Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Maysan
College of Basic Education
Department of English

Relative clauses

By:

Amal Rahim Hussein

Baneen Mushtaq Talib

Supervised By:

Assit. Prof. Mohammed Taher (PHD)

2024 A.D 1445 A.H

 ‫ََْ هُ ه َ َُ ْ ُ ْ َ ه َ ُ ُ ْ َْ َ َ َ‬
‫ات‬
‫((يرف ِع اَّلل اَّلِين آمنوا ِمنكم واَّلِين أوتوا ال ِعلم درج ٍ‬
‫ٌ‬ ‫َ هُ َ َْ َ ُ َ َ‬
‫واَّلل بِما تعملون خبِري ‪))١١‬‬

‫ل‬
‫سورة ا مجادلة ا ية ‪11‬‬

‫‪I‬‬
Dedication

To whom he taught me to climb the ladder of succes with patience

and wisdom...my dear father

To my beloved mother whose prayers and tears lit up my way to

become finally where I am now

To the pure hearts and gentle souls who have supported me

throughout my journey...my brothers

To whom we carry on the road to success together...my dear friends

To those who have made an effort and bestowed...my best regards to

my supervisor Dr. Mohammed Taher"

II
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page
Chapter one 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definition 3
1.3 Relative clauses 3
1.4 Relative pronouns 6
1.5 Prepositions in relative clauses 7
1.6 Principle clauses 9
1.7 Principle clauses with adverbial meaning 11
Chapter two 14
2.1 -ing and -ed clauses 14
2.2 Relative clauses: principles and to-infinitive 15
2.3 Relative adverbials 17
2.4 The use of relative clauses 18
Conclusion 20
References 21

III
 Chapter One

1.1 Introduction

The most common relative pronouns are "who," "which," and "that." "Who"
is reserved for referring to people, while "which" typically modifies things or
animals (although it can be used for people in certain formal contexts). "That"
can be used for both people and things, offering a more informal and
sometimes less specific option compared to "who" and "which" (Swan, 2013,
: 421).

 Who: "The scientist who discovered penicillin was Alexander Fleming." (This
specifies which scientist is being discussed.)
 Which: "The book which I borrowed from you is fascinating." (This identifies
the specific book.)
 That: "The car that is parked outside belongs to my neighbor." (This is less
specific than "which" but still clarifies which car is being referred to.)
Beyond the Basics: Possessive and Prepositional Pronouns (ibid)

While "who," "which," and "that" are the workhorses of relative clauses, other
pronouns can also play this role. "Whose" functions as a possessive relative
pronoun, indicating ownership within the relative clause. For example: The
woman whose house we admired is a renowned architect.

Prepositional pronouns like "whom" and "where" can also be used in relative
clauses, albeit less frequently. "Whom" is the object form of "who" and is
typically used in formal writing. "Where" refers to places. Here are some
examples:

The person to whom I entrusted the secret kept their word. (Formal usage of
"whom")

1
 The city where I spent my childhood holds many fond memories.

The use of commas with relative clauses can be a source of confusion.

Defining relative clauses, which are essential for identifying the noun they
modify, typically don't require commas. However, non-restrictive clauses,
which provide additional, non-essential information, are usually set off by
commas (Strunk & White, 2000, : 69).

The student who aced the exam received a scholarshi: (Defining clause, no
comma)
My best friend, who shares my love for travel, is planning a trip to Asia. (Non-
restrictive clause, set off by commas)

The world of relative clauses extends beyond these core concepts. We can
encounter relative clauses introduced by adverbs like "when" or "where," used
to modify entire clauses rather than nouns (e.g., "The day when I met you
changed my life"). There's also the concept of reduced relative clauses, where
the relative pronoun is omitted entirely (e.g., "The book I borrowed is
overdue").

Relative clauses are not mere grammatical technicalities; they are powerful
tools for crafting clear, concise, and engaging prose. By mastering their
various forms and functions, you can:

 Provide essential information: Define exactly which noun or pronoun you're

referring to.
 Add enriching details: Breathe life into your descriptions and create a more
nuanced picture.
 Vary sentence structure: Escape monotonous sentence patterns and inject
rhythm into your writing.

