CHAPTER 8: INPUT/OUTPUT

8.1 External Devices

Human readable: Suitable for communicating with the computer user;
Machine readable: Suitable for communicating with equipment;
Communication: Suitable for communicating with remote devices.
1. Human Readable Devices:

 Video Display Terminals (VDTs): These devices present information

visually to users, such as computer monitors or screens.

 Printers: Printers produce hard copies of text or images, making the

information readable for humans.

2. Machine Readable Devices:

 Magnetic Disk and Tape Systems: These storage devices store data in
a format that can be read and written by computer hardware, using
magnetic fields to encode the information.

 Sensors and Actuators: In robotics applications, sensors collect data

from the environment (such as temperature, light, or proximity), while
actuators execute commands to control movement or perform tasks
based on that data.

3. Communication:
 Human to human, machine to machine, human to machine
communication.

- The interface to the I/O module is in the form of control, data, and status
signals.

Control signals determine the function that the device will perform, such as
send data to the I/O module (INPUT or READ), accept data from the I/O module
(OUTPUT or WRITE), report status, or perform some control function particular
to the device (e.g., position a disk head).

 Control signals determine the device's function (e.g., input, output,

status reporting).
 Data signals transmit sets of bits between the device and the I/O
module.
 Status signals indicate the device's state, such as readiness for data
transfer.
Keyboard / monitor :
 The basic unit of exchange is the character. Associated with each
character is a code, typically 7 or 8 bits in length. The most commonly
used text code is the International Reference Alphabet (IRA). Each
character in this code is represented by a unique 7-bit binary code; thus,
128 different characters can be represented. Characters are of two types:
printable and control. Printable characters are the alphabetic, numeric,
and special characters that can be printed on paper or displayed on a
screen. Some of the control characters have to do with controlling the
printing or displaying of characters; an example is carriage return.

Disk Drive:
 Definition: A disk drive is a data storage device that reads and writes
data on a disk using magnetic or optical techniques.

Transducer:
 Definition: A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into
another. In the context of disk drives, it converts magnetic patterns on
the disk surface into electrical signals (bits) and vice versa.
8.2 I/O Modules
1. Control and Timing:
 Definition: This function ensures the proper sequencing and timing
of operations to coordinate the transfer of data between the
processor, memory, and peripheral devices.
 Explanation: The I/O module manages the timing of data transfers
to prevent conflicts and ensure that data is sent and received in the
correct order. This involves synchronizing the operations of various
components within the computer system.
2. Processor Communication:
 Definition: The methods and protocols through which the I/O
module interacts with the processor.
 Explanation: This includes decoding commands from the
processor, transferring data via the data bus, reporting the status of
I/O operations, and recognizing the addresses of peripheral devices.
Effective processor communication is crucial for the smooth
execution of I/O operations.
3. Device Communication:
 Definition: The interaction between the I/O module and external
devices, involving the exchange of commands, status information,
and data.
 Explanation: The I/O module must send appropriate commands to
the device, receive status updates, and handle data transfers. This
ensures that external devices operate correctly and data is
accurately transferred between them and the computer system.
4. Data Buffering:
 Definition: The temporary storage of data within the I/O module to
match the different speeds of data transfer between the
processor/memory and peripheral devices.
 Explanation: Since peripheral devices often operate at slower
speeds than the processor or memory, data buffering helps to
smooth out the data flow. The I/O module temporarily holds data in
a buffer, allowing it to be transferred at the appropriate rate for
each device, preventing bottlenecks and inefficiencies.
5. Error Detection:
 Definition: The process of identifying and reporting errors that
occur during data transmission or device operation.
 Explanation: The I/O module monitors for errors such as
mechanical failures or data transmission errors. Techniques like
parity checks are used to detect errors, ensuring data integrity and
reliable operation. When an error is detected, the module reports it
to the processor for appropriate action.
I/O Module Structure

 Definition: The organization and components of an I/O module, which

facilitate communication and control between the processor and external
devices.
 Explanation:

1. Connection to Computer:
 Signal Lines: The I/O module interfaces with the rest of the
computer through a set of signal lines, typically system bus lines.
These lines carry data, control signals, and status information
between the module and the processor.
2. Data and Status Registers:
 Data Registers: These registers buffer data being transferred to
and from the I/O module, ensuring smooth and efficient data flow.
 Status Registers: These provide the current status of the module
and the devices it controls. They may also act as control registers to
receive commands from the processor.
3. Control Lines:
 Processor Commands: The processor uses control lines to send
commands to the I/O module. The module’s logic interprets these
commands to perform various operations.
 Status Signals: The I/O module can send status signals back to the
processor, indicating conditions such as BUSY or READY.
4. Address Recognition:
 Unique Addresses: Each I/O module, and potentially each device it
controls, has a unique address. The module must recognize these
addresses to direct data and commands correctly.
5. Device Interface Logic:
 Specific Logic: The I/O module includes logic tailored to the
specific requirements of each device it controls, ensuring proper
communication and operation.
6. Functionality Spectrum:
 Simplifying Processor Interaction: The I/O module hides the
complexities of timing, data formats, and electromechanical details
 from the processor. This abstraction allows the processor to use
simple read and write commands without dealing with the intricate
details of each device.
7. Types of I/O Modules:

 I/O Channel/I/O Processor: Provides a high-level interface,

handling most of the detailed processing and presenting simplified
commands to the processor. Used in mainframes for managing
multiple devices efficiently.

 I/O Controller/Device Controller: More primitive, requiring the

processor to handle detailed control tasks. Common in
microcomputers, where the processor directly manages device
operations.

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I want you to read, summarize and give me important points. Also, After
passage I will give you keywords, give the necessary definiton and explain it to
me.

I/O Module Structure

I/O modules vary considerably in complexity and the number of external
devices that they control. We
will attempt only a very general description here. (One specific device, the Intel
8255A, is described in
Section 8.4.) Figure 8.3 provides a general block diagram of an I/O module.
The module connects to
the rest of the computer through a set of signal lines (e.g., system bus lines).
Data transferred to and
from the module are buffered in one or more data registers. There may also be
one or more status
registers that provide current status information. A status register may also
function as a control
register, to accept detailed control information from the processor. The logic
within the module
interacts with the processor via a set of control lines. The processor uses the
control lines to issue
commands to the I/O module. Some of the control lines may be used by the I/O
module (e.g., for
arbitration and status signals). The module must also be able to recognize and
generate addresses
associated with the devices it controls. Each I/O module has a unique address
or, if it controls more
than one external device, a unique set of addresses. Finally, the I/O module
contains logic specific to
the interface with each device that it controls. An I/O module functions to allow
the processor to view a wide range of devices in a simple- minded
way. There is a spectrum of capabilities that may be provided. The I/O module
may hide the details of
timing, formats, and the electromechanics of an external device so that the
processor can function in
terms of simple read and write commands, and possibly open and close file
commands. In its simplest
form, the I/O module may still leave much of the work of controlling a device
(e.g., rewinding a tape)
visible to the processor.
An I/O module that takes on most of the detailed processing burden, presenting
a high- level interface
to the processor, is usually referred to as an I/O channel or I/O processor. An
I/O module that is
quite primitive and requires detailed control is usually referred to as an I/O
controller or device
controller. I/O controllers are commonly seen on microcomputers, whereas I/O
channels are used on
mainframes.
In what follows, we will use the generic term I/O module when no confusion
results and will use more
specific terms where necessary.

Keywords : I/O module structure