Electronic Devices and Circuits

EEL-224
LAB JOURNAL

Name: __________________________________________

Enrollment No: __________________________________

Section: _________________________________________

Department of Electrical Engineering

Bahria School of Engineering and Applied Sciences
H-11 Campus, Islamabad

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Exp Obtained
Experiment Name Date Sign
# Marks

Total Marks: _______________ Signature: _________________

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 Experiment No. 1
Understanding of Measuring Instruments

Objectives
1. To study about Electrical variables and electrical symbols.
2. To study about Digital Multi-meter.
3. To study about Digital Oscilloscope.
4. To study about function generators.
5. To study about Power Supplies.

Introduction
The students get an introduction of the basics of electronics equipment. They will be taught
how to connect and take readings from digital millimeters, digital oscilloscope, function
generators and power supplies.

Preparation Electrical Symbols

Figure 1.1 Electrical Components

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 Figure 1.2 Electrical Variables

Digital Multi-meter
Multi-meter is the measuring instrument use to measure voltage, current and resistance of
the electronics and electrical circuit. Multi-meter is an integration of Ammeter, Voltmeter
and Ohmmeter. Some of the modern digital Multi-meter also contains Frequency meter.

Ammeter is used to measure the current. Since current flows through the component, the
ammeter must go in series with the component. This makes sure the same current flows
through the meter. Current is measured in Amperes (A).

Voltmeter is used to measure the voltage and potential difference across the component.
Therefore the voltmeter must go in parallel. If the internal resistance of voltmeter is quite
small then the loading effect causes the problem. The unit for measuring the voltage is volt.
Small signals such as bio-signals are generally measure in millivolts (mV).

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 Figure 1.4 Oscilloscope
Figure 1.3 Digital Multi-meter

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

We use CRO to visualize at the voltages that changes with the time such as AC voltages and
signal waveforms from amplifiers. The voltage on the X-plate makes the electron beam
sweep across the screen. This sets the time base. The two properties we need t o know about
the sine wave is its amplitude and frequency.

Figure 1.5 Oscilloscope

Figure 1.6 CRO Display

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 TASK # 1

Resetting the Oscilloscope and Measuring the DC Voltages

Equipment

1. Digital Oscilloscope.

2. Power Supplies.

Prediction
1. The oscilloscope graphs voltage vs. time, by sweeping an electron beam across the phosphor screen.
2. Wherever the beam hits the screen, it glows green.
3. For most measurements, the beam sweeps rightward at a constant rate.
4. When the beam gets to the right-hand side of the screen, it jumps back to the
left-hand side. In this way, the horizontal axis shows time.
5. The output voltage should on channel 1 should show zero value.

Procedure

1. Turn on the oscilloscope, and disconnect any probes plugged into the “channel
1” (CH 1) input connector.
2. Set all the levers and buttons as indicated, if they’re not already.
3. Set the CH 1 coupling mode switch to “ground” (GND).
4. Turn down the INTENSITY knob, if necessary, to avoid burning out the screen.
5. The sweeping dot should be clear but not too bright.
6. Since channel 1 is now “grounded” to zero volts, the oscilloscope should read zero on
the vertical axis (using the coordinate axes centered on the screen). Adjust the channel
1 vertical POSITION knob so that the oscilloscope reads 0 volts.
7. You have now reset the Oscilloscope.
8. Use the power supply to generate DC voltages in a range of 2 V to 15 V.
9. Measure the generated Voltages on the oscilloscope.
10. Fill the following table.
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Measurement
Table 1.1

Voltage
Volt/Div No of Div Volts

Analysis
Oscilloscope has to be reset and checked before using and all the functions have to be
tested for proper experimental results.

Conclusion
The oscilloscope was reset and checked before using DC voltages were measured.

Task #2

Measuring and Calculating the amplitude of AC voltages

Equipment

1. Digital Oscilloscope

2. Power supply unit

3. Function generator

Prediction
1. The oscilloscope graphs voltage vs. time, by sweeping an electron beam across the phosphor
screen.
2. Wherever the beam hits the screen, it glows green.
3. For most measurements, the beam sweeps rightward at a constant rate.
4. When the beam gets to the right-hand side of the screen, it jumps back to the left-hand side.
In this way, the horizontal axis shows time.
5. When a probe is plugged into the CH 1 input connector, the vertical axis shows the potential
difference—i.e., the voltage—between the two wires coming out of that probe.
6. The value for peak to peak volts and frequency shown on the digital Oscilloscope should be
very close to the one calculated by the formula.
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 Procedure
1. The point of this brief activity is to practice measuring an AC voltage with the oscilloscope,
and to get a feel for what the VOLTS/DIV control does.
2. Use the function Generator to generate a sin wave of 2 kHz and vary the amplitude
from 2V to 8V, with a difference of 2V each time.
3. Use the Digital Oscilloscope’s reading to read the peak to peak voltage and compare
it with the one calculated by the VOLT/DIV* DIV formula.
4. Fill the following table and Draw your conclusions.