2
1.2 Definition

Relative clauses, also known as adjective clauses, are grammatical structures

that provide additional information about a previously mentioned noun or
pronoun. They act as adjectives, modifying and clarifying the noun or pronoun
they refer to.

Hewings (2009): "Explains that relative clause is a clause which gives

essential information about a noun or pronoun, and which is introduced by a
relative pronoun (who, which, that, whose, where, when)." (: 158)

Eastwood (2011): " Explains that relative clause is a clause which identifies
or gives additional information about a person or thing already mentioned in
the sentence. It is introduced by a relative pronoun such as who, which, that,
whose, where, or when." (: 197)

Murphy (2019): " Explains that relative clause is a clause which gives us
more information about a noun or pronoun. Relative clauses are introduced
by a relative pronoun such as who, which, that, whose, where, or when." (:
184)

1.3 Relative clauses

Relative clauses, also known as adjective clauses, play a crucial role in

adding essential information and refining meaning within sentences. They
function similarly to adjectives, modifying and providing further details about
previously mentioned nouns or pronouns (Eastwood, 2011, : 197).

Hewings (2009) defines relative clauses as "a clause which gives essential
information about a noun or pronoun, and which is introduced by a relative
pronoun (who, which, that, whose, where, when)" (: 158). Similarly, Murphy

3
 (2019) states that these clauses "give us more information about a noun or
pronoun" (: 184). They are introduced by specific relative pronouns, each
serving a distinct purpose:

1.3.a Who/that: Used for people (Hewings, 2009, : 158; Eastwood, 2011, :
197)
1.3.b Which/that: Used for things (Hewings, 2009, : 158; Eastwood, 2011, :
197)
1.3.c Whose: Used to indicate possession (Hewings, 2009, : 158; Eastwood,
2011, : 197)
1.3.d Where, when: Used to specify location or time, respectively (Eastwood,
2011, : 197)
Example: "The book that I borrowed from the library was fascinating."
(Eastwood, 2011, : 197)

In this example, the relative clause "that I borrowed from the library"
modifies the noun "book" and clarifies which specific book is being referred
to.

It's crucial to differentiate between two types of relative clauses: restrictive

and non-restrictive (Eastwood, 2011, : 198).

 Restrictive clauses: As seen previously, these clauses are essential for

identifying the noun or pronoun they modify. They are not set off by commas.
(Hewings, 2009, : 158; Eastwood, 2011, : 198)
Example: "The student who studies the most will succeed." (Hewings, 2009,
: 158)

Here, the clause "who studies the most" restricts the meaning of "student" to
only those who put in significant effort.

4
 Non-restrictive clauses: These clauses provide additional, non-essential
information about the noun or pronoun. They are set off by commas.
(Eastwood, 2011, : 198)
Example: "My brother, who lives in London, is visiting this weekend."
(Eastwood, 2011, : 198)

The clause "who lives in London" provides further information but isn't
crucial for identifying the brother.

In certain instances, the relative pronoun can be omitted, particularly when

it functions as the subject of the relative clause and is preceded by a
preposition (Hewings, 2009, : 159; Murphy, 2019, : 185).

Example: "This is the house (in which) I grew u:" (Murphy, 2019, : 185)

However, omitting the pronoun can sometimes lead to ambiguity, so caution

is advised (Hewings, 2009, : 159).

Relative clauses can be used to combine two separate sentences into a single,
more concise and elegant sentence (Eastwood, 2011, : 199).

Example: "She lives in Paris, which is a beautiful city." (Eastwood, 2011, :

199)

This combined sentence conveys the same information as "She lives in Paris.
Paris is a beautiful city," but in a more efficient and smoother form.

Sometimes, relative clauses are used for emphasis, adding specific details or
highlighting specific aspects of the noun or pronoun (Eastwood, 2011, : 200).

