excel in any field. Here,
we get started with basic laws
firs and through the course of
the other chapters, I will try to
clear your doubts.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers

Chapter 1

1.1 The Origin of Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law defines the relationship between voltage, resistance and current. This law is
widely employed while designing electronic circuits. The electric current that runs the fans and
kettles in our homes is guided by Ohm’s law, a fundamental rule of electric current flow that
was given by Georg Simon Ohm in the year 1827. The wide applicability of this law can be
understood by the fact that despite being formulated almost 200 years ago, it still holds true
today, and has relevance for almost all of us in our day-to-day lives.
Whether you are powering up your room heater or setting your iron to the cotton setting,
Ohm’s law is what makes it possible for you to achieve the desired flow of current for your
precise needs. In the world of physics, this law is considered a significant and important way
to determine the amount of electric current that flows through a conductor.

1.2 Definition of Ohm’s Law

It states that under constant temperature and physical conditions, the amount of electric
current (I) through a metal conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage (V)
applied.
Ohm expressed this discovery in the form of a simple equation, describing how voltage,
current, and resistance are interrelated:

V∝I
V = I*R
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 =
𝑅 𝐼
Here, V = Voltage (volts), I = Current (amperes) and R = Resistance (Ohm)
This law can be easily understood with the analogy of observing the flow of water through
a pipe. More water will come out of the pipe when more water pressure is applied. If the pipe’s
diameter is small, it will difficult for the water to flow, as compared to a pipe with a large
diameter.

2 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

Similarly, at a given resistance value, when more voltage is applied across a conductor, more
current will flow. If the resistance is low, the current will be high. Ohm's law also means that,
if we know the values of any two quantities from voltage, current, or resistance in a circuit, we
can determine the third.

1.3 Facts

The application of Ohm’s law (based on V = IR) is limited to circuits with direct current
(DC) only and does not work when there is an alternating current (AC) flowing through the
circuit.
This law is also associated with the design and functioning of contemporary electronic
devices, such as smartphones, laptops, and chargers which run on DC. It allows engineers to
calculate an adequate supply of power through these devices.
The unit of resistance is named the Ohm (Ω), after Georg Simon Ohm, to honor his
contributions to the field of physics.
This popular law of physics is said to be first discovered by English physicist Henry
Cavendish who never published his scientific findings on electric current. Later on, when Ohm
did his own research on the relation between voltage and current, he came across similar
discoveries and published the law under his name.
A DC ammeter that is used to measure the direct current value across any DC device, also
follows this law. Fuses and resistors that hinder the flow of electric current and serve as safety
components in electronic appliances, function in accordance with the formulae mentioned in
Ohm’s law.

1.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws

1.4.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) or Point Law

It states that in any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point
(or junction) is zero.
In other words, the total current leaving a junction equals the total current entering it.
Consider the example of a few conductors that come together at point A. Some conductors
have currents that lead to point A, whereas others have currents that lead away from point A.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 3

Chapter 1

Assuming that the entering currents are positive and the emitted currents are negative, we
obtain

I1 + (−I2) + (−I3) + (+ I4) + (−I5) = 0

Or
I1 + I4 –I2 –I3 –I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
Or
Sum of the Incoming currents = Sum of the Outgoing currents
The preceding conclusion may be expressed as ∑ I = 0.
1.4.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) or Kirchhoff’s Second Law
It states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the
sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero.
In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero.
Thus,

The Sum of the Voltages (Anti Clockwise)

V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 0

4 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

The Sum of the Voltages (Clockwise)

– V 1– V4 – V3 – V2 = 0
The basis for this rule is that if we start at a certain junction and circle the mesh before we
return to the starting point, we must be at the same potential as when we began. As a result, all
e.m.f. sources encountered along the way must be proportional to the voltage decreases in the
system. Each voltage is given its proper symbol, plus or minus, the resistances.

1.5 Current Flow And Voltage Drop Across Resistors In Simple Circuits

1.5.1 The Voltage Divider Formula in a Series Resistive Circuit

RX
VX = * Vs
RT

Where,
Vx is the voltage to be found,
Rx is the resistance across which, the voltage is to be found
RT is the total series resistance and
VS is the supply voltage.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 5

Chapter 1

1.5.2 Voltage Drop and Current Calculation in a Series Circuit

Find the voltages drop across each resistor are connected in series and find total current flow
in circuit that can be fed from a 12-V battery shown in the figure below with the help of a
voltage divider circuit.

Solution
The total resistance in the circuit: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
=4+3+1
=8Ω
4
Drop across VR1 = *12 = 6 V.
8
3
Drop across VR2 = 8 *12 = 4.5 V.
14
Drop acrossVR3 = *12 = 1.5 V.
8

Total Voltage Drop = Sum of Voltage drop across each Resistor

= 6V + 4.5V + 1.5V
Total Voltage Drop = 12V
1.5.3 Total Circuit Current Calculation
Apply Ohm’s law i.e.: V=I*R
Current (I) = Voltage (V) / Resistance (R)
= 12V/ 8Ω
= 1.5 Amperes

6 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

1.5.4 The Current Divider Formula in a Parallel Resistive Circuit

RT
Ix = * IT
RT +RX

Where,

Ix = Current through any resistor in the parallel circuit

IT = Total current of the circuit
RT = Equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit
Rx = Resistance through which current Ix passes

1.6 The Wheatstone Bridge

A wheatstone bridge network or circuit is one of the most popular electrical tools that is
often used in measurement circuits, transducer circuits, switching circuits and also in
oscillators.
As the wheatstone bridge is one of the most common and simplest bridge network / circuit,
it can be used to measure resistance very precisely. But often the wheatstone bridge is used with
transducers to measure physical quantities like temperature, pressure, strain, salinity, liquid
level, etc.
A Wheatstone Bridge is used in applications where small changes in resistance are to be
measured in sensors. This is used to convert a change in resistance to a change in voltage of a
transducer. The combination of this bridge with an operational amplifier is used extensively in
industries for various transducers and sensors.
For example, the resistance of a Thermistor changes when it is subjected to change in
temperature. Likewise, with a strain gauge, when it is subjected to pressure, force or
displacement, its resistance changes. Depending on the type of application, the Wheatstone
Bridge can be operated either in a Balanced condition or an Unbalanced condition.
It consists of four resistors (R1, R2, R3 and R4) that are connected in the shape of a diamond
with the DC supply source connected across the top and bottom points (C and D in the circuit)
of the diamond and the output is taken across the other two ends (A and B in the circuit).

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 7

Chapter 1

This bridge is used to find the unknown resistance very precisely by comparing it with a
known value of resistances. In this bridge, a Null or Balanced condition is used to find the
unknown resistance. For this bridge to be in a Balanced Condition, the output voltage at points
A and B must be equal to 0. From the above circuit:
The Bridge is in Balanced Condition if: Vout = 0V
To simplify the analysis of the above circuit, let us redraw it as follows:

Now, for a balanced condition, the voltage across the resistors R1 and R2 is equal. If V1 is
the voltage across R1 and V2 is the voltage across R2, then:
V1 = V2
Similarly, the voltage across resistors R3 (let us call it V3) and R4 (let us call it V4) are also
equal. So,
V3 = V4
The ratios of the voltage can be written as:
V1 V2
=
V3 V4

8 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

From Ohm’s law, we get:

I 1 R1 I R
= I 2 R2
I 3 R3 4 4

Since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4, we get:

R1 R
= R2
R3 4

From the above equation, if we know the values of three resistors, we can easily calculate
the resistance of the fourth resistor.
1.6.1 Finding an Unknown Resistance using a Balanced Wheatstone Bridge
In the above circuit, let us assume that R1 is an unknown resistor. So, let us call it RX. The
resistors R2 and R4 have a fixed value. Which means, the ratio R2 / R4 is also fixed. Now, from
the above calculation, to create a balanced condition, the ratio of resistors must be equal i.e.,
RX R
= R2
R3 4

Since the ratio R2 / R4 is fixed, we can easily adjust the other known resistor (R3) to achieve
the above condition. Hence, it is important that R3 is a variable resistor, which we call RV.
But how do we detect the balanced condition? This is where a galvanometer (an old school
ammeter) can be used. by placing the galvanometer between the points A and B, we can detect
the balanced condition.
With RX placed in the circuit, adjust the RV until the Galvanometer points to 0. At this point,
note down the value of RV. By using the following formula, we can calculate the unknown
resistor RX.
R
R X = R V * R2
4

1.6.2 Applications
The Wheatstone Bridge is used for measuring the very low resistance values precisely.
A Wheatstone bridge along with an operational amplifier is used to measure physical
parameters like temperature, strain, light, etc.
We can also measure the quantities capacitance, inductance and impedance using the
variations on the Wheatstone Bridge.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 9

Chapter 1

1.7 Calculating The Total (Or Equivalent) Resistance Of A Parallel Circuit With A
Given Voltage And Total Current

Find the unknown circuit parameters and power delivered by a 10v battery for the simple
parallel circuit shown below:

Solution: To find I2
IT = (I1 + I2 + I3)
3.5 A = (2 A + I2 + 0.5 A)
I2 = 1 A
To find R1, R2, R3 =?
V 10
R1 = = =5Ω
I1 2

V 10
R2 = = = 10 Ω
I2 1

V 10
R3 = = = 20 Ω
I3 0.5

To find Rtotal =?
1 1 1 1
Rtotal
= 5
+ 10 + 20

R total = 2.85 Ω

10 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

The power delivered by a 10 V battery

P=V*I
= 10 * 3.5
 P = 35W

1.8 Given the values of resistances in a parallel circuit, calculate the total resistance

Problem
Find the equivalent resistance of parallel resistor circuit shown below:

Solution.
Total Resistance in circuit Rtotal =?
1 1 1 1
=R + +R
Rtotal 1 R2 3

1 1 1 1
= + 50 + 65
Rtotal 12

R total = 8.42 Ω

1.9 Effect of Adding a Further Resistance to A Series Circuit

When resistors are connected in series, the total voltage (or potential difference) across all
the resistors is equal to the sum of the voltages across each resistor. In other words, the voltages
around the circuit add up to the voltage of the supply.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 11

Chapter 1

Thus,
Adding more series resistors in a series circuit will increase the total resistance and the
current will reduce.
The total resistance in series is given by:
Rtotal= R1 + R2 + R3.
This is the equation for a series circuit. So the new total resistance will be greater than the
existing total resistance.i.e., new total resistance is greater than the larger resistance in
individual branch among all resistors in the circuit.

1.10 Effect of Adding A Further Resistance in A Parallel Circuit

When adding more parallel resistances to the paths, it causes the total resistance in the circuit
to decrease. As you add more and more branches to the circuit, the total current will increase
because Ohm's Law states that the lower the resistance, the higher the current.
Explanation
Total resistance in parallel is given by:
1 1 1 1
=R + +R
Rtotal 1 R2 3

This is the equation for parallel circuit. So new total resistance will lesser than the existing
total resistance. i.e., new total resistance is lesser than the least resistance in individual branch
among all resistors in a circuit.

12 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

1.11 Comparison between Series Resistance Circuit and Parallel Resistance Circuit

Series Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit

Circuit Diagram: Circuit Diagram:

Formula for Series resistance calculations: Formula for Parallel resistance

calculations:
Rtotal= R1 + R2 + R3.
1 1 1 1
=R + +R
Rtotal 1 R2 3

Calculation: Calculation:

Rtotal= 10Ω + 12 Ω + 16 Ω. 1 1 1 1
= + +
Rtotal 10Ω 12Ω 16Ω
Rtotal = 38 Ω
Rtotal = 4.06 Ω

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 13

Chapter 1

1.12 Effect on the e.m.f and the terminal potential difference of a supply by calculations
and by experiment

1.12.1 Electromotive Force

You can think of many different types of voltage sources. Batteries themselves come in
many varieties. There are many types of mechanical/electrical generators, driven by many
different energy sources, ranging from nuclear to wind. Solar cells create voltages directly from
light, while thermoelectric devices create voltage from temperature differences.
A few voltage sources are hydel power generation, wind mill and battery cells. All such
devices create a potential difference and can supply current if connected to a resistance. On the
small scale, the potential difference creates an electric field that exerts force on charges, causing
current. We thus use the name electromotive force, abbreviated emf.
1.12.2 Hydraulic Analogy (Water-level Analogy)
EMF is not a force at all; it is a special type of potential difference. To be precise, the
electromotive force (emf) is the potential difference of a source when no current is flowing.
The unit of EMF is the volt.

Electromotive force is directly related to the source of potential difference, such as the
particular combination of chemicals in a battery. However, emf differs from the voltage output
of the device when current flows. The voltage across the terminals of a battery, for example, is
less than the emf when the battery supplies current, and it drops further as the battery is depleted
or loaded. However, if the device’s output voltage can be measured without drawing current,
then the output voltage will equal the EMF (even for a very depleted battery).
14 Basic Electricity for Seafarers
 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

When you forget to turn off your car lights, they slowly dim as the battery runs down. Why
don’t they simply blink off when the battery’s energy is gone? Their gradual dimming implies
that battery output voltage decreases as the battery is depleted.
Furthermore, if you connect an excessive number of 12-V lights in parallel to a car battery,
they will be dim even when the battery is fresh and even if the wires to the lights have very low
resistance. This implies that the battery’s output voltage is reduced by the overload.
The reason for the decrease in output voltage for depleted or overloaded batteries is that all
voltage sources have two fundamental parts - a source of electrical energy and an internal
resistance.
The internal resistance as noted in a 12-V truck battery is physically larger, and contains
more charge and energy, and can deliver a larger current than a 12-V motorcycle battery. Both
are lead-acid batteries with identical emf, but, because of its size, the truck battery has a smaller
internal resistance r. Internal resistance is the inherent resistance to the flow of current within
the source itself.
The figure shown below is a schematic representation of the two fundamental parts of any
voltage source. The EMF (represented by E in the figure) and internal resistance r are in series.
The smaller the internal resistance for a given emf, the more current and the more power the
source can supply.

Any voltage source (in this case, a carbon-zinc dry cell) has an emf related to its source of
potential difference, and an internal resistance r related to its construction. (Note that the script
E stands for emf.).

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 15

Chapter 1

Also shown are the output terminals across which the terminal voltage V is measured.
Since V = emf − Ir, the terminal voltage equals emf only if there is no current flowing.
The internal resistance r can behave in complex ways. As noted, r increases as a battery is
depleted. But internal resistance may also depend on the magnitude and direction of the current
through a voltage source, its temperature, and even its history. The internal resistance of
rechargeable nickel-cadmium cells, for example, depends on how many times and how deeply
they have been depleted.
Why are chemicals able to produce a unique potential difference? Quantum mechanical
descriptions of molecules, which take into account the types of atoms and numbers of electrons
in them, are able to predict the energy states they can have and the energies of reactions between
them.
In the case of a lead-acid battery, an energy of 2 eV is given to each electron sent to the
𝑃𝐸
anode. Voltage is defined as the electrical potential energy divided by charge: V= An
𝑄
electron volt is the energy given to a single electron by a voltage of 1 V. So the voltage here is
2 V, since 2 eV is given to each electron. It is the energy produced in each molecular reaction
that produces the voltage. A different reaction produces a different energy and, hence, a
different voltage.
1.12.3 Terminal Voltage
The voltage output of a device is measured across its terminals and, thus, is called
its terminal voltage V. Terminal voltage is given by:
V = emf −IR
Where R is the internal resistance and I is the current flowing at the time of the
measurement.
I is positive if current flows away from the positive terminal, you can see that the larger the
current, the smaller the terminal voltage. And it is likewise true that the larger the internal
resistance, the smaller the terminal voltage.