Measurements
Table 1.2

Time(ms)
Voltage(V)

Volt P2P Volt P2P

Volt/Div No of Div %error Time(ms) Freq(KHz)
(Calculated) (Observed)

Analysis
The student should be able to measure the AC voltage using one of the channels of the
oscilloscope.

Conclusion
1. The oscilloscope has to be properly calibrated before readings can be taken from
it. The student should be able to measure the AC voltage generated from a
function generator.

2. The difference between the calculated and observed values is human error.

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 TASK # 3

Measuring and Calculating the frequency of AC voltages.

Equipment
1. Digital Oscilloscope

2. Function generator

Prediction

1. The oscilloscope graphs voltage vs. time, by sweeping an electron beam across the phosphor
screen.
2. Wherever the beam hits the screen, it glows green.
3. For most measurements, the beam sweeps rightward at a constant rate.
4. When the beam gets to the right-hand side of the screen, it jumps back to the left-hand side. In
this way, the horizontal axis shows time.
5. When a probe is plugged into the CH 1 input connector, the vertical axis shows the potential
difference—i.e., the voltage—between the two wires coming out of that probe.
6. The value for peak to peak volts and frequency shown on the digital Oscilloscope should be
very close to the one calculated by the formula.

Procedure
1. The point of this brief activity is to practice measuring an AC and you’ll figure out what
the SEC/DIV knob does.
2. The “AC” means “Alternating Current”—that is, the voltage put out by the power supply
oscillates with a frequency that you set.
3. Set SEC/DIV to 0.5 milliseconds.
4. Set the CH 1 VOLTS/DIV to 5.
5. Turn on the AC signal generator. Set it to sinusoidal wave, 1000 Hz (i.e., 1.0 kHz). (Note:
make sure the sweep width knob is all the way to the left, so it clicks.)
6. Connect the AC signal generator to the oscilloscope, use the oscilloscope to measure the
voltage produced by this AC signal generator.
7. To get a more precise measurement of the period of the oscillating voltage, should you turn
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 8. the SEC/DIV knob clockwise or counter clockwise?
5. Now use the function Generator to generate a sin wave of 2V. And vary the Frequency from
1 kHz to 10KHz, with a difference of 2KHz each time.
6. Use the Digital Oscilloscope’s reading to read the time per cycle and compare it with the
one calculated by the TIME/DIV* DIV formula.
7. Fill the following table and Draw your conclusions.

Measurements
Table 1.3

Frequency
Frequency Voltage(V) Time( ms) Calculated
from (Hz) % error
Function f=1/T
Generator (F) (F-f)/F*100
Volt No of Div Volt Time/Div No. of Time
/Div P2P Div period
T
1kHz
3KHz
5KHz
7KHz

Analysis
The students should measure peak to peak voltage and time taken to complete one cycle i.e. the
Time Period. The oscilloscope should be properly calibrated.

Conclusion

The experiment helps the student in understanding the concept of measuring voltages, frequencies
and analyzing the wave forms. The difference between the calculated and observed values is
human error.

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Task # 4

Measuring DC Voltages, Current and Resistance Using

DMM Equipment
1. Digital Multi-meter
2. Power supply unit
3. Resistances and Breadboard

Procedure
1. Now you’ll revise the usage of DMM,
2. Connect the DC power supply in series with a resistor and make the
following circuit on breadboard.

Figure 1.7 Circuit Diagram

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3. For selection of resistance, measure at least three different resistances through
a DMM, and the compare values with the color-coding scheme.
4. Calculate the value of current using Ohm’s Law, i.e. V=IR. With the help of this
formula, and calculate the current and using the DMM; we can break the circuit
and calculate the value of current manually.
5. For Voltage, we use the same formula and for measuring voltage, we
connect the DMM across the resister.

Figure 1.8 Colour Coding

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Measurements
Table 1.4

Resistance Voltage(V) Current(mA)

Calculated Measured Calculated Measured
1 kΩ
10 kΩ
100 kΩ

Analysis
Observe how increasing the value of resistance at a given voltage increases/ decreases
current in the circuit.