Example: "The scientist, whose research has groundbreaking

implications, will be presenting his findings today." (Eastwood, 2011, : 200)

5
 In this scenario, the relative clause emphasizes the significance of the
scientist's research.

1.4 Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses and act as a connection between

the clause and the noun or pronoun they modify (Eastwood, 2011, : 197). Each
pronoun fulfills a specific role:

1.4.a Who/that: Used for people (Hewings, 2009, : 158; Eastwood, 2011, :
197)
1.4.b Which/that: Used for things (Hewings, 2009, : 158; Eastwood, 2011, :
197)
1.4.c Whose: Used to indicate possession (Hewings, 2009, : 158; Eastwood,
2011, : 197)
1.4.d Where: Used to specify location (Eastwood, 2011, : 197)
1.4.e When: Used to specify time (Eastwood, 2011, : 197)

"The woman who helped me was very kind" (Hewings, 2009, : 158). In this
instance, "who" connects the clause "who helped me" to the noun "woman,"
clarifying which specific woman is being referred to.

While "that" can be used for both people and things, choosing between "that"
and "who/which" presents certain considerations (Murphy, 2019, : 184).
Generally, "who/which" is preferred for non-defining clauses that provide
additional, non-essential information (Eastwood, 2011, : 198).

Example: "My brother, who lives in London, is visiting this weekend."

(Eastwood, 2011, : 198)

Here, "who lives in London" is non-defining because the sentence still makes
sense without it. Conversely, "that" is often used in defining clauses, which
6
are essential for identifying the noun or pronoun they modify (Hewings, 2009,
: 158).

Example: "The student that studies the most will succeed." (Hewings,
2009, : 158)

In this case, "that studies the most" is defining as it restricts the "student" to
only those who put in significant effort.

1.5 Prepositions in relative clauses

The most common and straightforward approach to using prepositions in

relative clauses involves placing them at the very end of the clause. This
placement occurs when the preposition forms part of a verb phrase or a phrasal
verb within the relative clause. Consider the following example:

The house in which I grew up has been renovated.

Here, the preposition "in" forms part of the phrasal verb "grew u:" Placing it
at the end ensures a natural and grammatically sound sentence structure. This
approach is generally preferred for clarity and ease of reading (Swan, 2013, :
424).

While ending the relative clause with the preposition is the most common
practice, there are instances where placing it at the beginning is acceptable.
This typically occurs when the preposition is essential for introducing the
relative clause or emphasizing a specific aspect within it. Here's an example:

With whom did you discuss the project? (Emphasis on the person)

In this sentence, placing "with whom" at the beginning highlights the

question of who was involved in the discussion. However, it's important to

7
note that this construction can sound slightly formal or awkward in informal
writing (Quirk, et al 1985, : 1225).

While placing the preposition at the beginning provides some flexibility, it's
crucial to maintain sentence clarity. Sentences where the relative pronoun and
preposition are separated by a long distance can become awkward and
difficult to understand. Consider the following example:

The book, about which I was talking, is on the bookshelf.

Here, the relative pronoun "which" is separated from its preposition "about"
by a comma and the phrase "I was talking." This can be cumbersome for the
reader. A better option would be to rephrase the sentence to place the
preposition closer to the relative pronoun:

I was talking about the book which is on the bookshelf.

1.5.a The Case of Non-Restrictive Clauses:

Non-restrictive clauses, which add additional information about a previously

identified noun, offer slightly more flexibility in preposition placement. In
these cases, both placing the preposition at the end and at the beginning of the
clause are generally acceptable. Here's an example:

My friend, whom I met in Paris, is visiting next week. (Preposition at the

end)

Here's an alternative phrasing:

Whom I met in Paris, my friend is visiting next week. (Preposition at the

beginning for emphasis)

8
 Reduced relative clauses, where the relative pronoun is omitted, present a
different scenario for prepositions. In these cases, the preposition typically
comes immediately before the noun it modifies. For instance:

The restaurant we ate at had a beautiful view. (Preposition "at" modifies

"restaurant") (Quirk, et al 1985, : 1225).

1.6 Principle clauses

The cornerstone of any well-constructed sentence is the principal clause, also

known as an independent clause (Blau, 2016). These self-sufficient
workhorses can stand alone as complete sentences, conveying a thought or
idea without relying on other clauses. Understanding their structure and
function empowers us to craft clear, concise, and impactful prose.