16 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

Suppose a load resistance Rload connected to a voltage source, as in shown in the figure
below. Since the resistances are in series, the total resistance in the circuit is Rload +r. Thus, the
current is given by Ohm’s law to be:
𝑒𝑚𝑓
I = 𝑟+𝑅
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

The schematic diagram of a voltage source and its load Rload. Since the internal
resistance r is in series with the load, it can significantly affect the terminal voltage and current
delivered to the load. (Note that the script E stands for emf.)
We see from this expression that the smaller the internal resistance r, the greater the current
the voltage source supplies to its load Rload. As batteries are depleted, r increases. If r becomes
a significant fraction of the load resistance, then the current is significantly reduced, as the
following example illustrates.
1.12.4 Calculating Terminal Voltage, power dissipation, Current and Resistance: Terminal
voltage and load
A certain battery has a 12V emf and an internal resistance of 0.1Ω.
(a) Calculate its terminal voltage when connected to a 10Ω −Ω load.
(b) What is the terminal voltage when connected to a 0.5 −Ω load?
(c) What power does the 0.5 −Ω load dissipate?
(d) If the internal resistance grows to 0.5Ω,
Find the current, terminal voltage, and power dissipated by a 0.500−Ω load.
Strategy
The analysis above gave an expression for current when internal resistance is taken into
account. Once the current is found, the terminal voltage can be calculated using the equation
V= emf − Ir. Once current is found, the power dissipated by a resistor can also be found.
Basic Electricity for Seafarers 17
Chapter 1

Solution for (a)

Entering the given values for the emf, load resistance, and internal resistance into the
expression above yields:
𝑒𝑚𝑓
I=
𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

12 𝑣
I= = 1.188 A
10.1 Ω

Entering the known values into the question V = emf − Ir to get the terminal voltage
V= emf − Ir
= 12 V – (1.188 A) (0.1Ω)
= 11.9 V
Discussion for (a)
The terminal voltage here is only slightly lower than the emf, implying that 10.0Ω10.0Ω is
a light load for this particular battery.
Solution for (b)
Similarly, with Rload = 0.500Ω, the current is
𝑒𝑚𝑓
I = 𝑟+𝑅
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

12 𝑣
I = 0.6Ω

I = 20A
The terminal voltage is now
Vemf – Ir = 12.0V − (20.0A)(0.100Ω)
= 10v
Discussion for (b)
This terminal voltage exhibits a more significant reduction compared with emf,
implying 0.500Ω is a heavy load for this battery.

18 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

Solution for (c)

The power dissipated by the 0.500−Ω load can be found using the formula (P= I2 R).
Entering the known values gives
Pload = I2 Rload
= (20 A)2 * (0.5 Ω)
= 2 *10 2 W
Discussion for (c)
𝑉2
Note that this power can also be obtained using the expressions 𝑅
or V*I

Where:
V is the terminal voltage in this case (10v)
Solution for (d)
Here the internal resistance has increased, perhaps due to the depletion of the battery, to the
point where it is as great as the load resistance. As before, we first find the current by entering
the known values into the expression, yielding
𝑒𝑚𝑓
I = 𝑟+𝑅 (latex)
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

12𝑣
= 1

=12 A
Now the terminal voltage is:
Vemf – Ir =12v − (12.0A) (0.500Ω) = 6V
The power dissipated by the load is:
Pload = I2 * Rload
= (12A)2 (0.5Ω) = 72 W
Discussion for (d)
We see that the increased internal resistance has significantly decreased terminal voltage,
current, and power delivered to a load.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 19

Chapter 1

1.13 Effect of Internal Resistance on The Supply Source

All power supplies have some resistance between their terminals called internal resistance.
This causes charges in the circuit to dissipate some electrical energy in the power supply itself.
The power supply becomes warm when delivering a current.

So ε = V + VR
Since I is a constant in a series circuit and V=IR
Ε = I(R+r) ε = I(R+r)
VR is known as the terminal voltage and represents the ‘useful’ voltage that the power supply
can output to the circuit.
VR = ε – IrVR=ε−Ir
VR is the ‘lost’ voltage
If R is very small, it will end up sharing a good amount of the total EMF with the internal
resistance. This will also lead to a higher current. The terminal voltage decreases.

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 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

If R is high, the terminal voltage will increase but the current will be lower.
It turns out that an EMF will deliver maximum power to the circuit when R is equal to r.
The potential difference across an EMF will drop as soon as current starts flowing as work
is done against internal resistance.
If the voltage source is sitting there idle, not delivering any current, then the effects of its
internal resistance is zero. There is no effect. Resistance is only defined by current flowing
through a conductor, and since no current is flowing, in theory there is no resistance. Since
there is no resistance (it’s effect is multiplied by zero so it’s zero), the voltage on the source’s
terminals is the voltage of the source. That voltage depends then on what created that source,
perhaps the amount of light on a solar cell, or the chemistry in a battery, or the rotation of a
generator.
When we attempt to measure that voltage, at least some current has to flow into the meter,
so now we begin to see an effect. Something like a modern digital DMM will draw very little
current, and in most cases the effect on the voltage on the source’s terminals is so insignificant
that it is usually okay to ignore it.
If we were to use an analog meter, there will be a noticeable difference. The current in the
meter coils will cause the terminal voltage to reduce. Old meters generally have some indication
on the meter showing ohms per volt. That is an attempt to compensate for the measurement
error by indicating how much it will load a voltage source; this can be called parasitic load and
in ships - especially for instrumentation panels, the parasitic load in VA will be mentioned.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 21

Chapter 1

If we use something suchas low-tech as a tungsten light bulb, we will be able to estimate the
voltage based on how bright the light is, but that is often a heavy load for some weaker voltage
sources. For example, an old flashlight battery may only produce an orange glow - showing a
high internal resistance of the source because little current is available to heat the filament.
Change to a fresh, new battery and the lamp glows white-hot. That’s because a new battery will
have a much lower internal resistance, so the terminal voltage is much higher.
The internal resistance for many voltage sources does not actually exist, although some
devices that supply voltage do have a current limiting resistor. Mostly though, internal
resistance is only used as a method to calculate how the terminal voltage is loaded down when
a load is applied. The actual voltage drop is affected by the load (it’s resistance), and the
theoretical internal resistance of the source. Calculating this voltage change is as simple as
applying Ohm’s law.
In short, the effects of internal resistance on a voltage source are to reduce its ability to
supply a current. More internal resistance causes less current, because more internal resistance
causes the terminal voltage to reduce proportional to the amount of load connected. No load
(infinite resistance) = no effect, while absolute maximum load (short-circuit or zero ohms) =
reduces the terminal voltage to zero for maximum effect.

1.14 Determination of current flows, resistance values and voltages in series circuits
and parallel circuits by calculation

Find the Voltage across the battery, it supplies 47.64 W power and 3.97 A current to load
resistance are shown in the below circuit, also find equivalent resistance and Voltage drop
across resistors R2R3 and R4R5.

22 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

Solution:
Voltage across the Battery:
We know that formula
P=V*I
P 47.64
V= I
= 3.97

V = 11.99 ≈ 12v
Equivalent circuit resistance:
We know that
Series resistance calculation: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
1 1 1 1
Parallel resistance calculation: Rtotal
=R +
R2
+R
1 3

RTotal = (R1)// ( ( R2 // R 3) + ( R4 // R5 ) )
= (14Ω) // ((1.2Ω // 3Ω) + (4Ω // 12Ω))
= (14Ω) // ( ( 0.8571) + ( 3Ω) )
= (14Ω) // ( 3.8571Ω )
RTotal = 3.02 Ω
To find the voltage drop across resistor R2 R3 and R4 R5.
Resistor R2 and R3 are parallel, so voltage drop across each resistor R2 R3 are same.
Consider R2R3 as RA
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝑨 𝟏.𝟐Ω 𝟑Ω

RA = 0.85Ω
Consider R4R5 as RB
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝟏𝟐Ω
𝑹𝑩 𝟒Ω

RB= 3Ω
Voltage drop across RA and RB
Basic Electricity for Seafarers 23
Chapter 1

We know that:
RX
VX = * Vs
RT
0.85Ω
VA = * 12
0.85 Ω+3Ω

VA = 2.64v
3Ω
VB = 3 Ω+0.85Ω* 12

VB = 9.35v
Problem 6:
The diagram below shows a circuit with one battery and 10 resistors; 5 on the left and 5 on
the right. Determine:
i)The current through each resistor.
ii) The power dissipated by each resistor.
iii) The power delivered by the 24V battery source.

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 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

Let's begin the process by combining resistors. there are four series pairs in this circuit.
Left Right
Rs = 3 Ω + 1 Ω Rs = 2 Ω + 3 Ω
Rs = 4 Ω Rs = 5 Ω
Rs = 4 Ω + 2 Ω Rs = 1 Ω + 4 Ω
Rs = 6 Ω Rs = 5 Ω
These pairs form two parallel circuits, one on the left and one on the right.
Left Right
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
Rp 4Ω 6Ω R p 5Ω 5Ω
1 5 1 2
= =
Rp 12Ω Rp 5Ω

Rp = 2.4Ω Rp = 2.5Ω
Each gang of four resistors is in series with another.
Left Right
Rs = 2.4 Ω + 0.6 Ω Rs = 2.5 Ω + 0.5 Ω
Rs = 3 Ω Rs = 3 Ω
The left and right halves of the circuit are parallel to each other and to the battery.
1 1 1 2
Rp
= 3Ω + 3Ω
= 3Ω

Rp = 1.5Ω
Now that we have the effective resistance of the entire circuit, let's determine the current from
the power supply using Ohm's law.
V
Itotal = R
total

24 V
=
1.5 Ω

= 16A

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 25

Chapter 1

The left and right halves of the circuit are identical in overall resistance, which means the
current will divide evenly between them.
8 A for the 0.6 Ω resistor on the left.
8 A for the 0.5 Ω resistor on the right.
On each side the current divides again into two parallel branches.
i)To find the current through those two resistors using the Current Divider formula:
RT
Ix = * IT
RT +RX

For the 1 Ω and 3 Ωresistors series connection on the left.

(2 Ω+4Ω)
I3Ω, 1Ω =(2 Ω+4Ω)+4Ω* 8 I3Ω, 1Ω= 4.8A

For the 4 Ω and 2 Ωresistors series connection on the left.

To find the current through those two resistors
(1 Ω+3Ω)
I4Ω, 2Ω= (1 Ω+3Ω)+6Ω* 8

I4Ω, 2Ω = 3.2A
For the 2 Ω and 3 Ωresistors series connection on the right.
To find the current through those two resistors
(4Ω+1Ω)
I2Ω, 3Ω = (4 * 8
Ω+1Ω)+5Ω

I2Ω, 3Ω = 4A
For the 1 Ω and 4 Ωresistors series connection on the right.
To find current through those two resistors
(3Ω+2Ω)
I1Ω, 4Ω = (3 * 8
Ω+2Ω)+5Ω

I1Ω, 4Ω = 4A
ii) The power dissipated by each resistor using the formula for Power dissipation:
P = I2 * R

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 Basic Laws in Electrical Theory

Where:
P = Power in Watts
I = Current through the resistor in amperes
R = Value of resistor in ohms
We know that current flow through each resistor in circuit:
Left: Power dissipation in each resistor are tabulated as below by using power dissipation
formula
Current through each Power Dissipation in each
Value of the resistor in Ω
resistor in Amps resistor in Watts
0.6 8 38.4
1 4.8 23.04
2 3.2 20.48
3 4.8 69.12
4 3.2 40.69

Right: Power dissipation in each resistor are tabulated as below by using power dissipation
formula
Value of the resistor in Ω Current through each Power Dissipation in each
resistor in Amps resistor in Watts
0.5 8 32
1 4 16
2 4 32
3 4 48
4 4 64
iii) The power delivered by a 24 V Battery source is P = V * I
= 24 * 16
= 384 Watts
Or
The power delivered by a 24 V battery source = The sum of all power dissipations in each
resistor in the circuit
= 38.40+23.04+20.48+69.12+40.96+32+16+32+48+64
= 384 Watts
Basic Electricity for Seafarers 27
Chapter 1

Interesting Sites to Visit (No material has been downloaded for or used in this Chapter)
a) Electrical Technology.org
b) Electrical-engineering-portal.com
c) Engineeringtoolbox.com
d) Pdfprof.com
e) Slideshare.net

28 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Chapter 2
Concepts of Electrical Circuits

Sir! Circuits are so

complicated and each
seems so unique.
Please explain the
basic concepts

Surely, Divyam, I will!! Understanding

the basics of circuits, will help you to
trace and also solve them as you
progress in your career, if you practice
well too.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers

Chapter 2

2.1 Current Flow in A Closed Circuit

2.2 Differences between Conductors and Insulators

2.2.1 What are Conductors?

If you have to give the simplest definition of electrical conductors, they are materials that
allow electricity to flow easily through them. If we compare two kinds of materials and the first
one allows electricity to pass through it more readily, then that material is said to be a strong
conductor of electricity.
Also, conductors allow heat to be transmitted through them. The examples of conductors
are metals, the human body, the earth and animals. The human body is a strong conductor. It,
therefore, offers a low-resistance path from a current-carrying wire through the body for the
current to flow. Conductors have free electrons that allow the easy passage of current. This is
the reason why electricity is transmitted easily through conductors.
2.2.2 Properties of an Electrical Conductor
In equilibrium conditions, a conductor exhibits the following properties:
a) The movement of electrons and ions in them is permitted by a conductor.
b) A conductor’s electrical field is zero, allowing electrons to pass inside it.
c) A conductor’s charge density is zero.
d) Free charges occur only on the surface of the conductor.
e) Both of a conductor’s ends are at the same potential.
f) Many metals are strong conductors of electricity.

30 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

Some random examples of the conductors of electricity are:

a) Copper
b) Aluminium
c) Silver
d) Gold
e) Graphite
f) Platinum
g) Water
An electric conductor enables electrical charges to pass through them easily. The property
of conductors is called conductivity to “conduct” electricity. Such materials offer less
opposition to the movement of charges, or “resistance.” Due to the free movement of electrons
through them, conducting materials allow easy charge transfer.
2.2.3 Other Applications of Conductors
In certain aspects, conductors are very useful in other areas of engineering. They have many
real-life applications namely:
• To check the temperature of a body, mercury is a common material in the thermometer.

• Aluminium finds use in the manufacture of foils for food preservation. It is also used in
cooking vessels as it is a good conductor of electricity and heat.
• Iron is a common material used to conduct heat in vehicle engine manufacturing. The iron
plate is composed of steel to briskly absorb heat.
• In car radiators, conductors find their use in the eradication of heat away from the engine.