Conclusion

The experiment helps the student in understanding the Ohm’s Law and revision of basic concepts.

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Lab Tasks
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 Experiment No. 2

Testing Semiconductor Diodes / Semiconductor Diode

Characteristics

Part 1: Testing Semiconductor Diode

Objectives
1. To determine a practical method of testing semiconductor diodes.

2. To determine if the diodes in your parts pack are shorted or open.

Introduction
Semiconductor diodes can be tested by a variety of methods. Oscilloscope curve tracers and
specially constructed transistor testers can be used to determine the characteristics and the
condition of a diode. However, in most cases diodes are tested primarily to see if they are
simply shorted or open rather than to determine their detailed specifications

Preparation
A quick and easy diode test can be made with most ohmmeters. This experiment describes
the procedure and theory used when testing diodes with an ohmmeter.

TASK # 1

PROBLEM # 1

Determine Voltage Drop, Forward and Reverse resistance across Diodes

Equipment
1. Ohmmeter

2. 1-Germanium diode

3. 1-Silicon diode

4. 1-Zener diode

5. 2-LEDS 15
Prediction
The voltage across zener diode and silicon diode should be the same in forward bias
condition. Whereas it should be different in the case of germanium diode. The forward
resistance of the diode will be smaller and will depend upon the doping level of the diode.

Procedure
1. Consider the 2 legs of the diode as leg 1 and leg 2

2. Place the knob of the multi-meter on diode option and fill the table.
3. When red lead is attached to the anode and black to the cathode a voltage drop of 0.7
will be observed. And infinite in the other case. If the above is coming than the diode is
not short nor open.
4. Now note the following:

Measurements
Table 2.1

Silicon Diode Voltage drop R Rf

r

Germanium Voltage drop R Rf

Diode r

Zener Diode Voltage drop Rr Rf

LED Voltage drop Rr Rf

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 Analysis
The diode consists of two parts:

1. The N material is called the cathode.

2. The P material is called the anode.

3. Bias determines whether a diode conducts or is cut off.

4. Forward bias allows a diode to conduct. With forward bias, current increases as the voltage
increases.
5. With reverse bias, reverse current is minimal until avalanche conduction is reached.
6. Reverse bias blocks conduction, or cuts off a diode.

Conclusion
The Silicon and Germanium diodes will conduct in forward bias conditions whereas the
zener diode will also conduct in reverse bias condition. The forward bias resistance of silicon
and Germanium will be measured and the compared. The reverse resistance of the diode will be
larger and will depend upon the doping level of the diode.

Part 2: Semiconductor Diode Characteristics

Objectives
1. To experimentally plot the forward characteristic curve of a semiconductor diode

2. To experimentally plot the reverse characteristic curve of a semiconductor diode

3. Calculate its internal resistance.

Introduction

Diode characteristics
The diode consists of two elements, the anode and the cathode. The anode corresponds
to the P material and the cathode to the N material. The graph below depicts current flow
through a diode with different values of forward and reverse bias.

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 Figure 2.1 Forward and Reverse Currents of a Semiconductor Diode

Preparation
The forward and reverse biased states of a diode can be compared to a variable resistor. A
forward biased diode will drop only .3 or .7V. That corresponds to an internal resistance
in the anode that drops from several Kilo-ohms at the point where conduction begins to
several ohms where a diode is conducting heavily. In the reverse bias state, resistance will
be in the Mega-ohms until breakdown voltage is reached. At that point, internal resistance
will drop rapidly.

PROBLEM #2

Experimental Plotting of forward bias characteristic curve of

diode Equipment
1. Semiconductor diode

2. Resistor

3. Power supply

4. Multi-meter

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Prediction
The diode will conduct when the input voltage increases above 0.7 V.

Procedure
1. In this lab, it is required to experimentally observe the behavior of the diode in case of
forward and reverse biasing and plot its characteristic curve.
2. For forward biasing, refer to the circuit shown inFig.1. Increase the power supply V
and observe the voltage drop across the diode, (Vd) and the current flowing through the
diode, Id. Tabulate your results as shown in Table 1. Choose the value of resistance as 1k-
ohm.