A principal clause requires two essential elements: a subject and a predicate

(Hacker, 2010). The subject, the noun or pronoun performing the action or
existing within the state of being described by the verb, forms the foundation
of the clause. The predicate, on the other hand, tells us something about the
subject. It can be a verb phrase alone, a verb phrase with a direct object, or a
verb phrase accompanied by various complements (e.g., adjectives, adverbs,
prepositional phrases).

Consider the following examples:

 The cat (subject) slept on the rug (predicate - verb phrase).

 John (subject) baked a delicious cake (predicate - verb phrase with a
direct object).
 The city (subject) seemed quiet (predicate - verb phrase with an
adjective complement).

9
 The defining characteristic of a principal clause is its ability to stand alone
as a grammatically complete sentence. It conveys a full thought or idea,
requiring no additional clauses for comprehension. Here are some examples
of single-clause sentences (Blau, 2016):

 The sun is shining brightly.

 I enjoyed the movie.
 We will be traveling to Europe next summer.

1.6.a Coordinating Conjunctions and Compound Sentences

While principal clauses can stand alone, they can also be joined together
using coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet,
So) to create compound sentences (Hacker, 2010). These sentences contain
two or more independent clauses working together to express a more complex
idea. Coordinating conjunctions create a sense of equality between the clauses
they connect. Here are a few examples:

 I woke up early, and I went for a run.

 She loves to read, but he prefers movies.
 The weather is beautiful, so let's go for a picnic.

1.6.b Variations and Complexities

The world of principal clauses extends beyond basic subject-verb structures.

They can include various verb tenses, incorporate adverbial phrases for
additional information, and even contain non-essential elements like
appositives or parenthetical expressions (Hacker, 2010). Here's an example:

Yesterday, while walking in the park (adverbial phrase), I met (verb) an old
friend from college (appositive).

10
 1.7 Principle clauses with adverbial meaning

Principal clauses, the independent workhorses of sentences, cannot only

stand-alone but also take on additional expressive power by incorporating
elements with adverbial meaning. These clauses, while grammatically
complete, function similarly to adverbs by modifying other sentences or
clauses. Understanding how principal clauses can convey adverbial meaning
empowers us to craft sentences with greater nuance and sophistication (Quirk
et al., 1985).

Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses containing a subject and verb that
function as adverbs within a sentence, modifying the main verb, adjective, or
another adverb (Quirk et al., 1985, : 1182). For example:

While I was cooking (adverbial clause - modifies the verb "went"), my friend
went to the store.
Principal Clauses as Adverbial Modifiers (Quirk et al., 1985)

Principal clauses can take on adverbial meaning in several ways. Here, we'll
explore the most common methods:

1. Expressing Time: Principal clauses can be used to establish the temporal

context for another sentence. These clauses typically begin with a time adverb
or adverbial phrase. Here are some examples:
o Later that day, we went to the movies. (Modifies the main clause, indicating
the time of the action)
o Once the rain stopped, we ventured outside. (Establishes the temporal
condition for venturing outside)
2. Indicating Reason or Cause: Principal clauses can function as adverbial
clauses of reason, explaining the "why" behind an action in the main clause.

11
 These clauses are often introduced by causal conjunctions like "because,"
"since," or "as." For instance:
Because I was tired, I went to bed early. (Reason for going to bed early)
3. Expressing Condition: Principal clauses can be used to set a condition for
the action in the main clause. These clauses often begin with conditional
conjunctions like "if" or "unless." Here's an example:
If you finish your homework, you can watch television. (Condition for
watching television)
4. Adding Contrast or Concession: Principal clauses can act as adverbial
clauses of contrast or concession, acknowledging a counterpoint to the main
clause. These clauses are typically introduced by conjunctions like
"although," "while," or "even though." Consider this example:
Although it was raining, we decided to go for a walk. (Concession -
acknowledges the rain but expresses a contrasting decision)

The realm of principal clauses with adverbial meaning extends beyond these
core categories. They can be used to express consequence (e.g., "The meeting
was canceled, so we went home"), purpose (e.g., "I called you to see how you
were doing"), or manner (e.g., "She whispered the secret"). Additionally,
some principal clauses can function as adverbial modifiers without the use of
conjunctions, relying on the context of the sentence to convey their adverbial
role (Quirk et al., 1985).