2.2.4 Insulators
The materials or substances that resist or don’t allow the current to pass through them are
insulators. They are, in general, solid in nature but could be very flexibe too, as in the case of
the insulating material for cables and wires. Often, in a number of systems, insulators are used
as they do not allow heat to flow. The resistivity is the property which makes insulators different
from conductors.

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Chapter 2

2.2.5 Examples of Insulators

Some good examples of insulators are wood, fabric, glass, mica, and quartz. Insulators
provide protection against fire, sound, and, of course, electricity transmission. In addition,
insulators have no free electrons at all. This is the predominant explanation of why they don’t
conduct electricity.
• As it has the highest resistivity, glass is the strongest insulator.

• Plastic is a good insulator and is used to manufacture a variety of products.

• A common material used in the manufacture of tyres, fire-resistant clothing, and slippers is
rubber. This is because it is an insulator.

2.3 Different Sources of Electrical Energy

The different sources of electrical energy are:

a) Solar Energy. The primary source of energy is the sun.
b) Wind Energy. Wind power is becoming more and more common.
c) Geothermal Energy.
d) Hydrogen Energy.
e) Tidal Energy.
f) Wave Energy.
g) Hydroelectric Energy.
h) Biomass Energy.

2.4 Potential Difference and Electromotive Force

There can be a lot of confusion between electromotive force, EMF and the voltage or
potential difference, PD, at a point in an electrical or electronic circuit. Both EMF and potential
difference are measured in volts, but the two parameters are very different.
These differences can be important in some aspects of electrical and electronic circuit
design. It helps to have an understanding about what they are so, that confusion can be reduced
and the correct terms and terminology is used where it is needed.

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 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

2.4.1 Electromotive force, EMF

Electromotive force is defined as the characteristic of any energy source capable of driving
electric charge around a circuit - it is the force within a voltage source that drives the current
around a circuit. It is abbreviated E in the international metric system but the abbreviation EMF
is also widely used.
2.4.2 Potential Difference
The potential difference between two points in an electrical or electronic circuit represents
the work involved or the energy released in the transfer of a unit quantity of electricity from
one point to the other.
2.4.3 Similarities and Differences of EMF and Potential Difference
Electromotive Force (EMF) Potential Difference (PD)
EMF is the driving electric force from a cell or Potential difference results from the current
generator. passing through a resistance within a circuit.
EMF is the cause. Potential difference is the effect.
The EMF is also present even when no current is Potential difference across the conductor is zero
drawn through the battery. in the absence of current.
The unit of EMF is the volt. The unit of potential difference is the volt.
Potential difference does not remain constant - it
EMF remains constant.
depends upon the circuit conditions.
Its symbol is E. Its symbol is V.
It depends on the resistance between two points
It does not depend on circuit resistance.
of measurement.

EMF and potential difference have many similarities, but they also have some significant
differences. Essentially the EMF is the driving force in a circuit, whereas the potential
difference is the result of the EMF within a circuit to which the source is connected

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 33

Chapter 2

2.5 Current Flow

An electric current is a flow of electric charge in a circuit. More specifically, the electric
current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit.
The charge can be negatively charged electrons or positive charge carriers including positive
ions or holes.
2.5.1 The Basics
The basic concept of current is that it is the movement of electrons within a substance.
Electrons are minute particles that exist as part of the molecular structure of materials.
Sometimes these electrons are held tightly within the molecules and other times they are held
loosely and they are able to move around the structure relatively freely.
One very important point to note about the electrons is that they are negatively charged
charged particles. If they move then an amount of charge moves and this is called current.
It is also worth noting that the number of electrons that able to move governs the ability of
a particular substance to conduct electricity.
Some materials allow current to move better than others. The motion of the free electrons is
normally very haphazard - it is random - as many electrons move in one direction as in another
and as a result there is no overall movement of charge.

Conventional current flow Electron flow

2.5.2 Current Strength Is Measured in Amperes, Represented by A
The magnitude of the electric current is measured in coulombs per second, the common unit
for this being the Ampere or amp which is designated by the letter ‘A’. Current flow in a circuit
is normally designated by the letter ‘I’, and this letter is used in equations like Ohms law where
V = I⋅R.

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 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

In 2018 the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) agreed that on May 20,
2019, the ampere would henceforth be defined such that the elementary charge would be equal
to 1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb. Earlier the ampere was defined as the constant current
which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular
cross section and placed one metre apart in a vacuum, would produce between these conductors
a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length. Named for 19th-century French physicist
André-Marie Ampère, it represents a flow of one coulomb of electricity per second. A flow of
one ampere is produced in a resistance of one ohm by a potential difference of one volt.
2.5.3 Direct Current (D.C.)
Direct current (DC) is the one directional flow of electric charge. An electrochemical cell is
a prime example of DC power. The voltage in a direct-current circuit must be constant, or at
least relatively constant, to keep the current flowing in a single direction.
The positive end of the battery is always positive relative to the negative end, and the
negative end of the battery is always negative relative to the positive end. This constancy is
what pushes the electrons in a single direction.

Direct Current Alternating Current

2.5.4 Alternating Current (A.C.)
Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that periodically reverses its direction, in
contrast to direct current (DC) which only flows in a single direction, which cannot change
sporadically. Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction
periodically. As a result, the voltage level also reverses along with the current. AC is used to
deliver power to houses, office buildings, etc.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 35

Chapter 2

2.5.5 Main Supply in Modern Ships

A ship is equivalent to a floating city that enjoys almost all privileges available to any
operational set-up on land. Just like any conventional city, the ship also requires the basic
amenities to sustain life on board, the chief among them being power or electricity. Electricity
on modern ships is generated by an alternator.

Due to the merits of alternationg current, which is easy to transmit, step up and stp down,
convert and manipulate, the main supply in modern ships is usually A.C. but D.C. has many
uses as in the case of conventional submarines that still use batteries for their main source of
power. DC is also used on board as the back-up source for alarms and critical electronic
equipment.

2.5 Static Electricity

When two dissimilar materials are rubbed together, one may give up its electrons and other
may receive these electrons. The material that gives up electrons becomes positively
charged. And the one that receives electrons becomes negatively charged.

When two objects, one positively and other negatively charged come together, the extra
electrons from the negatively charged object would move to the positively charged object. This
is because of nature of it trying to attain equilibrium. This flow of electrons (charge) is also
called static electricity. It can thus be concluded that static electricity is an electrical charge that
cannot move.

It is also created when two objects or materials that have been in contact with each other are
separated. When they are in contact, the surface electrical charges of the objects try to balance
each other; this happens by the free flow of electrons (negatively charged particles) from one
object to the other. When the objects separate, they are left with either an excess or a shortage
of electrons.

2.5.1 Electrostatic Charging and The Principles of Overcoming Potential Hazards

Materials are made of atoms that are normally electrically neutral because they contain equal
numbers of positive charges (protons in their nuclei) and negative charges (electrons in “shells“
surrounding the nucleus). The phenomenon of static electricity requires a separation of positive
and negative charges.
36 Basic Electricity for Seafarers
 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

When two materials are in contact, electrons may move from one material to the other, which
leaves an excess of positive charge on one material, and an equal negative charge on the other.

When the materials are separated, they retain this charge imbalance.

2.5.1.1 Contact-induced charge separation

Electrons can be exchanged between materials on contact; materials with weakly bound
electrons tend to lose them while materials with sparsely filled outer shells tend to gain them.
This is known as the triboelectric effect and results in one material becoming positively charged
and the other negatively charged. The polarity and strength of the charge on a material once they
are separated depends on their relative positions in the triboelectric series.

2.5.1.2 Pressure-Induced Charge Separation

Applied mechanical stress generates a separation of charge in certain types

of crystals and ceramics molecules.

2.5.1.3 Heat-Induced Charge Separation

Heating generates a separation of charge in the atoms or molecules of certain materials. All
pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. The atomic or molecular properties of heat and
pressure response are closely related.

2.5.1.4 Charge-induced Charge Separation

A charged object brought close to an electrically neutral object causes a separation of charge
within the neutral object. Charges of the same polarity are repelled and charges of the opposite
polarity are attracted. As the force due to the interaction of electric charges falls off rapidly with
increasing distance, the effect of the closer (opposite polarity) charges is greater and the two
objects feel a force of attraction.

2.5.2 Some Dangers Posed by Static Electricity

If these charges don’t have a path to the ground, they are unable to move and become
“static”. If static electricity is not rapidly eliminated, the charge will build up. It will eventually
develop enough energy to jump as a spark to some nearby grounded or less highly charged
object in an attempt to balance the charge.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 37

Chapter 2

A good example of this in everyday life is lightning. Lightning is produced by a discharge

of electricity from one cloud across an air gap to another cloud or between a cloud and the earth.
In short, the process of static electricity generation has three stages namely:

1. Charge separation

2. Charge accumulation

3. Electrostatic discharge

2.5.2.1 Charge Separation

It is the first step for static electricity generation when two different materials like a
conductor and an insulator comes in contact, electrons may move from one material to another
where one material is able to give an electron or more away and other to be able to receive the
same.

If subsequently the two materials become separated by some mechanical means, one will
carry an excess of positive charge and the other an excess of negative charge.

As an example, on board tankers charge separation can happen because of friction between
the cargo and the pipeline during the flow of cargo. In this case, the pipeline loses the electron
and the cargo gains the electron to becomes negatively charged. Friction between the cargo and
tank top because of splashing on the tank top, it gives electrons and the cargo gains the electrons
during the initial stages of loading.

Other examples can be possible when two immiscible liquids are mixed together, charge
separation can take place and when steam which is an insulator, flows through the steam pipe,
it attains a negative charge. The separated charges will then try to recombine by conduction.

If one of the bodies is a poor conductor of electricity, recombination will be limited and a
difference in charge or a difference in potential will exist between the two bodies; for example,
a liquid becomes charged when it passes through pipes and water droplets become charged
during tank cleaning.

Pure gases themselves do not become charged, but the flow of gases containing particulates,
however, can generate a high static charge.

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 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

2.5.5.2 Charge Accumulation

Whenever two dissimilar materials come in contact, electrons move from one surface to the
other. As these materials are separated and more electrons remain on one surface than the other,
one material takes on a positive charge and the other a negative charge.

Two conductors having separate charge potentials try to recombine and neutralize almost
immediately.

The degree of charge accumulation on a body is a balance between the rate of charge
generation and the rate of charge decay. If a significant accumulation of charge is to occur, the
rate of charge decay must be slow, which requires a high resistance with respect to the earth.

This resistance is governed by the electrical conduction properties of the charged material;
for solids, the unit is ohmmeters and for liquids the unit is picosiemens per meter.

2.5.5.2.1 Causes of Charge Accumulation

The following are the common causes:

• Dust transport – e.g., pneumatic transport of powders / solids.

• Pouring powders – e.g., pouring solids down chutes or troughs.

• Gears and belts – e.g., transporting charges from one surface to another.

• Synthetic materials like plastics have very high values of resistivity and can readily
accumulate static charges.

• Refined petroleum products can have very low electrical conductivities like 1picosiemen /
metre and can become charged during handling. But crude oil has a relatively high
conductivity and does not accumulate a static charge.

• A water mist consisting of highly conductive droplets can accumulate a static charge
because each particle is electrically isolated.

2.5.5.3 Electrostatic Discharge

Electrostatic discharge is a process of shifting of electrons from one material to another

when two materials with opposite charge come in contact with each other.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 39

Chapter 2

The two charges need to have a minimum distance between them. This distance depends
upon how strongly the materials are charged and how much are the voltage differences between
them. More the voltage difference, higher is the energy released during electrostatic discharge.

2.6 Impedance and Inductance

2.6.1 Impedance

Electrical impedance is a measure of the total opposition that a circuit or a part of a circuit
presents to electric current. Impedance includes both resistance and reactance. The resistance
component arises from the collision of the current-carrying charged particles with the internal
structure of the conductor.

The reactance component is an additional opposition to the movement of electric charge that
arises from the changing magnetic and electric fields in circuits carrying alternating current.
Impedance reduces to resistance in circuits carrying steady direct current.

The magnitude of the impedance Z of a circuit is equal to the maximum value of the
potential difference, or voltage, V (volts) across the circuit, divided by the maximum value of
the current I (amperes) through the circuit, or simply Z = V/I. The unit of impedance, like that
of resistance, is the ohm.

Depending on the nature of the reactance component of the impedance (whether

predominantly inductive or capacitive), the alternating current either lags or leads the voltage.

The reciprocal of the impedance, 1/Z, is called the admittance and is expressed in terms of
the unit of conductance, the unit mho.

40 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

2.6.2 Impedance of AC versus Resistance in DC

The opposition offered to the flow of current in an electric circuit whether AC or DC is

known as the Resistance. The opposition offered to the flow of current in an AC circuit because
of resistance, capacitance and inductance is known as Impedance.

Resistance is the contribution of the resistive element in the circuit, whereas the contribution
of both resistance and reactance forms Impedance.

Resistance is denoted by (R) whereas impedance by (Z).

Resistance is a simple value consisting of only real numbers. Example: 3.4 Ω, 6.2 Ω, etc.
Impedance comprises of both real and imaginary numbers. Example: R+ij, where R is a real
number and ij is imaginary part.

The Resistance of the circuit does not vary according to the frequency of AC, whereas
Impedance varies with the change in frequency of AC.

Impedance has both magnitude and phase angle, whereas Resistance does not have phase
angle. Resistance, if kept in an electromagnetic field represents power dissipation in any
material. Similarly, if Impedance is subjected to magnetic field it represents both power
dissipation and energy storage.

2.6.3 Relationship between Voltage, Current, Impedance

Assuming a two-terminal circuit element with impedance Z is driven by a sinusoidal voltage

or current as above, there holds V=IZ. The magnitude of the impedance |Z| acts just like
resistance, giving the drop in voltage amplitude across an impedance Z for a given current I.
The phase factor tells us that the current lags the voltage by a phase of a certain value.

Just as impedance extends Ohm’s law to cover AC circuits, other results from DC circuit
analysis, such as voltage division, current division, Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem,
can also be extended to AC circuits by replacing resistance with impedance.

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Chapter 2

2.6.4 Effects of Resistance and Inductance in AC and DC circuits

1. A Simple Resistance

The resistance offered by a conductor for both AC and DC is different, the resistance offered
to DC by a conductor is known as DC resistance while the resistance offered to AC is known
as AC resistance or effective resistance. For a given conductor AC resistance is more than its
DC resistance. This is because an alternating current flowing through a conductor does not
distribute uniformly but tends to concentrate near the surface of the conductor. The result is
that effective area of the conductor is reduced, causing an increase in resistance.

2. An Inductor

It will basically behave and produce a short across itself when it is subjected to a DC, while
offer an opposing or restricting response when it is applied with an AC. The magnitude of this
opposing response or force of an inductor to an AC or alternating current is called the reactance
of the inductor and depends upon the frequency and the value of inductance itself.

3. A Coiled Resistance with an Iron Core

It will be as above situation with the only major difference being the increase in magnetic
flux being produced. In a DC circuit, it will continue to act as a short circuit.