Figure 2.2 Circuit Diagram

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Measurements
Table 2.2

Sr. V VD VR ID
(Volts) (Volts)
No. (Volts) (mA)
1 0.1
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
6 0.6
7 0.7
8 0.8
9 0.9
10 1.0
11 2.0
12 3.0
13 4.0
14 5.0
15 10.0

Analysis
Let's examine forward bias first. As the forward bias is gradually increased, current through
the diode will increase. A small forward voltage (forward bias) will generate a very large
forward current Of course, every diode has a maximum value of forward current that can be
passed without damage. Typical low power diode current characteristics are: If - the
maximum forward current (up to 1 amp)

Ifm - maximum peak forward current (up to 5 amps, repetitive)

Conclusion
The forward resistance of the diode is smaller and the diode conducts in forward bias condition.

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 TASK # 2

PROBLEM # 1

Experimental Plotting of Reverse Bias Characteristic Curve of Diode

Equipment
1. Semiconductor diode

2. Resistor

3. Power supply

4. Multimeter

Prediction
The diode will not conduct in reverse bias condition.

Procedure
1. For reverse biasing, refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 2. Repeat the same procedure
and tabulate your results as shown in Table 2.
2. Using the observations recorded in Table 1 and 2, plot VD verses ID and write your comments.

Figure 2.3 Diode Arrangement

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Measurements
Table 2.3

Sr. V VD VR ID
(Volts) (Volts)
No. (µA)
(Volts)
1 0.1
2 0.3
3 0.5
4 0.7
5 0.9
6 1.0
7 2
8 5
9 10
10 15
Analysis
Reverse bias will effect diodes in a different manner. Figure above illustrates the point. As the
reverse bias or voltage is increased, there will be a very small reverse current (anode to
cathode). It will be in the range of 1 milliamp for a germanium (Ge) diode and 1
microampere for silicon (Si) diode. As the reverse voltage is gradually increased, the
reverse current will stay at a constant low level until the junction breakdown voltage V B is
reached. At that point, the junction will cease to exist and the diode will conduct. As you can
see in Figure, the current flow will be massive. Reverse current flow is so heavy that it is called
avalanche conduction. When the diode is operated in the avalanche region, current flow
becomes independent of voltage, and that point is called avalanche breakdown. Due to the
massive electron flow, normal PN junction diodes are destroyed when operated in this
manner.

Conclusion
The diode will not conduct in reverse bias condition.

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PROBLEM #2

Calculation of Internal Resistance of diode

Equipment

1. Semiconductor diode

2. Resistor

3. Power supply

4. Multi-meter

Prediction
An internal resistance in the anode that drops from several Kilo-ohms at the point where
conduction begins to several ohms where a diode is conducting heavily. In the reverse bias
state, resistance will be in the Mega-ohms until breakdown voltage is reached.

Procedure
1. In this lab, it is required to experimentally observe the behavior of the diode in case
of forward and reverse biasing and plot its characteristic curve.
2. For forward biasing, refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 1. Increase the power supply V
and observe the voltage drop across the diode,(V D) and the current flowing
through the diode, ID. Tabulate your results as shown in Table .
3. For reverse biasing, refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 2. Repeat the same
procedure and tabulate your results as shown in Table.
4. Using the observations recorded in Tables, plot VD verses ID and write your comments.
5. You are also required to calculate the internal resistance of the diode and compare it
with the one given in the data sheet.

Measurements
Calculate the internal resistance of the diode, V1 and V2 are voltages above knee Voltage.
V2 being a Value higher than. V1. I1 and I 2 are corresponding currents.

∆𝑉
𝑅=
∆𝐼 23
Analysis
The forward and reverse biased states of a diode can be compared to a variable resistor. A
forward biased diode will drop only .3 or .7V. That corresponds to an internal resistance in
the anode that drops from several Kilo-ohms at the point where conduction begins to several
ohms where a diode is conducting heavily. In the reverse bias state, resistance will be in the
Mega-ohms until breakdown voltage is reached. At that point, internal resistance will drop
rapidly.

Conclusion
Draw the graph and write your comments.

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Lab Tasks
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 Experiment No. 3
Clipper and Clamper Circuits
A) Clipper circuit

Objectives
1. Describe diode limiter operating characteristics.
2. Describe diode biased limiter operating characteristics.

Introduction
A device which clips or removes all or part of an existing waveform, above or below a
specified bias level. A basic diode limiter circuit is composed of a diode and a resistor.
Depending upon the circuit configuration and bias, the circuit may clip or eliminate all or
part of an input waveform. Limiter circuits, which are used for wave shaping and circuit
protection, are very simple circuits.