Understanding how principal clauses can function with adverbial meaning

offers writers a versatile tool for crafting clear and impactful sentences. The
choice between using a principal clause or an adverbial clause depends on the
desired level of emphasis and the complexity of the relationship you want to
convey between the clauses (Quirk et al., 1985).

12
 For instance, the sentence "She was tired, so she went to bed" uses an
adverbial clause ("so she went to bed") to succinctly express the reason for
her action. However, the sentence "Because she was tired, she went to bed"
utilizes a principal clause with adverbial meaning ("Because she was tired")
to provide a more emphatic explanation. (Quirk et al., 1985).

13
 Chapter Two

2.1 -ing and -ed clauses

2.1.a -ing Clauses:

The -ing form, also known as the present participle, creates clauses that can
function in two key ways: verbals and adjectives. As verbals, -ing clauses act
like verbs themselves, expressing ongoing actions or states (Radford, 2018, :
182). Consider the sentence:

 "Smiling, she greeted the guests." (Radford, 2018, : 182)

Here, the -ing clause "smiling" describes an action happening concurrently

with the main verb "greeted." Similarly, -ing clauses can express purpose:

 "Rushing to catch the train, I barely made it on time."

In this example, the -ing clause "rushing to catch the train" clarifies the reason
behind the speaker's hurriedness.

-ing clauses can also function as adjectives, modifying nouns or pronouns

(Huddleston & Pullum, 2002, : 402). They describe qualities or
characteristics:

 "The sparkling lake reflected the sunlight."

Here, "sparkling" modifies "lake," depicting its appearance. Similarly:

 "Exhausted from the hike, we collapsed onto the couch."

The -ing clause "exhausted from the hike" paints a picture of the speaker's
state.

14
 2.1.b -ed Clauses:

The -ed form, also known as the past participle, creates clauses that function
primarily as verbals, expressing completed actions or resulting states (Quirk,
et al 1985, : 1094). These clauses can function as:

 Past participial phrases: These modify nouns or pronouns, indicating the result
of an action:
 "The abandoned house stood eerily silent." (Quirk et al., 1985, : 1094)

Here, "abandoned" modifies "house," signifying the state caused by a past

action.

 Adjectival participles: Similar to past participial phrases, these modify nouns

or pronouns, but with a more inherent quality:
 She wore a flowered dress.

"Flowered" describes the inherent characteristic of the dress.

2.2 Relative clauses: principles and to-infinitive

There are two main types of relative clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive.

2.2.a Restrictive Relative Clauses: These clauses are essential for

identifying the specific noun they modify. Without them, the sentence might
be ambiguous. Take the example: "The student aced the exam" (Strunk Jr. &
White, 2000, : 67). This sentence doesn't tell us which student. Adding a
restrictive clause clarifies: "The student who studied all night aced the exam"
(Strunk Jr. & White, 2000, : 67). Here, "who studied all night" modifies
"student," pinpointing the specific student who achieved success.

2.2.b Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses: These clauses provide additional,

but not essential, information about the noun they modify. They are often set
15
 off by commas. Here's an example: "My grandmother, a retired teacher,
always has a story to tell" (Swan, 2020, : 312). The information about the
grandmother's profession is interesting but not necessary to identify her.
2.2.c Forming Relative Clauses:

Relative clauses are typically introduced by relative pronouns like "who,"

"which," "that," or "whose." These pronouns refer back to the noun (the
antecedent) in the main clause. Here's the breakdown:

Who: Refers to people (e.g., "The woman who helped me was very kind").
Which: Refers to things or animals (e.g., "The book which I borrowed is
fascinating").
That: Can refer to both people and things in a restrictive clause (e.g., "The
movie that won the award was brilliant"). However, it's generally avoided in
non-restrictive clauses for clarity (Swan, 2020, : 313).
Whose: Refers to possession (e.g., "The man whose car broke down needs
help").