2.6.5 What is Meant by Reactance?

Reactance is a property that opposes a change in current and is found in both inductors and
capacitors. Because it only affects changing current, reactance is specific to AC power and
depends on the frequency of the current.

When reactance is present, it creates a 90O phase shift between voltage and current, with the
direction of the shift depending on whether the component is an inductor or a capacitor.
Reactance that occurs in an inductor is known as inductive reactance XL = 2fL. Reactance
that occurs in a capacitor is known as capacitive reactance. Impedance is the combination of
resistance and reactance, both inductive and capacitive. Capacitive reactance XC = 1/2fC.

Impedance Z = R2 + (XL – XC)2

Pavg = VI Cos in a single-phase circuit and 3 V I Cos in a three-phase circuit.

42 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

2.6.6 The Impedance Triangle

2.6.7 Power Factor

For a DC circuit the power is P = VI, and this relationship also holds for the instantaneous
power in an AC circuit. However, the average power in an AC circuit expressed in terms of the
rms voltage and current is where  is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The
additional term is called the power factor.

From the phasor diagram for AC impedance, it can be seen that the power factor is R/Z. For
a purely resistive AC circuit, R=Z and the power factor = 1.

2.6.8 Calculating the Impedance and Power Factor When Resistance and Reactance are
Given

To calculate impedance, we need values of resistance and reactance. On having that using
the formula above both impedance and power factor can be found.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 43

Chapter 2

2.6.9 Effect of Changing Current on Induced EMF

Induced emf is directly proportional to the magnetic flux associated with it. So magnetic
flux is what is our concern with inducing an EMF.

As current through a coil changes the associated magnetic flux associated with it also
changes. Thus, this affects the induced EMF. This is kind of a chain reaction and it all is
connected. So, change is current ultimately affects the induced EMF.

2.6.10 Lagging Nature of Reactance

Inductors that cause reactance, react against a change in current, di/dt. This can be termed
as electrical inertia.

The voltage that changes the current comes first in the inductor, and then the induced current
(and flux) change. This can be shown in a phasor diagram. Also note that 90 electrical degrees
out of phase only works for ideal inductors. Keeping this in mind, when a sinusoidal voltage is
applied to an inductor, say,

V = Vm*sin (t) or

Vm*sin (t) = L(di/dt).

And we integrate on both sides and simplify.

i= (Vm/L) * cost or

i= (Vm/L) * sin(t-pi/2).

Thus, mathematically current lags voltage by 90O electrical.

Note that in an alternator, 1O of mechanical rotation = (P/2)O of electrical output , where P is

the number of poles for the alternator.

44 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

2.6.11 Graph for Current, Voltage, Back EMF of a Resistive Circuit.

2.6.12 Graph for Current and Voltage of a Pure Inductive Circuit

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 45

Chapter 2

In practice, inductors will always have a resistance. The resistance of the wire is always
present in an inductor, and as the frequency of an AC signal increases then the resistance
actually increases due to the “skin effect”. This is when a changing magnetic field forces the
current to flow in the outer “skin” of the wire rather than uniformly through its cross-sectional
area so the resistance goes up considerably.

Any real component will have resistance, inductance, and capacitance components. While
the primary function of an inductor is to provide inductance the stray capacitance between the
coils of wire can have a large effect on the circuit as signal frequencies go up.

The resistance of the wire will generate heat which can have an effect on the core of the
inductor.

The resistance of an ideal inductor is zero. the inductor’s impedance calculator calculates
the impedance based on the value of the inductance, L, of the inductor and the frequency, f, of
the signal passing through the inductor, according to the formula, XL= 2πfL.

2.6.13 Phasor Diagram of An Inductive Circuit with Resistance

2.6.14 Current Lag in Inductive Circuits

Lagging current can be formally defined as “an alternating current that reaches its maximum
value up to 90O later than the voltage that produces it.” This means that current lags the voltage
when the angle of the current sine wave with respect to an arbitrarily chosen reference, is less
than the angle of the voltage sine wave with respect to the same reference.

46 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Concepts of Electrical Circuits

Therefore, current can quickly be identified as lagging if the angle is positive. For example,
if the voltage angle delta is zero, current will be lagging when delta is negative. This is often
the case because voltage is taken as the reference.

In circuits with primarily inductive loads, current lags the voltage. This happens because in
an inductive load, it is the induced electromotive force that causes the current to flow. Note that
in the definition above, the current is produced by the voltage

2.6.15 Shipboard Installations Produce Lagging Power Demand

On board ships, the power factor is always lagging in nature because they are basically
inductive in nature. A bulk of the machinery is run by motors – mostly of the induction-type.
In addition, there are a lot of solenoids, lights with ballasts, etc.

2.6.16 Effect of Varying Power Factor on Power Consumed

Working Power – the “true” or “real” power used in all electrical appliances to perform the
work of heating, lighting, motion, etc. We express this as kW or kilowatts. Common types of
resistive loads are electric heating and lighting.

An inductive load, like a motor, compressor or ballast, also requires Reactive Power to
generate and sustain a magnetic field in order to operate. We call this non-working power
kVAR’s, or kilovolt-amperes-reactive.

Every home and business have both resistive and inductive loads. The ratio between these
two types of loads becomes important as you add more inductive equipment. Working power
and reactive power make up Apparent Power, which is called kVA, kilovolt-amperes.

Going one step further, Power Factor (PF) is the ratio of working power to apparent power,
or the formula PF = kW / kVA. A high PF benefits both the customer and utility, while a low
PF indicates poor utilization of electrical power.

Improving the PF can maximize current-carrying capacity, improve voltage to equipment,

reduce power losses, and lower electric bills.

The simplest way to improve power factor is to add PF correction capacitors to the electrical
system. PF correction capacitors act as reactive current generators. They help offset the non-
working power used by inductive loads, thereby improving the power factor.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 47

Chapter 2

The interaction between PF capacitors and specialized equipment, such as variable speed
drives, requires a well-designed system.
PF correction capacitors can switch on every day when the inductive equipment starts.
Switching a capacitor on can produce a very brief “over-voltage” condition.

If a customer has problems with variable speed drives turning themselves off due to “over-
voltage” at roughly the same time every day, investigate the switching control sequence. If a
customer complains about fuses blowing on some but not all, of their capacitors, check for
harmonic currents.

Sources

• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws

• https://byjus.com/physics/bridge-rectifier

• Basic Electronics and Linear Circuits by N N Bhargava

• https://www.pathwayz.org/

• https://www.circuit-diagram.org/

• http://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/collegephysics/chapter/21-2-electromotive-force-terminal-
voltage/

• https://www.quora.com/

• https://byjus.com/

48 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Alternating Current

Sir! Over the last couple of

chapters, I have gained some
confidence and has been able to
recap the fundamentals that
has been explained. I feel
better now!

Thank you, Divyam! I feel so happy!!!

Well, this is also a very important
chapter – one that explains the very
basis of power generation, so pay
careful attention. Keep up the good
work of learning with interest!

Basic Electricity for Seafarers

Chapter 3

3.1 Production of AC in a Simple Conductor Loop Rotating in a Magnetic Field

When a magnetic field embracing a conductor moves relative to the conductor, it produces
a flow of electrons in the conductor. This phenomenon whereby an e.m.f. and hence current
(i.e. flow of electrons) is induced in any conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic
flux is known as electromagnetic induction.
In Figure 3.1 an insulated coil is shown whose terminals are connected to a sensitive
galvanometer G. It is placed close to a stationary bar magnet initially at position AB (shown
dotted). As seen, someflux from the N-pole of the magnet is linked with or threads through the
coil but, as yet, there is nodeflection of the galvanometer.
\Now, suppose that the magnet is suddenly brought closer to the coil in position CD (see
figure). Then, it is found that there is a jerk or a sudden but a momentary deflection in the
galvanometer and that this lasts so long as the magnet is in motion relative to the coil, not
otherwise. The deflection is reduced to zero when the magnet becomes again stationary at its
new position CD. It should be noted that due to the approach of the magnet, flux linked with
the coil is increased.

Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

Next, the magnet is suddenly withdrawn away from the coil as in Fig. 3.2. It is found that
again there is a momentary deflection in the galvanometer and it persists so long as the magnet
is in motion, not when it becomes stationary. It is important to note that this deflection is in a
direction opposite to that of Figure 3.1. Obviously, due to the withdrawal of the magnet, flux
linked with the coil is decreased.
The deflection of the galvanometer indicates the production of e.m.f. in the coil. The only
cause of the production can be the sudden approach or withdrawal of the magnet from the coil.
It is found that the actual cause of this e.m.f. is the change of flux linking with the coil.

50 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Fundamentals of Alternating Current

This e.m.f. exists so long as the change in flux exists. Stationary flux, however strong, will
never induce any e.m.f. in a stationary conductor. In fact, the same results can be obtained by
keeping the bar magnet stationary and moving the coil suddenly away or towards the magnet.

Thumb
(Conductor’s Motion)
Index Finger (Magnetic Field)

Right Hand
Conductor
Motion Middle Finger (Current)

South Pole Magnetic Field North Pole

Current

Figure 7.1 – Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

3.2 Fleming's Right-Hand Rule

Fleming's Right-Hand Rule is stated as follows:

“Stretch out the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your right-hand so that they are at
right angle from one another. If the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, the
thumb point in the direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle finger will point in the
direction of induced emf (or current)”.

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Chapter 3

Fleming's Right-Hand Rule is suitable to find the direction of induced emf and hence the
current when the conductor moves are at a right angle to a stationary magnetic field (as in an
electric generator)

3.3 Fleming's Left-Hand Rule

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule is stated as follows:

“Stretch out the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your left-hand so that they are at
right angle to one another. If the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, the middle
finger point in the direction of current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the force”.

Fleming's left-hand rule is particularly suitable to find the direction of force on a current
conductor when it is placed in a magnetic field (as in an electric motor).

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 Fundamentals of Alternating Current

3.4 Position of the loop & the voltage wave form for one cycle at 90O intervals of rotation
An elementary revolving armature AC generator, otherwise commonly called an
alternator, consists of a wire loop that can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will
produce an induced e m f in the loop. Sliding contacts (brushes and slip rings) connect the loop
to an external circuit (Refer Figure 3.2). The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic
field. They are shaped and positioned to concentrate the magnetic field as close as possible to
the wire loop. The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the rotor. The ends of the
rotor are connected to slip rings, which rotate with the rotor.
The stationary brushes, usually made of carbon, maintain contact with the revolving slip
rings. Additives like graphite and copper may also be used, based upon the current-rating (or
grade) of the brushes. The brushes are connected to the external circuit via copper conductors
commonly known as pigtails.

Armature Loop
Pole Piece

N S

Slip Rings
A
Brushes
External
Load

Figure 7.2 – The Elementary Alternator

The elementary generator produces a voltage in the following manner (Refer Figure 7.3).
The rotor (or armature in this example) is rotated in a clockwise direction. Figure 7.3, position
A shows its initial or starting position. This will be considered the 00 or initial position. At 00,
the armature loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The black and white conductors of the
loop are moving parallel to the field. At the instant when the conductors are moving parallel to
the magnetic field, they do not cut any lines of force. There is no relative motion between the
magnetic lines of force and the conductor when they move in the same direction. Thus, no
electro motive force is induced in the conductors, and the meter in position A indicates ‘0’.

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Chapter 3

As the armature loop rotates from position A to B, the conductors cut through more and
more lines of flux at a continually increasing angle. At 900 (B), they are cutting through a
maximum number of magnetic lines of flux and at a maximum angle.
The result is that between 0 and 900, the induced e m f in the conductors builds up from 0
to a maximum value. Observe that from 0 to 900, the black conductor cuts down through the
magnetic field (or flux). At the same time, the white conductor cuts up through the magnetic
field. The induced e m f in the conductors is series-aiding. This means the resultant voltage
across the brushes (the terminal voltage) is the sum of the two induced voltages. The meter at
position B reads maximum value.

N
N S N S N S N S

+ -
- +

A B C D E

A B C D E

00 900 1800 2700 3600

Figure 7.3 – The Elementary Generator’s Sine Wave Output (Rotating Armature)
As the armature loop continues rotating from position B (900) to position C (1800), the
conductors that were cutting through a maximum number of lines of flux at position B now cut
through fewer lines of flux. At C, they are again moving parallel to the magnetic field. They no
longer cut through any lines of flux. As the armature rotates from 90 to 180 0, the induced
voltage will decrease to 0 in the same manner as it increased from 0 to 90 0. The meter again
reads 0. From 0 to 1800, the conductors of the rotor armature loop have been moving in the
same direction through the magnetic field.

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 Fundamentals of Alternating Current

Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage has remained the same. This is shown by A
through C on the graph. As the loop starts rotating beyond 1800, from C through D to A, the
direction of the cutting action of the conductors (of the loop) through the magnetic field
reverses. Now the black conductor cuts up through the field.
The white conductor cuts down through the field. Thus, the polarity of the inducted voltage
reverses. Following the sequence shown in C through D and back to A, the voltage will be in
the direction opposite to that shown from positions A, B, and C.
The terminal voltage will be the same as it was from A to C except for its reversed polarity,
as shown by meter deflection in D. The graph in Figure 7.3 shows the voltage output wave form
for the complete revolution of the loop and is sinusoidal in nature (a mathematical curve that
describes a smooth repetitive oscillation). It has derived its name from the sine function of
which it is the graph.
3.4.1 Relationship between instantaneous voltage, conductor velocity, the sine of the
displaced angle
The EMF induced in the coil at any instant of time depends upon the rate or speed at which
the coil cuts the lines of magnetic flux between the poles and this is dependant upon the angle
of rotation, Theta (θ) of the generating device. Because an AC waveform is constantly changing
its value or amplitude, the waveform at any instant in time will have a different value from its
next instant in time.
For example, the value at 1ms will be different to the value at 1.2ms and so on. These values
are known generally as the Instantaneous Values, or Vi Then the instantaneous value of the
waveform and also its direction will vary according to the position of the coil within the
magnetic field as shown below.

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Chapter 3

3.4.1.1 Displacement of a Coil within a Magnetic Field

The instantaneous values of a sinusoidal waveform are given as the “Instantaneous value =
Maximum value x sin θ” and this is generalized by the formula: ω = 2πf (rad/sec)
Where, Vmax is the maximum voltage induced in the coil and θ = ωt, is the rotational
angle of the coil with respect to time.
If we know the maximum or peak value of the waveform, by using the formula above the
instantaneous values at various points along the waveform can be calculated. By plotting these
values out onto graph paper, a sinusoidal waveform shape can be constructed.
In order to keep things simple, we will plot the instantaneous values for the sinusoidal
waveform at every 45O of rotation giving us 8 points to plot. Again, to keep it simple we will
assume a maximum voltage, VMAX value of 100V. Plotting the instantaneous values at shorter
intervals, for example at every 30O (12 points) or 10O (36 points) for example would result in a
more accurate sinusoidal waveform construction.

3.5 Wave Form of an A.C. Voltage

The term AC or to give it its full description of Alternating Current, generally refers to a
time-varying waveform with the most common of all being called a Sinusoid better known as
a Sinusoidal Waveform.
Sinusoidal waveforms are more generally called by their short description as Sine Waves.
Sine waves are by far one of the most important types of AC waveform used in electrical
engineering.