Preparation
The phenomenon that allows a limiter to work is diode biasing. A forward-biased diode
conducts, acting almost like a short circuit. It will have a very small voltage drop due to the
barrier junction. If the diode is germanium, the drop will be .3 V. If it is a silicon diode, the
drop will be .7 V. A reversed biased diode, being cut off, acts as an open circuit. By
controlling the cut-off and conduction states of a diode, input waveforms can be
customized, or wave shaped. Though this sounds complex, all you do is use biasing to
control a diode. The square wave and the sine wave are the most common signals used in
electronics. As many electronic applications require different wave shapes, circuits have
been developed to alter wave shape. Depending upon how the wave shape is to be altered,
one of five simple diode limiter circuits can be used.

1. Series Positive Limiter

2. Series Negative Limiter

3. Parallel Positive Limiter

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4. Parallel Negative Limiter

Biased Limiters

By the addition of circuit bias, waveforms can be truly customized. Up until now, either
the positive or negative alternation of the input waveform could be eliminated. Controlled
application of bias enables the partial elimination of a signal.

Biased Negative Series Limiter

Figure below illustrates a typical negative limiter circuit with bias applied. The bias is
provided by the –5 volt battery in series with R1. As you remember, a negative limiter
clips the negative alternation of the input signal and passes the positive alternation to the
output.

Figure 3.1 Negative Sereis Limiter

Due to the applied bias on the cathode, the diode remains in the forward biased state until
the signal on the anode drops below–5 volts. That is why the negative alternation of the
signal is clipped, or limited, from –5 volts to – 10 volts.

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 TASK # 1

PROBLEM #1

Series Clippers

Equipment
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function generator

3. Multimeter

4. Semiconductor diodes

5. Resistors

Prediction

The clipper will clip off the voltage below 0.7 V.

Procedure
Connect the circuit shown in figure 1, apply the AC input Vin and observe the output. Draw the
output v/s input in your notebook.

Measurements
Draw the waveform as seen on the oscilloscope.

Analysis

The diode will conduct when the input voltage goes above 0.7 V.

Conclusion

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The clipper will clip off the voltage below 0.7 V.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

PROBLEM #2

Series Clippers with DC Supply

Equipment
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function generator

3. Multimeter

4. Semiconductor diodes

5. Resistors

Prediction

Figure 3.2 Diode Arrangement

For figure2 the diode will conduct for input voltage of DC+0.7.So input voltage less than
DC+0.7will be clipped off. For figure 3 diode will conduct for –DC+0.7. So any input voltage
below –DC+0.7 will be clipped off.

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit shown in figure 2, apply the AC input V in and observe the output.
Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.
2. Connect the circuit shown in figure 3, apply the AC input V in and observe the output.
Draw the output v/s input in your notebook. What is the minimum value of Vin to turn on
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 the diode.

Figure 3.3 Diode Arrangement

Measurements
Draw the waveform as seen on the oscilloscope.

Analysis
For figure 2 the diode will conduct for input voltage of DC+ 0.7, so input voltage less than DC +
0.7 will be clipped off. For figure 3 diode will conduct for –DC+0.7. So any input voltage below
–DC+0.7 will be clipped off.

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 Figure 3.4 Diode Arrangement

For figure 2 the diode will conduct for input voltage of DC+0.7, so input voltage less than DC
+0.7 will be clipped off. For figure 3 diode will conduct for –DC+0.7. So any input voltage
below –DC+0.7 will be clipped off.

Conclusion
The output voltage will be clipped off.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

TASK # 2
PROBLEM #1

Parallel Clippers

Equipment
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function generator

3. Multi-meter

4. Semiconductor diodes

5. Resistors

Prediction

For figure 4 the output voltage will be clipped off at 0.7V.

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit shown in figure 4, apply the AC input V in and observe the output.
Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.
2. Connect the circuit shown in figure 5, apply the AC input Vin and observe the output.
Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.
3. Connect the circuit shown in figure 6, apply the AC input V in and observe the output.
Draw the output v/s input in your notebook. What is the minimum value of Vin to turn on 31
 the diode.

Measurements
Draw the waveform as seen on the oscilloscope.

Analysis
1. Limiter circuits are based on diode action.

2. A positive limiter will eliminate or limit the positive alternation of a waveform.

3. A negative limiter will eliminate or limit the negative alternation of a waveform.

4. In the series limiter, the diode is in series with the output.

5. In the parallel limiter, the diode is in parallel with the output.

6. By adding bias to the diode, the output waveform can be customized. All or part of an
alternation can be eliminated. 7. A limiter can also be called a clipper.

Conclusion
Output voltage will be clipped-Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

Figure 3.5 Diode Arrangements

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 B) Clamper Circuits

Objectives
To experimentally analyze a Diode clamper circuit (positive and negative).