2.2.d To-Infinitives:

To-infinitives, formed with the marker "to" followed by a base verb, function
in a sentence in various ways (Radford, 2018, : 185).

 Expressing purpose: To-infinitives can indicate the reason behind an action.

She went to the store to buy milk.

"to buy milk" clarifies the purpose of her tri:

 Expressing result: To-infinitives can describe the outcome of an action.

The experiment was designed to test a new theory.

"to test a new theory" explains the intended result of the experiment.

16
 2.3. Relative adverbials

Relative adverbial clauses, introduced by relative adverbs like "where,"

"when," and "why," modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause. Unlike
relative pronouns ("who," "which," "that"), relative adverbs function more
like adverbs, providing information about the circumstances surrounding the
noun. Here's an example: "The park where we used to play is now a bustling
marketplace." (Quirk, 2002, : 843)

2.3.a Types of Relative Adverbial Clauses

There are three main categories of relative adverbial clauses:

1. Clauses of Place (Introduced by "where"): These clauses pinpoint the

location of something mentioned in the main clause. Here's an example: "The
house where I grew up has a red door." (Murphy, 2012, : 120)

2. Clauses of Time (Introduced by "when"): These clauses specify the time at

which something happens in the main clause. Here's an example: "The day
when we met was a rainy afternoon." (Swan, 2020, : 423)

3. Clauses of Reason (Introduced by "why"): These clauses explain the cause

or justification for something mentioned in the main clause. Here's an
example: "The reason why I was late is because I missed the bus." (Strunk &
White, 2000, : 70)

17
2.4 The use of relative clauses

1. Precise Identification: Imagine you're in a bustling library and need a

specific book. You wouldn't just ask for "a book," you'd specify, "the book
that sits on the top shelf, with a red cover." Similarly, relative clauses pinpoint
the exact noun you're referring to. Here's an example: "The librarian, who
always wears a nametag, helped me find the book." (Strunk & White, 2000,
: 67)

2. Essential Information: Sometimes, the information provided by the

relative clause is crucial for understanding the main clause. For instance, the
sentence "The tourists visited the museum" is grammatically correct but lacks
detail. Adding a relative clause clarifies: "The tourists, who were fascinated
by ancient history, visited the museum." In this case, the relative clause
defines the specific tourists we're interested in. (Swan, 2020, : 421)

2.4.a Types of Relative Clauses

There are two main types of relative clauses, each serving a distinct purpose:

1. Defining Relative Clauses: These clauses are essential for identifying the
noun they modify. They cannot be removed from the sentence without altering
the core meaning. They are typically introduced by the relative pronouns
"who," "which," or "that." Here's an example: "The student who studies the
most will succeed." Without the relative clause, we don't know which student
the speaker is referring to. (Murphy, 2012, : 118)

2. Non-defining Relative Clauses: These clauses provide additional, but not

essential, information about a noun. They are set apart from the main clause
by commas and can be omitted without affecting the core meaning of the

18
sentence. They are commonly introduced by "who," "which," "whose," or
"where." For example: "The professor, whose lectures are always engaging,
captivated the students." (Quirk, 2002, : 842)

19
 Conclusion

Relative clauses modify nouns and noun phrases by providing essential

or extra information. Understanding relative pronouns (who, whom, which,
that, whose) and how prepositions function within these clauses allows for
more precise connections between ideas in your writing.

Relative clauses interact with main clauses to add emphasis and even
subtly modify the sentence's adverbial meaning. This flexibility makes
them essential for conveying nuanced ideas.

We have discussed how other structures intersect with relative clauses:

 -ing and -ed clauses: These offer similar ways to condense information
within sentences.
 Relative clauses with to-infinitives: These help express actions or
possibilities associated with the modified noun.
 Relative Adverbials: Adverbs like 'where' and 'when' help refine
descriptions of time and place.

20
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Huddleston, Rodney, & Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002). The Cambridge grammar

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