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 Fundamentals of Alternating Current

The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage or current
against time is called an AC Waveform. An AC waveform is constantly changing its polarity
every half cycle alternating between a positive maximum value and a negative maximum value
respectively with regards to time with a common example of this being the domestic mains
voltage supply we use in our homes.

3.6 Peak Value

Definition: The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle is called
its Peak value. It is also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest value.
VP = √2 x VRMS = 1.414 VRMS

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Chapter 3

3.7 A Simple Circuit for A Three-Phase Supply from An Alternator

Output to the Switchboard

AVR

Fixed
Poles

Exciter Rotor (3-Phase)

Alternator Stator

Alternator
Poly-phase Rectifier Rotor
(Poles)

3-phase output to the Switchboard

(from the terminal plate) →
Star-connection point →

Poly-phase rectifier components

A Brushless Alternator Circuit

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 Fundamentals of Alternating Current

3.7.1 The Unique Features

In this machine, slip rings and brushes are eliminated and excitation is provided not by a
conventional direct current exciter but by a small alternator within the set itself. There are no
direct electrical connections between the rotating and stationary windings of the generator
(Refer Figure 7.12).
The exciter has the unusual arrangement of three-phase output windings on the rotor and
magnetic (field) poles fixed in the casing. The casing pole-coils are supplied with direct current
from a static automatic voltage regulator. Three-phase current generated in the windings on the
exciter’s rotor passes through a 3-phase rectifier assembly on the shaft and then to the main
alternator poles; no slip rings are needed.

Main Frame
Exciter Armature Main Armature

3-phase output
to the rotating rectifier
Exciter Field

Main Rotating Field

Fan
(and Damper Winding)

Rotating Rectifier Image Courtesy: www.hipowersystems.com

Figure 7.13 – Exploded View of a Brushless Alternator
The major components are briefly explained below:
3.7.2 The Exciter
The exciter portion houses a mini generator that develops the power necessary to develop
the magnetic field in the main generator portion. It consists of the following main components:

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Chapter 3

3.7.3 The Exciter Field

The exciter field is a stationary direct current-energized winding. This is the winding
where the DC magnetic field is initially developed. Even before any voltage regulation takes
place, a residual magnetic field* exists in the poles. During voltage regulation, DC in the
exciter’s field induces an e m f, resulting in current flow in its armature.

* Residual Magnetism
(a) Now we know that residual magnetism exists in all ferrous metals that have had a current
carried around it. In many generators, there is not enough material to provide a substantial
residual magnetic field to use in creating an e m f. The ship’s service generator has a lot
of metal.
The material mass maintains adequate residual magnetism in the exciter’s field that in turn
helps to induce an e m f in the exciter’s armature when there is motion. It will also be
found that the properties of the metal involved will cater to a wider hysteresis loop or
“B/H” curve.
(b) Residual magnetism in the generator’s exciter field allows the generator to build up voltage
while starting. This magnetism is sometimes lost due to shelf time or improper operation,
among other reasons. Restoring this residual magnetism is possible and is sometimes
referred to as ‘flashing the exciter field’.
It is also possible that initially, self-excited ship service generators may need to have the
fields flashed to establish the residual magnetism, which is necessary to start the exciter’s
induction process.
Note: Read the manufacturer’s recommendations carefully. Damage to the generator or
voltage regulator will result if proper procedures are not correctly followed.
To restore the small amount of residual magnetism necessary to begin a voltage build-up,
connect a 12-volt battery to the exciter field while the generator is at rest. This is done as
follows:
1. Remove the exciter field leads e.g., F+ and F- from the automatic voltage regulator.
CAUTION!
 Failure to remove the field leads from the regulator during flashing procedures may
destroy the automatic voltage regulator.

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 Fundamentals of Alternating Current

2. Measure the exciter field resistance across the F+ to the F- ends. You should be able to read
some value of resistance as you are measuring a continuous winding. An infinite resistance
reading would indicate an open circuit in the exciter field. Also ensure that there is no
grounding in the circuit.
3. Connect F+ to the positive pole of the battery.
4. Hold the F- lead by the insulated portion of the lead wire, touch F- to the negative pole of
the battery for about 5 to 10 seconds and then remove it.
5. Reconnect F+ and F- to the regulator.
6. Repeat the procedure if the generator fails to build voltage.
3.7.4 The Exciter Armature
The exciter armature is a three-conductor, three-phase rotating winding. The exciter
armature is located directly inside a tubular stator. A three-phase e.m.f is induced in the exciter
armature as it rotates inside the fixed magnetic field of the exciter. Together, the exciter’s field
and armature develop a three-phase AC output. In effect, this is a rotating armature generator.
However, the frequency of its output is 3 to 10 times higher than the main armature’s output
frequency; this ensures higher stability and faster response to varying loads. This portion of the
generator is used to provide the AC supply input to the rotating rectifier through co-axially
mounted cables. Since current is induced into the armature without the aid of wires, brushes
and slip rings are eliminated.
3.7.5 The Rotating Rectifier
In order to produce the enhanced three-phase output from the main armature of the
generator (necessary for the large power requirements of the distribution system), the main field
must be provided with a direct current source. To convert (or rectify) the exciter’s output from
AC to DC, the rotating rectifier is used. This rectifier provides the same conversion (from AC
to DC) as is depicted in Figures 7.12 and 7.13.

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3.7.6 Pilot Exciter

A pilot exciter is in a permanent magnet generator is a special set of magnets. The permanent
magnet, also called a PMG (permanent magnet generator) mounted on the rotor shaft of the
main generator. The armature winding of the PMG is a stationary part which is mounted on
stator.
Thus, when the rotor rotates, the field flux created by the permanent magnet will also rotate
and as the armature is stationary, there will be flux linkage in the armature winding of the PMG
and an EMF will be induced across the terminals of the armature of the pilot exciter.
This armature thus produces three-phase ac power by using the mechanical energy of the
rotor. This AC power from the pilot exciter is then rectified by a thyristor bridge. The DC is
then feed to the field winding of the main exciter, which is wound on the stator of the main
exciter.
Note that the permanent magnet of the pilot exciter is mounted on rotor, armature of pmg is
stationary as it is wounded on stator and field winding of main exciter is stationary as it is also
wounded to stator of main exciter. Normally pmg has 16 poles, so the ac produced by pmg will
be at a frequency of 400 Hz (f = PN/120, N = 3000 rpm). Because of high frequency the ripple
content in the rectified dc will be low. That is why pmg produces ac power at this higher
frequency.

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3.8 Phase Sequence of A 3-Phase Alternator

Consider a winding of a 3-phase alternator as shown in the above figure. We know that
phase difference is 120O in 3-phase system. Why 120O? That because the windings are placed
120O apart from each other. So, if you would like to have phase difference of 90O, just place the
windings 90O apart from each other. It’s all about how you place the windings.

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Let’s say the magnet is rotating in clockwise direction (as shown above), that means,
winding Y will reach its peak value first, after that winding R and then winding B will have it’s
peak. As you might have guessed correctly, winding Y reached its peak value right after the
magnet has rotated 120O from its initial position. Similarly, when the magnet will rotate 240O
from its initial position, winding B will reach its peak value. We can also say that, waveform
of winding Y is leading the waveform of winding B by an angle of 120O, or we can say that
waveform of winding Y is lagging the waveform of winding R by 120O.

So, if you observe the sequence of reaching peak values, you’ll find that winding R is
reaching its peak value first, and then winding Y and then winding B. And this sequence will
continue till the magnet is rotating in clockwise direction.
In polyphase system, the order in which voltage waveform reaches their respective peak
values is called as phase sequence.
So, in this case our phase sequence would be R-Y-B. This is because, R phase reaches it’s
peak value first and then Y and then B. Phase sequence can sometimes also called as phase
rotation. So, you need not to get confused between phase sequence and rotation as both are one
and the same.

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3.9 Complete Cycle of a Sine Wave by Vertical Components of a Rotating Vector

Every alternating wave has a positive half cycle and a negative half cycle in its complete
cycle of revolution, along with the coordinate axis. Of course, the phasor also represents the
wave properties in a coordinate plane only. The phase of the waveform for one complete
revolution is 2π or 360O. In a phasor diagram, we represent the instantaneous voltage (or
amplitude) with a moving vector, as shown in figure below

In the above figure, the line A represents the maximum amplitude of the wave form and the
line ‘I’ is the magnitude at the point P, of the phasor vector representation. The vector represents
the values from 0O to360O in the axis, at different instances of time.
The vector represents both magnitude and the phase of the waveform. The magnitude is
represented along the vertical axis and the phase of the waveform is represented along with the
Horizontal axis. The phase of a waveform may be represented in either degrees or radians.
Basically, a rotating vector, simply called a “Phasor” is a scaled line whose length represents
an AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is
“frozen” at some point in time.
A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end, which signifies partly the maximum
value of the vector quantity (V or I) and partly the end of the vector that rotates.
Generally, vectors are assumed to pivot at one end around a fixed zero point known as the
“point of origin” while the arrowed-end representing the quantity, freely rotates in an anti-
clockwise direction at an angular velocity, (ω) of one full revolution for every cycle.

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This anti-clockwise rotation of the vector is considered to be a positive rotation. Likewise,

a clockwise rotation is considered to be a negative rotation. Although both the terms “vectors”
and “phasors” are used to describe a rotating line that itself has both magnitude and direction,
the main difference between the two is that a vectors magnitude is the “peak value” of the
sinusoid while a phasor’s magnitude is the “rms value” of the sinusoid. In both cases the phase
angle and direction remain the same.
The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant in time can be represented by a phasor
diagram, so phasor diagrams can be thought of as “functions of time”. A complete sine wave
can be constructed by a single vector rotating at an angular velocity of ω = 2πƒ, where ƒ is the
frequency of the waveform. Then a phasor is a quantity that has both “Magnitude” and
“Direction”.
Generally, when constructing a phasor diagram, the angular velocity of a sine wave is always
assumed to be: ω in radians per second. Consider the phasor diagram below:
using a triangle produced from the above objective, confirms that
e = sinEmax

3.10 Degrees and Radians Superimposed on The Wave Sine

In AC circuits, angles are frequently measured in radians, rather than degrees. Radian is
defined by an arc of a circle where the length of an arc is equal to the radius of the circle.
The circumference of a circle equals 2πr where r is the radius. A complete circle will
therefore have 2π radians, which is subtended by 360°. In other words, to calculate how
many degrees are in a radian, you can state the number of radians in the circle as 2π
radians, which is equal to the number of degrees in a circle (360°). So, the number of degrees
in a radian can be found by dividing 360° by 2π.
Formula: 2πr = 360°, r = 360°/2π, 1 radian = 57.3°

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3.11 Angular Velocity

Angular Velocity is another term that's related to a radian measure. It is the time rate of
change in angular displacement. This is equal to the distance traveled by the conductor,
which is measured in radians, divided by the period (T), time taken for one revolution. The
term angular velocity can also be stated with a letter symbol ω, which is the lowercase Greek
letter Omega (ω). Therefore, ω is equal to so many radians per second. If we look at just one
waveform, then ω is equal to 2π radians over time in seconds i.e. (ω = 2π/T). The angle
through which the conductors move in one second may be written as:
Angular velocity = ω = 2π/T (radians/second)
Another term we will discuss that relates to the radian measure and angular velocity is
frequency. Frequency (f) refers to the number of cycles or waveforms per second with unit
of hertz or Hz. In formula, f = 1/T. If we combine the formulas of the last two terms, we
arrive at angular velocity or Omega equal to 2πf.
Given: ω = 2π/T and f = 1/T, therefore T= 1/f, combined ω = 2π/ (1/f) = 2πf
The term omega ω is a term that you will encounter in a number of formulas as you study
AC theory in electricity and electronics.

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3.12 Calculating the Instantaneous Voltage, Given the Unknown

Q. 220 V, 50 Hz, ac is applied to a resistor. The instantaneous value of voltage is

V = Vm sin ωt
V = Vm Sin
Vm = Vrms × √2
= 220 × √2 V ω
= 2πf = 2π × 50 = 100 π
∴ V = 220√2 sin 100π t

3.13 e = Blv to produce; e = Emax sin, where e is the instantaneous voltage, Emax, is the
maximum voltage and  is the displaced angle

The EMF induced in a straight conductor of length l moving with velocity v perpendicular to a
magnetic field B is E = Blv
Where:
B, l and v are mutually perpendicular. The emf is in volts when B is in webers per m2, l is in
meters, and v is in m/sec.
If the velocity vector v makes an angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field,
E = Blv sin θ

3.14 Factors Affecting the Induced Voltage

The common factors are:

- the flux density “B”
- the number of turns in the coil “N”
- the conductor’s / flux cutting rate “v”
- the active length “l”

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Faraday’s experiments showed that the EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux depends
on only a few factors. First, EMF is directly proportional to the change in flux Δ. Second, EMF
is greatest when the change in time Δt is smallest—that is, EMF is inversely proportional to Δt.
Finally, if a coil has N turns, an EMF will be produced that is N times greater than for a
single coil, so that EMF is directly proportional to N.
3.14.1 The E M F Equation
The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on the strength of the magnetic field, rate
of cutting and length of the conductor. To substantiate this statement, the e m f equation is as
follows:

e = 2NBlv sin  volts

Where; e is the e m f generated as mentioned,
2 – since each coil has 2 sides,
N is the number of turns (conductors)
B is the flux density in wb/m2
l is the active length of the conductor (i.e., the length beneath the poles)
v is the peripheral velocity in metres / second

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Sin – when the coil side (conductor) has turned through an angle , only Sin is effective
since it is perpendicular to the direction of both the magnetic flux and the conductor in
reckoning.
The Cos component is ignored as it is found to be a parallel one and hence ineffective.

Now when e is at its maximum, the angle  = 900 and as we know that Sin90 = 1, we can
re-write the equation as Em = 2BNlv volts.
If b is the width of the coil in metres, ƒ the frequency of rotation in hertz, then, the
peripheral velocity v = .b.f

So, Em = 2BNl.b.f volts (knowing that l is the active length and b is the breadth, then the
area of the coil in square metres can be represented by A)

 Em = 2.fNBA volts
By definition, E = dW/dq. That is, the emf is the work done on the circulating charge per
unit charge (coulomb) displaced past a point of the circuit. Let us consider the figure below in
which a moving conductor ab of length l slides along a stationary U-shaped conductor, where
the loop is in a plane perpendicular to a magnetic field B. If conductor ab moves to the right at
a velocity v, a current I will flow in the loop adcb. Remembering that a magnetic field exerts a
force of F = BIl newtons on a long, straight current-carrying conductor perpendicular to the
field, we note that the current I moving through the moving conductor ab will cause a side-
thrust to the left on ab with a force of F = BIl newtons.
Because of this side-thrust, an external force provided by some working agent is required to
maintain the motion. The work done by this agent is the work done on the circulating charge.
There is a direct conversion here of mechanical energy to electrical energy.