Introduction
Certain applications of electronics require that a signal or waveform be fixed to a specific
voltage level. In such situations, a clamper is used to clamp, or restrain, either the upper or
lower peak value of a waveform to a fixed DC potential. A DC clamper can also be called a DC
Restorer or Baseline Stabilizer. Clamper circuits are found in many advanced applications
such as test equipment, instruments, video, radar, and sonar.

Preparation

A Clamper adds a dc level to an AC voltage. Clampers are sometimes known as Dc restorers.

TASK # 1

PROBLEM #1

Negative Clamper

Equipment
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function generator

3. Multimeter

4. Semiconductor diodes

5. Capacitors

6. Resistors

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Prediction

A negative clamper clamps the positive peak of the input waveform to 0 volts DC, resulting
in the entire waveform being negative.

Procedure

Connect the circuit in figure 1, apply the AC input Vin and observe the output. Draw the
output v/s input in your notebook.

Measurements
Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.

Analysis
1. A clamping circuit clamps or fixes the upper or lower peak of a waveform.

2. Clamping action does not change the amplitude or shape of the input waveform.

3. A positive clamper clamps the negative peak of the input waveform to 0 volts DC.

4. If the arrow representing the diode's anode points down, the circuit is a negative clamper
5. A negative clamper clamps the positive peak of the input waveform to 0 volts DC.

Conclusion
Write down your comments and draw the waveforms.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

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PROBLEM #2
Positive Clamper

Equipment

1. Oscilloscope
2. Function generator
3. Multimeter
4. Semiconductor diodes
5. Capacitors
6. Resistors

Prediction
The purpose of the circuit is to clamp or reference an input signal to ground (0 volts) with
the entire waveform above ground

Procedure

Connect the circuit shown in figure 2, apply the AC input Vin and observe the output. Draw the
output v/s input in your notebook.

Measurements

Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.

Analysis

The purpose of the circuit is to clamp or reference an input signal to ground (0 volts) with the
entire waveform aboveground. If the arrow representing the diode's anode points up, the
circuit is a positive clamper.
Conclusion

Write down your comments and draw the waveforms.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

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Lab Tasks
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 Experiment No. 4

To Analyze the Half-wave Rectifier

Objectives
To study the half-wave rectifier.

Introduction
The rectifier circuit converts the AC voltage furnished by the utilities company into the DC
voltage required to operate electronic equipment. Many common electrical products use voltages
provided by a rectifier. Without the rectifier to convert the AC voltage to the DC voltage required
to operate these electrical units, it would be virtually impossible to have the conveniences that we
enjoy today. A television without a rectifier would require several extremely large batteries.

Preparation
A rectifier system can be divided into five sections, each performing a separate
function.Figure1isa block diagram of a rectifier system. This lesson deals with the input, rectifier,
and filter sections.

Figure 4.1 Voltage Divider Prepration

Input Block
The input block consists of a transformer, normally a power transformer that receives the AC
input signal from some power source. The transformer transfers the electrical energy received to
the rectifier section by electromagnetic induction or mutual inductance. The transformer performs
the transfer of energy without any change in frequency, but it is able to change the voltage and
current from the input source to the voltage and current required by the rectifier section. The phase
relationship of the current in the secondary of the transformer is dependent upon the phase of the
voltage in the primary winding and the direction of the winding in the secondary. If the secondary
windings are wound in the same direction as the primary windings, the phase between the input
37
 signal and the output signal will be the same. If the secondary windings are wound in the opposite
direction of the primary windings, the phase between the input signal and the output signal will be
180 degrees out of phase. The schematic drawings of a transformer indicate the phase relationship
between the primary and secondary with the use of dots. The dots on a schematic diagram indicate
which windings are in phase.

Figure 4.2 Winding Arrangements

Rectifier Block
The rectifier circuit is the most important part in the rectifier system. The rectifier circuit
converts the AC waveform from the input block into a pulsating DC waveform. One of several
different rectifier circuits maybe utilized to perform this function. These circuits are the half-wave
rectifier, the full-wave rectifier, the full-wave bridge rectifier, and the voltage doubler.

TASK # 1

PROBLEM #1

Finding the output voltage using Oscilloscope

Equipment
1. Trainer

2. Oscilloscope

3. Multimeter

4. Silicon diodes

5. Capacitors

6. Resistors
38
Prediction
In Half-wave rectifier the two signals are in phase but the load signal lacks the negative half
wave, and the input one has slightly higher amplitude.

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit on the bred board as shown above.
2. Calibrate your oscilloscope and connect the channel 1 to the input of the circuit and make it 10
volts peak to peak and apply it to the circuit
3. Convert the peak reading of the input to rms using the formula 4. Now connect the oscilloscope to
the output that is across the resistor and observe the waveform.

Measurements
Table 4.1

Input Rms input Out put

voltage(p-p) voltage voltage
(p)
8v(p-p)
10v(p-p)
Analysis
In Half-wave rectifier the two signals are in phase but the load signal lacks the negative half
wave, and the input one has slightly higher amplitude.

Conclusion
Write down your comments about the input and output waveforms.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

39
PROBLEM #2
Calculation for Average Output Value

Equipment
1. Trainer
2. Oscilloscope
3. Multi-meter
4. Silicon diode
5. Resistors
Figure 4.3 Halfwave Rectifier

Prediction

The average voltage of a sine wave is zero volts; however, if the negative portion of a sine
wave is clipped off, the average value changes to some positive value. Since the waveform
swings positive but never goes negative, the average voltage will be positive.
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit on the bread board as shown above.

2. Calibrate your oscilloscope and connect the channel 1 to the input of the circuit and
make it 10 volts peak to peak and apply it to the circuit
3. Convert the peak reading of the input to rms using the formula
4. Now connect the oscilloscope to the output that is across the resistor and observe the waveform. 5.
Now calculate the average voltage using

Vavg= Vp/π
Measurements
Table 4.2

Input Rms input Avg

voltage(p-p) Voltage value(Vp/pi)
8v(p-p)
10v(p-p)

40
Analysis
The average value of a signal is the average of all the instantaneous values during one
alternation. For one positive alternation, the voltage value increases from 0 volts to some
maximum peak value and decreases back to 0 volts; the average value would be some
value between the two limits. The instantaneous value of an alternating voltage or current
is the value of voltage or current at one particular instant. The value may be zero if the
particular instant is the time in the cycle at which the polarity is changing. It may also be
the same as the peak value if the selected instant is the time in the cycle at which the
voltage or current stops increasing and starts decreasing. There are actually an infinite
number of instantaneous values between zero and peak value. The average value of the
rectified voltage is Vp/pi.

Conclusion

Write down your average value which should be a value between zero a Vp.

TASK # 2

PROBLEM #1

Finding the average output voltage using multimeter

Equipment
1. Trainer

2. Oscilloscope

3. Multimeter

4. Silicon diodes

5. Resistors

Prediction

The average value calculated in problem 2 should be same as the voltage measured using
the multimeter.

41
Procedure

1. Connect the circuit on the bred board as shown above.

2. Now connect the multimeter to the output that is across the resistor and observe the value.

Measurements

Table 4.3

Input Rms input Avg Out put

voltage(p-p) voltage Value (Vp/pi) Voltage
(DMM)
8v(p-p)
10v(p-p)

Analysis

If a multimeter is used to measure the pulsating DC voltage, it will indicate the average
voltage. The average voltage of a sine wave is zero volts; however, if the negative portion
of a sine wave is clipped off, the average value changes to some positive value. Since the
waveform swings positive but never goes negative, the average voltage will be positive.
To determine the average value of a pulsating DC signal using a half-wave rectifier,
multiply the peak voltage by 0.318.

Conclusion

Compare the average value calculated in problem 2 to the voltage measured using the
multimeter.

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Lab Tasks
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 Experiment No. 5
To Analyze the Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Objectives

To study the full-wave rectifier.

Introduction

A basic full-wave bridge rectifier is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 5.1 Full Wave Rectifier

A full wave bridge rectifier has one advantage over the conventional full-wave rectifier:
the amplitude of the output signal. The frequency of the positive pulses will be the same
in either rectifier. When the output signal is taken from a bridge rectifier, it is taken across
the entire potential of the transformer; thus, the output signal will be twice the amplitude
of a conventional full-wave rectifier.

44
Preparation
The current flow against the negative cycle of the input AC applied voltage is highlighted
by arrows:

Figure 5.2 Full Wave Rectifier

A negative potential is felt at Point E and a positive potential is felt at Point F. D3 will be
forward-biased and will create a path for current flow. The path for current flow is from
Point F to A to B to Point C. D4 is again forward biased, so the current flow completes
through point E to M.

TASK # 1
PROBLEM #1

Finding the output voltage using oscilloscope

Equipment
1. Power supply

2. Diodes
3. Resistors

4. Multimeter.

5. Oscilloscope with differential probe.

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Prediction

The output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is double the input frequency.