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The distance moved in time t is

ds = vdt
and the work done is
dW = Fds = lIB∙vdt
Now the product of I and dt is the charge dq displaced in this time, so
dW = Blvdq
or
dW/dq = Blv
Since E = dW/dq, E = Blv

3.15 Phase Difference Between Voltage and Current

When capacitors or inductors are involved in an AC circuit, the current and voltage do
not peak at the same time. The fraction of a period difference between the peaks expressed
in degrees is said to be the phase difference. The phase difference is  90O. It is customary
to use the angle by which the voltage leads the current. This leads to a positive phase for
inductive circuits since current lags the voltage in an inductive circuit. The phase is negative
for a capacitive circuit since the current leads the voltage. The useful mnemonic ELI the ICE
man helps to remember the sign of the phase. The phase relation is often depicted graphically
in a phasor diagram.

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3.16 Use of Root Mean Square (r.m.s.) Values

This RMS is a mathematical quantity (used in many math fields) used to compare both
alternating and direct currents (or voltage). In other words (as an example), the RMS value
of AC (current) is the direct current which when passed through a resistor for a given period
of time would produce the same heat as that produced by alternating current when passed
through the same resistor for the same time.
Practically, we use the RMS value for all kinds of AC appliances. The same is applicable to
alternating voltage also. We're taking the RMS because AC is a variable quantity (consecutive
positives and negatives). Hence, we require a mean value of their squares thereby taking the
square root of sum of their squares.
Another simple way to look at it, geometrically, is that by squaring V, in effect you flip the
negative voltage to positive ((-V)2 = V2), then find the average magnitude of these square
values. By taking the square root, you get back to an unsquared value that averages the
magnitudes, regardless of sign.
3.16.1 RMS Value for Given Values of Instantaneous Voltage or Current for a Half Cycle

Each mid-ordinate value of a waveform (the voltage waveform in this case) is multiplied by
itself (squared) and added to the next. This method gives us the “square” or Squared part of the
RMS voltage expression. Next this squared value is divided by the number of mid-ordinates
used to give us the Mean part of the RMS voltage expression, and in our simple example above
the number of mid-ordinates used was twelve (12). Finally, the square root of the previous
result is found to give us the Root part of the RMS voltage.

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Then we can define the term used to describe an rms voltage (VRMS) as being “the
square root of the mean of the square of the mid-ordinates of the voltage waveform” and this is
given as:

2
V RMS = Sum of mid-ordinate (voltages)
Number of mid-ordinates 2
V RMS = Sum of mid-ordinate (voltages)
Number
and for our simple example above, the2RMS of mid-ordinates
2 voltage
2 2 will be
2 calculated
2 as:
V RMS = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 …. + V12 + V12

2 2 2 122 2 2
V RMS = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 …. + V12 + V12

12

So, lets assume that an alternating voltage has a peak voltage (Vpk) of 20 volts and by taking
10 mid-ordinate values is found to vary over one half cycle as follows:

Voltage 6.2V 11.8V 16.2V 19.0V 20.0V 19.0V 16.2V 11.8V 6.2V 0V

Angle 18o 36o 54o 72o 90o 108o 126o 144o 162o 180o

V = 6.22 + 11.82 + 16.22 +19.02 + 20.02 + 19.02 + 16.22 + 11.82 + 6.22 + 02

RMS
10

V RMS = 2000 = V 200 = 14.14 Volts

RMS =
10

Then the RMS Voltage value using the graphical method is given as: 14.14 Volts.
The RMS value for a sine wave is 0.707 of the peak value

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3.17 RMS Voltage Analytical Method

The graphical method above is a very good way of finding the effective or RMS voltage,
(or current) of an alternating waveform that is not symmetrical or sinusoidal in nature. In other
words the waveform shape resembles that of a complex waveform. However, when dealing
with pure sinusoidal waveforms we can make life a little bit easier for ourselves by using an
analytical or mathematical way of finding the RMS value.
A periodic sinusoidal voltage is constant and can be defined as V(t) = Vmax*cos(ωt) with a
period of T. Then we can calculate the root-mean-square (rms) value of a sinusoidal voltage
(V(t)) as:

Integrating through with limits taken from 0 to 360o or “T”, the period gives:

Where: Vm is the peak or maximum value of the waveform. Dividing through further as ω =
2π/T, the complex equation above eventually reduces down too:
RMS Voltage Equation

3.18 Principles of Electromagnetic Induction and its Main Applications

Electromagnetic induction is the production of electromotive force otherwise known as

voltage across an electrical conductor where the magnetic field changes. For the discovery of
induction, Micheal Faraday was awarded this credit in 1831. Here, the Faraday’s law of
induction was described by Maxwell in mathematical terms.

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 Fundamentals of Alternating Current

Take for example any conductor and place it in a specific position. Here the process of
electromagnetic induction will let the conductor vary keeping the magnetic field stationary.
Now, there is a simple question to ask. Without touching another circuit, how is current
induced by another circuit? Further, what does any of this have to do with magnetism? Before
learning about that, we need to look at a few principles linking electricity and magnetism:
1. The magnetic field surrounds every electric current.
2. Fluctuating magnetic fields created around alternating currents.
3. Faraday's Law states that the magnetic field causes the flow of the current in conductors
that are placed within them.
3.18.1 Principle of Electromagnetic Induction
When we combine these above mentioned three principles, it means that a changing electric
current is surrounded by a related changing magnetic field, which will, in turn, generate an
electrical current in a conductor placed within it, having its magnetic field. It is the
electromagnetic likeness of nesting Matryoshka dolls. The first current generated the second
current in electromagnetic induction when a current flows through a conductor placed in a
magnetic field.
When it comes to the principle of electromagnetic induction, it will enable the transformers,
motors, electric generators and other rechargeable items such as wireless communication
devices or electric toothbrushes to adopt the principle. Apart from that, your rice cooker works
on using induction. Now let's learn how induction cooktops are heated by using induced current.
3.18.1.1 Applications
• Current clampmeter.
• Electric generators.
• Electromagnets
• Hall effect meters.
• Induction cooking.
• Induction motors.
• Induction sealing

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3.18.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, also known as Faraday’s law, is the basic law
of electromagnetism which helps us to predict how a magnetic field would interact with an
electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as
electromagnetic induction.

3.19 Lenz’s law

The minus sign in Faraday’s law of induction is very important. The minus means that the
EMF creates a current I and magnetic field B that oppose the change in flux Δ; this is known
as Lenz’ law.
The direction (given by the minus sign) of the EMF is so important that it is called Lenz’
law after the Russian Heinrich Lenz (1804–1865), who, like Faraday and Henry, independently
investigated aspects of induction. Faraday was aware of the direction, but Lenz stated it, so he
is credited for its discovery.
When this bar magnet is thrust into the coil, the strength of the magnetic field increases in
the coil. The current induced in the coil creates another field, in the opposite direction of the
bar magnet’s to oppose the increase. This is one aspect of Lenz’s law - induction opposes any
change in flux. (b) and (c) are two other situations. Verify for yourself that the direction of the
induced B coil shown indeed opposes the change in flux and that the current direction shown
is consistent with the right hand rule.

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Chapter 3

Sources

• https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-diagram-of-the-excitation-circuit-of-the-turbo-
alternator_fig1_316752406
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/rms-voltage.html
• https://www.vedantu.com/physics/electromagnetic-induction
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/magnetic-flux-induction-and-
faradays-law/
• https://byjus.com/physics/faradays-law/
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/
• -www.brainly.in
• quora.com
• theelectricalguy.com

78 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Chapter 4
Work, Power and Energy

Sir, I was waiting for this chapter for

a while. I have a great deal of confusion
between these three terms - Work,
Energy and Power. These are so close
that evrytime I hear anyone of them.,
I get confused. Please help me out in
differentiating between them.

Yes Divyam, well said!

These terms are similar but
they are quite different
from each other. Each of
them has a different
meaning. Follow me to learn
about all these terms and
their aspects. And most
importantly have patience

Basic Electricity for Seafarers

Chapter 4

4.1 Introduction

Work, energy and power are the commonly used terms in electricity. They are probably the
first thing you learn in your electrical class. Work and energy can be considered as two sides
of the same coin. In this article, we will learn all about the concept of work, power and energy.
Work done is generally referred in relation to the force applied while energy is used in
reference to other factors such as heat. Power is defined as work done per unit time.

4.2 Work

Definition: Work is said to be done when a force applied to an object, moves that object.
Formula: We can calculate work by multiplying the force by the distance of movement of the
object.
W=F×d
Unit: The SI unit of work is the joule (J)

4.3 Electrical Power

Definition: It is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed in an electrical circuit.
Simply put, it is a measure of how much energy is used in a span of time.
In physics, the rate of transfer of electrical energy by an electrical circuit per unit time is
called electrical power. Here electrical energy can be either kinetic energy or potential energy.
In most of the cases, potential energy is considered, which is the energy stored due to the
relative positions of charged particles or electric fields. Electrical power is denoted by P and
measured using Watt.
P = V*I
Where:
V is the potential difference (volts)
I is the electric current (Ampere)
The unit of power is watt (W).

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4.4 Electrical Energy

First of all, we know that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it only changes state.
Definition of Electrical Energy: It is the ability of an electrical circuit to produce work by
creating an action. This action can take many forms, such as thermal, electromagnetic,
mechanical, electrical, etc. Electrical energy can be both created from batteries, generators,
dynamos, and photovoltaics, etc. or stored for future use using fuel cells, batteries, capacitors
or magnetic fields, etc. Thus, electrical energy can be either created or stored.
Formula: Electrical power * Time
Unit: Watt – hour (Wh) (the convenient unit is the kilowatthour kWh)
Difference is Between Electrical Energy and Power
• The energy which is said to be the electrical energy defines the energy which is generated
due to the movement of a charge that is carried in a conductor.
• While we can again say or consider here that the electrical power specifies the rate of
consumption of electrical energy by a device.
• The SI unit which is of electrical energy is said to be Joules. But the power which is electrical
in nature, is measured in Watts or even kWh.

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4.5 Work = Current × Time × Voltage

Joule per coulomb is emf (E) for the whole circuit.

Current (I) is coulomb per second at cross section.
So, power (P) of the whole circuit will be
P (power in watt) = E (emf in volt) × I (current in ampere)
Now, if V is the voltage drop or voltage difference in any particular part of this circuit and
because current is same for whole circuit as well as to this part of the circuit, so power of this
part of the circuit will be:
V (in volt) × I (current in ampere)
Electrical work done is equal to the energy so,
Energy of the whole circuit = E × I × t (watt hours)
Energy of the particular part of the circuit =V × I × t (watt hours)
Where t is time in hours
4.6 Simple calculations to determine energy and work

Electrical energy is the product of power multiplied by the length of time it was consumed.
So, if we know how much power, in Watts is being consumed and the time, in seconds for
which it is used, we can find the total energy used in watt-seconds. In other
words, Energy = power x time and Power = voltage x current.
Problem 1: Work done by a battery (W = QV)
Work is a measure of energy in joules (J).
When we play with batteries we usually talk about electrical potential (V) and current (I).
To get work done by a battery, you need to know the total charge used (Q) used and the voltage
(V), and plug it into W = QV to get work.
Since we usually talk about amps or current when dealing with batteries and not charge, we
have to convert current into charge.
To do this, we need to know for how long (time t) the battery was delivering current.
Say, a 12-V battery delivered 10 amperes of current for 10 seconds.

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Since A = C/t by definition, to get coulombs of charge you can multiple amperes by time in
seconds.
Q = I * t = 10 A * 10 s = 100 C
W = Q * V =100 C * 12 V = 1200 J
Because power in watts is J/s to can calculate work from that as well if you know the time.
P = I * V = 10 A * 12 V = 120 Watts (J/s)
W = P * t = 120 J/s * 10 s = 1200 J
When we work with batteries, we usually deal with ampere-hours (Ah) when we talk about
capacity. 1 Ah is 3600 Coulombs, so if our example battery has a capacity of 10 Ah we can
calculate the work its capable of.
W = (10 Ah * 3600 C/Ah) * 12 V = 432000 J of electrical potential energy.
Because the voltage of batteries varies with the state of charge and the specific load on the
battery, we use Ah to give the capacity, and not joules.
Problem 2: Calculate the electrical energy consumed by a 1200 W toaster in 30 minutes.
What will be the cost of using the same for 1 month if 1 unit of electricity cost Rs. 4.
Hint: The electric energy consumed by an appliance is equal to the product of the power
consumed by the toaster and time duration for which the toaster remains on. 1 unit of energy is
equivalent to 1 kW consumed in 1 hour.
Formula Used:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑑
Power = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Since, we been given the power used and time duration, we can calculate the energy utilized by
the toaster as
Energy used = Power × Time
Since the toaster consumes 1200 W toaster in 30 minutes or 0.5 hour, we can calculate the
energy
used by the toaster as
Energy used = 1200 × 0.5

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Chapter 4

Energy used = 600 Wh

Hence the energy used is,
Energy used = 0.6 kWh
The energy used by this toaster in 30 days will be
Energy Used = 0.6 × 30
Energy Used = 18 kWh
Since 1 unit of energy is equivalent to, and one unit of energy costs Rs. 4, the cost of 18 units
will be:
Cost = 18 × 4
Cost = Rs. 72
Hence it will cost Rs. 72 to run a toaster half an hour daily for one month.
Note: We must note that an actual toaster might use different amounts of energy depending on
the kind of mode of the toaster as well as depending on the amount of time it is used in a real-
life scenario. We must also remember that 1 unit of energy is equivalent to using 1 kW of power
in 1 hour and we can use this relation to determine the number of units required to power an
appliance. ‘Units’ is the unit used by power companies to measure the consumption of
electricity (kWh).
Problem 3: A 220 V – 5 A electric lamp is used for 30 minutes. How much energy does it
consume?
Solution:
Voltage (V) = 220 Volt
Electric current (I) = 5 Ampere
Time (t) = 30 minutes
= 30 x 60 seconds
= 1800 seconds
Electric power (P):
P=VI

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= (220 Volt) (5 Ampere)

= 1100 Volt Ampere
= 1100 Watt
= 1100 Joule/second
Electric energy = Electric power x time
= (1100 Joule/second) (1800 second)
Electric energy = 1,980,000 Joule
= 1,980 kilojoule
Problem 4: A 220 V – 60 W soldering iron is used for 4 minutes. How much energy does
it consume?
Known:
Power (P) = 60 Watt = 60 Joule/second
Voltage (V) = 220 Volt
Time (t) = 4 minutes = 4 x 60 seconds = 240 seconds
Wanted: Electric power
Solution:
220 Volt – 60 Watt means the electric solder works well if the potential difference or voltage
is 220 volts and has a power of 60 Watt = 60 Joule/second, means that electric solder using the
energy of 60 Joules per second.
Electric energy = electric power x time interval = (60 Joule/second) (240 second) = 14,400
Joule.

4.7 The Definition of Power, giving the units and symbols used; from the above objective,
derive the expression Power = Voltage × Current (P = VI), giving the units used

If we look around ourselves, we'll find several things that require power to run or work. This
power can be anything either in the form of electricity, physical, human resources, etc. The
main agenda remains the same which is the ability to do work at a particular time.

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The power formula can be defined as the work done by any specific object or source per given
time.
Let's suppose A and B are two people doing the same task but A finished the task before B
then what does it mean?
It simply means that A is more efficient than B and the efficiency is directly proportional to
Power hence we can say that A is more powerful than B. This is exactly what power is, it is
defined as the work done by a body in the given time.
Power = Work done by the object or body / Total time taken.
The Power formula differs as per the required statements, for example, it can be different for
force related objects and also can differ for electronic devices.
Power Formulae - Electrical Power Formula Derivations and Examples
The Power Formula for Different Relations and Units are:
P = VI:
According to Ohm's law at a constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor
will be directly proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the conductor. It is
also inversely proportional to the resistance offered by the conductor. We can define the
electrical power in a circuit as the amount of energy produced or absorbed in a circuit.
Ohm’s law gives that,
𝑉
I=
𝑅

Where:
I stands for the current in a circuit, V stands for the potential difference across the
conductor, R stands for the resistance offered by the conductor
𝑊
P= 𝑡

Where, P stands for the power, W stands for the work done and, t stands for the time.
From ohms’ law we know that,
𝑉
I=𝑅

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 Work, Power and Energy

The definition of power says that it is the amount of electrical energy produced or consumed
by acircuit. Also, in other words we can say that the power in a circuit is the amount of work
done by the circuit in unit time. It can be written as,
𝑊
P= 𝑡
…equation (A)

By the definition of potential difference, we know that potential difference is the work done in
bringing a charge from infinity to a particular point, we can write it as
𝑤
V=𝑄

Where, V stands for the potential difference, w stands for the work done and Q stands for
the total charge
From the above equation, we get
w = VQ
Substituting this expression of in equation (A), we get
𝑉𝑄
P= … equation (B)
𝑡

Now, we know that by definition the current is defined as the charge flowing through a
conductor per unit of time. That can be written as,
𝑄
I= 𝑡

Substituting this value of current in equation (B), we get

P = V * I (Hence Proved)
This states that power is directly proportional to the potential difference of the conductor. Here
P stands for power, V stands for potential difference and I stand for Current. The SI unit is the
watt. The unit of V is in volt and for I it's in the column.
4.7.1 Electric Power Formula
P = R x 12 or V2/ R: These formulas are a variant of ohm's law. Here R stands for resistance V
stands for potential difference and I stand for current.
It states that power is directly proportional to the square of potential difference and inversely
proportional to the resistance offered by the conductor.

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4.7.2 The Power Equation

P = E/t: This formula is also called the mechanical power equation. Here E stands for energy
in joule and t stands for time in seconds.
This formula states that the consumption of energy per unit of time is called power.
This is the most common and basic formula of power. This formula is derived from the work-
energy theorem. It states that the work done per unit time is called power. Here W stands for
work in joule and t stands for time in seconds.
P = F x s/t:
In this formula, F denotes force applied in the object, s denotes displacement of the object and
t denotes the total time taken.
It states that the total time taken by an object to displace from one place to another when an
external force is applied to it is called power.
The formula of power is different for different fields as mentioned above, but its meaning
remains almost the same for all.
𝑽𝟐
Using the equations from above objectives, derive P = I2 R and P = 𝑹

Derivation of some power formulae are as below:

Electric Power:
As we know for Ohm’s law
V=I*R
I = V/R
Now putting this value in a standard equation, P = V*I
We get,
P=I*I*R
P = I2 * R
Or
P = V * V/R

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 Work, Power and Energy

𝑉2
P= 𝑅
(Hence Proved)

Here,
P = Power of the object or body.
V = Potential Difference between two ends of a conductor.
I = current flowing through the circuit.
R = Resistance offered by the wire.
Power Formula:
p = F x s/t
As we know,
Power = Work done upon time
p = w/t
Work = Force(F)*Displacement(s) p = F x s/t
Here,
P = Power.
F = Force applied on the body.
W = Work done by the body.
t = Total time taken.
S = Total displacement of the body

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Chapter 4

Sources
• https://byjus.com/physics/work-energy-power/
• https://brainly.in/question/31356397
• https://teleskola.mt/work-energy-power-and-efficiency/
• https://shiromaninstitute.in/frontend/pdf/bank/Work-Time-and-Energy.pdf
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_2.html
• https://www.vedantu.com/formula/power-formula
• https://physicsfos.blogspot.com/2021/05/power-formula-physics-example.html
• https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/calculate-the-electrical-energy-consumed-
by-a-class-12-physics-cbse-5fc926f0fe5c1049316cf5d5

Dear Readers, I hope that I

cleared all your doubts in this
chapter. Please follow me for
more
XXXXXX basic concepts of
measurement in the final
chapter. Divyam is busy
revising these chapters…

90 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Chapter 5
Basic Measuring Instruments

5.1 Fundamentals of Test Equipment

5.1.1 Multi-meters
Routine electrical test work involves measuring current, voltage and resistance i.e. Amps,
Volts and Ohms. This is most conveniently done using a multi-meter with all the necessary
functions and ranges. The instrument may be the traditional switched-range analogue type
(pointer and scale) or the more common digital type with auto-ranging and numerical display.
Instrument battery failure is checked when the instrument is set to read “Ω” with the probe
tips connected together. If the pointer fails to indicate “0 Ω” after adjustment of the resistance
range trimmer, the battery must be replaced. The instrument should be switched-off when it is
not in use in order to preserve battery life.
If the multi-meter is a digital type, use the following steps to verify if the meter is safe to use:
a) Switch it on and connect the two probe tips together.

b) Set the selector switch to “DC V” (highest range). The display should indicate zero (0).

c) Repeat this for all “DC V” selector switch positions and note the shift of the decimal point.

d) Separate the probe tips.

e) Set the selector switch to “Ω” (highest range). The display should indicate “OL” (over-
range) or “1” (depending upon the model).

f) Connect the probe tips together. The display should indicate zero (0).

g) Repeat this for all “Ω” selector switch positions and note the movement of the decimal
point.

h) Set the selector switch to “AC V” (highest range).

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i) Connect the probes to a suitable known live ac supply.

j) The display should indicate the correct voltage.

k) Similarly test the dc voltage range with a known dc source and note the polarity indication
on the meter.

l) The instrument’s battery failure is usually indicated by the numeric display. The display
may include “BT” or the decimal point may blink, or some other display effect may be
evident like random numbers appearing when we use it.

m) The instrument should be switched off when it is not in use, to preserve battery life.

The following simple proving tests should be performed every time, before using the
instrument. It is obviously very dangerous to touch conductors believing them to be dead,
having checked them with a faulty instrument or adopting the wrong procedures.
5.1.2 Voltage Measurement
✓ Prove the correct operation of the instrument
✓ Switch the instrument to the highest voltage range (either ac V or dc V as appropriate)
✓ Connect the probes to the terminals being tested.
Take great care not to touch the probe tips; remember that the equipment being tested is live.
✓ Note down the voltage reading. If a lower voltage range would give a more accurate reading,
adjust the selector switches accordingly to shift the decimal point. However, most digital
meters have an auto-ranging facility.
✓ No harm will be caused to the instrument by operating the selector range switches while
they are still connected to a live supply.
✓ Great care must be taken to avoid switching into either the current or resistance modes. This
would almost certainly operate the instrument overload device and may cause severe
damage to the instrument and danger to you. Take time to operate the selector switches
during the operation and think carefully.
✓ Disconnect the probes and switch the instrument Off.
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5.1.3 Current Measurement

Most test instruments can only measure up to a few amps DC (usually a maximum of 10 A).
The current measuring facility is intended only for low-current components, and in particular,
for electronic circuits. The instrument will almost certainly be damaged if it is used to measure
the current to motors and other power circuits.
The basic current range can be extended by using external shunts (for d.c.) and current
transformers (for a.c.). These accessories are generally purchased separately from the
instrument manufacturers.
The procedure to be used to measure current in a low-current circuit – generally up to 200 mA:
✓ Prove that the instrument is operating satisfactorily.
✓ Switch the instrument to the highest range (either ac A – only if available or dc A as
appropriate).
✓ Turn Off the power to the circuit to be tested and discharge all capacitors.
✓ Open the circuit in which current is to be measured - removing a fuse-link often gives a
convenient point for current measurement.
✓ Securely connect the probes in series with the load in which the current is to be measured.
✓ Turn on the power to the circuit being tested.
✓ Note the current on the meter’s display.
✓ Turn off the power to the circuit being tested and discharge all capacitors.
✓ Disconnect the test probes and switch off the instrument.
✓ Reconnect the circuit that was being tested.
✓ Often, the most convenient way to measure current in an ac circuit is to use a clamp-meter
which is simply clamped around an insulated conductor.

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5.1.4 Current Clamp Meters

Alternating currents in power circuits can be measured by means of a clamp meter which
has a current transformer built into it. The instrument tongs are clipped round a single-insulated
conductor and the circuit is not interrupted. The value of current is obtained from the magnetic
flux strength around the conductor and is usually displayed on a digital display. Direct current
(dc) measurement is also possible with some clamp meters that have a flux-voltage transducer
known as a “Hall-effect” device.
Care must be taken when measuring the current in un-insulated conductors. This is because
the clamp meter monitors the magnetic flux around the cable which is produced by the current.
In a balanced 3-core (or 2-core for that matter) cable, the net flux is zero - hence no indication
will be available. This is why the clamp meter is only connected around a single conductor.

Image Courtesy: instrumentationtools.com

Figure 5.1 – Sectional View of an AC Clamp Meter

Single
Conductor
I(A) i(A)
Current Analog to
To Voltage Rectifier Digital Display
Conversion Converter

Transformer Jaws (CT)

I : Current under test (Primary Current)
N: Number of turns on CT winding
i: secondary current
I
i= (A)
N

Figure 5.2 – Block Diagram for an AC Clamp Meter

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 Basic Measuring Instruments

Single Bias
Conductor Circuit
I(A) Unbalanced
Voltage Analog to
Amplifier Rectifier Digital Display
Compensating
Circuit Converter

Jaws Magnetic flux at this gap is proportional

+ Hall Element to the primary current under test

Figure 5.3 – Block Diagram for a DC Clamp Meter

Soft-iron
+Vb
Magnetic core with winding

Hall Element

Amplifier

Output -Vb

Current- carrying
Conductor
Figure 5.4 – Basic Circuit for a DC Clamp Meter

5.2 Portable Measuring Instruments

A common test instrument which is invaluable to a troubleshooter is a multimeter. It is

capable of measuring voltage and resistance with some meters capable of other measurements
such as current, capacitance and frequency.
A meter that is capable of measuring current, voltage and resistance is also called an AVO
meter (ampere volt ohm meter). One must be able to determine what type of test instrument to
use, when and where to use it, and how to safely take readings with it.
The instrument may be the traditional switched-range analog type (pointer and scale) or the
more common digital type with auto-ranging and a numerical display.
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Digital meters are normally designed with high impedance and therefore have high
accuracy as compared to the analog types, which have low impedances. Digital meters have a
clear numeric readout, which may be supported by a bar graph display.
Where distorted voltage waveforms are likely (e.g., with variable frequency motor drives),
it is necessary to use a “True-RMS” meter for accuracy.
Digital meters which display the test voltage waveform shape with a storage oscilloscope
facility on the LCD screen are also available.
Digital meters are useful to measure imperceptible voltages and resistances and it is also
possible to measure semiconductor resistances and voltages that vary minutely.
In both analog and digital models, an internal battery serves as a voltage source when
resistance values are to be measured. Before measuring the resistance of a component, it is
essential that the circuit is switched-off, locked-off and any capacitor discharged; otherwise the
instrument is likely to be damaged.

Images Courtesy: all-sun.com and simpsonelectric.com

Figure 5.5 – Digital and Analog Multimeters
Except for current, most of the measurements are based on voltage. For instance, while
measuring resistance, a small amount of current is sent across the terminals.
The voltage drop generated is taken as an input and is divided by the current with the help
of the internal circuitry to determine the resistance. The block diagram of a digital multimeter
is depicted in Figure 5.6. The input is a raw analog signal and enters the internal circuitry in the
form of a wave in the case of an alternating current signal.
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The input signal is first conditioned where-after it proceeds to its respective measurement
circuitry. Further, it is optimized for its range selection and sent to an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC). Analog-to-digital converters can be of various types depending upon the
capabilities of the multimeter and the manufacturer. To convert the signal, the ADC takes
samples of the analog wave. To ensure signal reconstruction, the rate of sampling should be at
least twice the frequency of the analog signal.
Most ADCs that are used in multimeters follow a dual slope integration method in which
the digital signal is compared to a fixed reference value. The output then goes to a successive
approximation register (SAR) which sends the final output to the processing unit and balances
the reference signal for an optimized comparison. A clock input is needed for the SAR counter
which is provided by a crystal oscillator. The processing involved in multimeters is usually
limited to summing up the pulses and is more like an integrator circuit.
After the analog to digital conversion, the resultant output is then sent to the processing unit
which takes the values, decodes their magnitude and sends it to the digital display unit.
Modern digital multimeters can also measure temperature and capacitance and have RS232
connectors for communication to computer terminals.

Constant
Current Source Buffer Amplifier
e.g., A Battery
Res
ACV Calibrated Rectifier Analog to digital
Attenuator Circuit converter

+ ACI Current to Voltage

Converter
Input probes
DCI Current to Voltage
Converter

DCV Calibrated
Digital Display
Attenuator

Optional and not

normally available

Figure 5.6 – Block Diagram of a Digital Multimeter

The operation of the multi-meter should be verified before using it in a circuit. The
manufacturer’s instructions should be carefully followed for this, but a general procedure is as
follows:

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Use the correct probes and leads and insert them into the correct sockets on the meter.
If the multi-meter is an analog type:
1. Ensure the pointer indicates zero and adjust it if it is required to do so.
2. Set the selector switch to “” and connect the probe tips together. The pointer should
deflect to indicate 0 . If the pointer does not settle at zero, adjust the trimming control
knob (an internal potentiometer). Check each resistance range in this way.
3. Instrument battery failure is checked when the instrument is set to read “” with the
probe tips connected as in step 2 above. If the pointer fails to reach “0 ” after the
adjustment of the resistance range trimmer, the battery must be replaced. The
instrument should be switched-off when it is not used, to preserve battery life.
4. Set the selector switch to “AC V” (at the highest range).
5. Very special care is necessary when using a multi-meter to check for live voltage. If
the multi-meter has been accidentally set to the Current or Resistance range, the
instrument acts as a low resistance across the live supply. The resulting short-circuit
current may easily cause the meter to explode with local fire damage and very serious
consequences to the operator.
6. Connect the probes to a suitable known live supply within the range of the meter, such
as the electrical workshop test panel. The pointer should indicate the correct voltage.
7. Fused probe leads are highly recommended for use with a multi-meter.
If the multi-meter is of the digital type:
1. Switch on the multi-meter and check the display to see that all digits are visible and not
flickering; in case the display flickers, change the cell(s). If the problem persists even
after changing the battery, do not use the meter.
Note: if the battery is weak or discharged, accurate resistance and continuity checks
will not be possible.
2. Rotate the selector switch to each position to verify the satisfactory changeover to each
mode / range. If the rotary switch is loose or faulty, DO NOT USE this meter.
3. Set selector switch to “DC V” (highest range). The display should indicate zero (000)
with the probes apart.
4. Repeat this for all “DC V” selector switch positions and note the shift of the decimal
point.
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 Basic Measuring Instruments

5. Set the selector switches to “” (highest range). The display should indicate “OL” (out
of or over the range) or “100” (depending upon the model). Connect the probe tips
together; the display should indicate zero (000).

6. Repeat the above step for all “”positions of the selector switch and note the movement
of the decimal point.
7. Set the selector switch to the highest range of “AC V”. Connect the probes to a suitable
known live AC power supply within the range of the meter. The display should indicate
the correct voltage.
8. Test the DC voltage range also and note the polarity indication on the meter.
9. The instrument’s battery failure is usually indicated by the numeric display. The display
may show “BT” or the decimal point may blink.
10. To preserve battery life, the instrument should be switched-off when it is not in use.
11. It must also be remembered that checking a circuit with a faulty instrument can be
dangerous.
5.2.1 Procedure to Measure Continuity in a Circuit
CAUTION!
 Never measure continuity in a live circuit! The circuit must be dead and all charges
discharged adequately.
a) Set the selector switch to the Continuity mode, insert the leads (red in the positive and
black in the negative / common sockets) and then short the probes. The meter should
display “0” (zero) and the beeper should be audible. This also establishes the fact that
the leads are in good condition.
b) The continuity of a circuit is best measured when the two ends are free of connections
to other branches / circuits for example, a parallel circuit.
5.2.2 Procedure to Measure Resistance
1. Prove the correct operation of the instrument as mentioned above.
2. Isolate and lock-off the equipment.
3. Prove the equipment to be dead.

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4. Switch the multi-meter to the appropriate resistance range, connect the probes to the
equipment to note the resistance value.
5.2.3 Procedure to Measure AC Voltage
Note: When you are not aware of the value of Voltage, set it to the maximum level e.g.,
600 V~.
1. Set the rotary selector switch to the appropriate voltage setting – e.g., 600 V~ (for AC).
2. Hold the insulated probes of the leads behind the finger guard and connect the tips of
the probes to a known live voltage source like a 220 V AC socket and verify that the
display indicates the value as 220 V.
3. Now it is evident that the meter is capable of measuring AC voltage and is not defective.
4. Holding the insulated part of the probes, behind the finger guard, connect them across
the points to be measured and note the value that is indicated.
5. No harm will be caused to the instrument by operating the selector range switches while
it is connected to the live supply. But great care must be taken not to switch into either
the current or resistance mode. This may cause the instrument to trip on overload and
could result in possible damage to the instrument and injury to the person.
6. Once the task is completed, the meter is to be verified for proper operation by
connecting it to another known, similar voltage source and verifying the value.
7. Disconnect the probes and switch off the instrument.
5.2.4 Procedure to Measure DC Voltage
Note: When you are not aware of the value of Voltage, set it to the maximum level e.g.,
600 V - (for DC).
1. Generally, the multi-meter is used in the DC mode to measure battery voltages and
output circuits of rectifiers. Also, it is used to measure the excitation voltages in
alternators under test / maintenance.
2. Like the verification method for AC circuits above, the selector switch should be put
to the appropriate DC voltage setting and first verified with a known DC voltage source
and then used.

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3. Holding the insulated part of the probes, behind the finger guard, connect them across
the points to be measured and note the value that is indicated.
4. Once the task is completed, the meter is to be verified for proper operation by
connecting it to another known DC voltage source and verifying the value.
5.2.5 Procedure to Measure Direct Current
CAUTION!
 Do not use the meter to measure starting currents.
1. A common multi-meter is designed to measure only low-current components and is
particularly meant for DC electronic circuits that draw currents up to a maximum of
200 mA; there is a 10 A socket but this is only for DC and must be used very cautiously
as explained below.
2. The multi-meter is NOT to be used for measuring the current drawn by AC motors and
other power circuits. To measure alternating current, a clamp meter (also known as a
tong tester) must be used by clamping it around one core of the cable at a time.
3. Prove the correct operation of the instrument.
4. Switch the instrument to the highest current range.
5. Turn off the power to the circuit to be tested and discharge all capacitors.
6. Open the circuit in which the current is to be measured; removing a fuse link often
gives a convenient point for current measurement.
7. Securely connect the probes in series with the load in which current is to be measured.
8. If the current is anticipated to be less than and up to 200 mA, the leads can remain as
in the Voltage / Continuity measurement modes.
9. If the current is anticipated to be greater than 200 mA, the Red lead should be removed
and connected to the 10 A point. This will save the meter from permanent damage and
the person from a serious shock which will be fatal!
10. Turn on the power to the circuit being tested; note the value of current on the meter’s
display
11. Turn off the power to the circuit being tested and discharge all capacitors.
12. Disconnect the test probes, switch off the instrument and reconnect the circuit that was
being tested.
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5.2.6 Procedure to Measure Alternating Current with a Clamp Meter

a) Switch on the meter and check the display to see that all digits are visible and not
flickering; in case the displays flickers change the cell(s). If the problem persists even
after changing the cell(s), do not use the meter.
Note: if the cell(s) are weak or discharged, accurate resistance and continuity checks
will not be possible.
b) Remember that this is always used in live circuits and utmost care must be taken to
prevent shocks.
c) The meter to be used must be certified and capable of measuring the maximum current
in that circuit.
d) Leads are not to be connected.
e) Use the rotary switch to select the current range.
f) If you are not aware of the current range, set it to maximum – in most cases, 1000 A.
g) Hold the meter firmly and press the button on the side to open the spring-loaded clamp.
h) Place it around the conductor or core of the cable where the current is to be measured
and ensure that the conductor is not under strain due to the clamp meter.
i) Care must be taken when measuring any current through an un-insulated conductor. If
the clamp-meter is used around a three-core or a two-core cable, the reading will
indicate zero, as the net flux in the balanced 3 or 2 cores is equal to zero.
j) Press the Hold button to record the value in case the clamp meter is used in a confined
space.
Most modern clamp meters can also measure direct current with the help of Hall-effect
sensors. The Fluke 376 clamp meter shown in Figure 10.40 as an example, offers improved
performance that is perfect for a wide range of current measurement situations.
With true-rms voltage and current measurements, the Fluke 376 can read up to 1000 V and
1000 A in both alternating current and direct current modes. It also has min, max, average and
inrush recording to capture variations automatically and filters out noise while capturing motor
starting current exactly as the circuit protection sees it. Additionally, the Fluke 376 includes the
new iFlex™ flexible current probe, which expands the measurement range to 2500 A ac while
providing increased display flexibility, ability to measure around awkward sized conductors
and improved wire access.

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Images Courtesy: Fluke.com

Figure 5.7 – Analog and Digital AC and DC Clamp Meters
5.2.7 The Megger
The Mega Ohm Meter commonly known as a “megger” is used to establish the condition
of insulation of electrical equipment like generators, motors and similar power systems.
However, extreme caution should be exercised when using these devices as they generate
between 250V and 5000V. They should be used only after the power supply to the equipment
is switched off and locked off.
5.2.7.1 Constructional Features of an Analog Megger
Most ohmmeters utilize a battery of relatively low voltage, usually nine volts or less. This
is adequate for measuring resistances under several mega-ohms (MΩ), but when extremely high
resistances need to be measured, a 9-volt battery is insufficient for generating enough current
to cause any electromechanical meter movement. Resistance is not always a stable (linear)
quantity. This is especially true of non-metals.
While this is an extreme example of nonlinear conduction, other substances exhibit similar
insulating / conducting properties when they are exposed to high voltages. Obviously, an
ohmmeter using a low-voltage battery as a source of power cannot measure resistance at the
ionization potential of a gas, or at the breakdown voltage of an insulator. If such resistance
values need to be measured, nothing but a high voltage ohmmeter will suffice. A portable
analog megger is shown in Figure 5.8.
Remember when I = 0, R = ∞ and vice versa.
A basic battery-operated high voltage megger works differently. It has no hand-cranking
mechanism and can generate a high voltage, low-current output for insulation testing (of circuits
with high dielectric strengths) and in high voltage applications.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 103

Chapter 5

Manually-driven Scale
Generator o

Ammeter
(µA or mA)

High-current limiting resistor

Probes
(when probes are shorted
or Resistance = 0)

Figure 5.8 – A 500V Portable Megger and its Basic Constructional Features

A test voltage of 500 V DC is suitable for a ship’s equipment that is rated at 440 V AC.
A test voltage of 1000 V DC is suitable for testing high voltage systems. However, there
are devices that generate even up to 5000 V.
To test the meter, short the two probes together, switch it on and press the test button - the
pointer should indicate approximately 0 MΩ. The numbered, rectangular blocks in Figure 5.9
are cross-sectional representations of wire coils. These three coils move with the needle’s
mechanism. There is no spring mechanism to return the needle to a set position. When the
movement is not powered, the needle will randomly “float.” The coils are electrically connected
as depicted in Figure 5.10. With infinite resistance between the test leads (an open circuit
condition), there will be n
o current through coil 1 and only through coils 2 and 3. When they are energized, these
coils try to center themselves in the gap between the two magnetic poles, driving the needle
fully to the right of the scale where it points to “infinity” as depicted in Figure 10.44. Any
current through coil 1 (through a measured resistance connected between the test leads) tends
to drive the needle to the left of scale, back to zero. The internal resistance values of the meter’s
movement are calibrated so that when the test leads are shorted together, the needle deflects
exactly to the “0 Ω” position. As any variations in battery voltage will affect the torque
generated by both sets of coils (coils 2 and 3, which drive the needle to the right, and coil 1,
which drives the needle to the left), those variations will have no effect of the calibration of the
movement.

104 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

 Basic Measuring Instruments

Figure 5.9 – Cross-Sectional Representations of Wire Coils

Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11

Connection of Coils in a Megger “Open Circuit” Indication
In other words, the accuracy of this ohmmeter movement is unaffected by battery voltage:
a given amount of measured resistance will produce a certain deflection of the needle, no matter
how much or little battery voltage is present. The only effect that a variation in voltage will
have on a meter’s indication is the degree to which the measured resistance changes with the
applied voltage.

Basic Electricity for Seafarers 105

Chapter 5

So, if we were to use a megger to measure the resistance of a gas-discharge lamp, it would
read very high resistance (the needle deflects to the far right of the scale) for low voltages and
low resistance (the needle deflects to the left of the scale) for high voltages. This is precisely
what we expect from a good high-voltage ohmmeter: to provide accurate indication of
resistance under different circumstances.
5.2.7.2 Safety Features
For maximum safety, most meggers are equipped with hand-crank generators for producing
the high DC voltage (500 V to 1000 V). Hence the crocodile clips must never be touched with
bare hands when the device is in use. If the operator of the meter receives a shock from the high
voltage, the condition will be self-correcting, as he or she will naturally stop cranking the
generator! Sometimes a “slip clutch” is used to stabilize the generator’s speed under different
cranking conditions, so as to provide a fairly stable voltage whether it is cranked fast or slow.
Multiple voltage output levels from the generator are available by the setting of a selector
switch.
Some meggers are battery-powered to provide greater precision in the output voltage. For
safety reasons these meggers are activated by a momentary-contact pushbutton switch, so the
switch cannot be left in the “on” position and pose a significant shock hazard to the meter
operator.
Never use this device on electronic components and associated circuits e.g., an AVR or a
PCB in a boiler.
Never use a megger or portable insulation tester in a live circuit. The circuit / equipment
e.g., a motor must be dead and isolated from all sources of power.
5.2.7.3 Procedure to Use a Portable Megger / Insulation Tester
a) These devices can generate 500 V or 1000 V DC and hence the crocodile clips must
never be touched with bare hands when the device is in use.
b) The Insulation tester must be grounded and all static charged dissipated before using
the tester.
c) To ensure that this device is functioning, press the test button or rotate the handle to
see that it indicates infinity without the probes being shorted. Now short the crocodile
clips and repeat the process; the meter should read zero.
d) Never use this device on electronic components and circuits e.g., an AVR or PCB /
PLC in a boiler.
e) Never use a megger or portable insulation tester in a live circuit. The circuit / equipment
e.g., a motor must be dead and isolated from all sources of power.

106 Basic Electricity for Seafarers

ELTK1200 Formula Sheet
Induced voltage Power Factor

Capacitance

Frequency

Resistors in series

Angular velocity
Resistors in parallel

Peak, Peak to Peak, RMS

Capacitors in series

Capacitors in parallel

Inductors in series

Real Inductor
Inductors in parallel

Q-Factor

1
Pure resistor

Instantaneous equations

RMS

Instantaneous waveforms Phasor Diagram

Phase Relationship:
I and VS are “in phase”.

2
Pure inductor

Instantaneous equations

I as reference.

RMS

VS as reference (See Note).

Instantaneous waveforms Phasor Diagram

Phase Relationship:
I as reference (starts at 0). I lags VS by 90°.

Note: The instantaneous equations depend upon which waveform is taken as a reference.
Phasor diagrams use current I as a reference, but sometimes problems give VS as
reference ( ) and you must calculate I.

For the rest of this formula sheet, current I will be the reference.

3
 Series RL circuit

Instantaneous equations

Instantaneous waveforms

RMS

Impedance Triangle Phasor Diagram Power Triangle

Phase Relationship: I lags VS by 2 (angle between 0° and 90°).

4
Pure capacitor

Instantaneous equations RMS

Phasor Diagram

Instantaneous waveforms

Phase Relationship:
I leads VS by 90°.

5
 Series RC circuit

Instantaneous equations

Instantaneous waveforms
RMS

Impedance Triangle Phasor Diagram Power Triangle

Phase Relationship: I leads VS by 2 (angle between 0° and 90°).

6
 Series RLC circuit

Instantaneous equations and

waveforms depend on
whether the angle is lagging
(See Series RL circuit) or
leading (See Series RC circuit).

NOTE: If XL > XC (VL > VC, QL > QC), circuit is RMS

inductive, ˆ lagging phase angle. If XL < XC (VL < VC, QL
< QC), circuit is capacitive, ˆ leading phase angle. If XL
= XC (VL = VC, QL = QC), circuit is resistive, ˆ in phase,
resonant frequency.

Impedance Triangle Phasor Diagram Power Triangle

Phase Relationship: I leads/lags VS by 2 (between 0° and 90°). Lagging phase angle

shown. See NOTE.
7
Resonant frequency Three phase

Wye (Y)

Delta ())

Power

General Transformer equation

Relationship between I and VS for all Series Circuits.

L I lags VS by 90°.
Inductive
RL I lags VS by 2. 2
Transformation ratio Resistive R I and VS are in phase.
RC I leads VS by 2. 2
Capacitive
C I leads VS by 90°.
1
RLC I leads/lags VS by 2. 1
Transformer capacity
1
Depends on values of L, C and f.
2
between 0° and 90°.

ELI the ICEman drinks RIE.

ELI drinks RIE and ICE.

ELI = I lags VS by 90° for L circuits.

RIE = I and VS are in phase for R circuits.
ICE = I leads VS by 90° for C circuits.
Transformer losses and efficiency

8 rev 5