Procedure

1. Connect the circuit on the breadboard as shown above.

2. Calibrate your oscilloscope and connect the channel 1 to the input of the circuit and make it 10
volts peak to peak and apply it to the circuit

3. Convert the peak reading of the input to rms using the formula 4. Now connect the oscilloscope
to the output that is across the resistor and observe the waveform.

Measurements
Table 5.1

Input Rms input Output

voltage(p-p) voltage voltage
(p)
8v(p-p)
10v(p-p)

Conclusion
Write down your comments about the input and output waveforms.

PROBLEM #2

Calculation for Average output value

Equipment

1. Power supply

2. Diodes

3. Resistors

4. Multimeter

5. Oscilloscope with differential probe.

46
Prediction
The average voltage of a sine wave is zero volts; however, if the negative portion of a sine
wave is clipped off, the average value changes to some positive value. Since the waveform
swings positive but never goes negative, the average voltage will be positive.

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit on the bred board as shown above.

2. Calibrate your oscilloscope and connect the channel 1 to the input of the circuit and
make it 10 volts peak to peak and apply it to the circuit
3. Convert the peak reading of the input to rms using the formula

4. Now connect the oscilloscope to the output that is across the resistor and observe the
waveform. 5. Now calculate the average voltage using

Measurements

Table 5.2

Input voltage(p-p) Rms input voltage Avg value(2*Vp/pi)

8v(p-p)
10v(p-p)
Analysis
The average value of a signal is the average of all the instantaneous values during one alternation.
For one positive alternation, the voltage value increases from 0 volts to some maximum peak value
and decreases back to 0 volts; the average value would be some value between the two limits. The
instantaneous value of an alternating voltage or current is the value of voltage or current at one
particular instant. The value may be zero if the particular instant is the time in the cycle at which the
polarity is changing. It may also be the same as the peak value if the selected instant is the time in the
cycle at which the voltage or current stops increasing and starts decreasing. There are actually an
infinite number of instantaneous values between zero and peak value.

Conclusion
Write down your average value which should be a value between zero a Vp. 47
 TASK # 2
PROBLEM #1

Finding the Average Output Voltage using Multimeter

Equipment
1. Power supply

2. Diodes

3. Resistors

4. Multimeter

5. Oscilloscope with differential probe

Prediction
The average value calculated in problem 2 should be same as the voltage measured using the
multimeter.

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit on the bred board as shown above.

2. Now connect the multimeter to the output that is across the resistor and observe the value.

Measurements
Table 5.3

Input Rms input Avg Output

voltage(p-p) voltage value(2*Vp/pi) Voltage
(DMM)
8v(p-p)
10v(p-p)
Analysis
If a multimeter is used to measure the pulsating DC voltage, it will indicate the average voltage.
The average voltage of a sine wave is zero volts; however, if the negative portion of a sine wave is
clipped off, the average value changes to some positive value. Since the wave form swings positive
but never goes negative, the average voltage will be positive.

Conclusion
Compare the average value calculated in problem 2 to the voltage measured using the
multimeter.

48
Lab Tasks
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49
 Experiment No. 6

DC Power Supply in Proteus Software

Objectives
The purpose of this experiment is to design a DC power supply circuit by Proteus Software.
Software required
Proteus

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 6.1 DC Power Supply

 Making new Schematic:

 Run Proteus.
 Click on “New” and set the name of the project. For example; “Power-supply.pdsrj”.
 Now open “Schematic Capture” window by clicking on the blue button named as “ISIS”.
 For designing the given circuit, you need to place the relevant components. To place the
components, click on the “Component Mode” and then click on the “Place (P)” Button on
the left side of the Schematic Capture window.
 New a window will appear after clicking on the Place button. Mark the option that is “Show
only parts with models”. This option will only show the parts which have models in Proteus.
 Now type “vsine” in “Keywords” option to get the AC Source and place it in the Schematic
Capture window.
 To get diodes, type “1N4007” in “Keywords” option and place the diodes in the main
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 window as are placed in the given circuit.

 To place the capacitor, type “1000u” in the “Keywords” option, then choose the
“Capacitors” option in “Category” option and then select “Radial Electrolytic” option from
“Sub-Category” list.
 Select a “25V 1000uF” capacitor from the given options in the “Pick Devices” window.
 Now to place a 5V regulator, type “7805” in “Keywords” option and place it in the main
window just as it is placed in the circuit. Pin 1 of the regulator shows the input voltage, Pin
2 shows the Ground and Pin 3 shows the output voltage of the regulator.
 Connect the placed components by the wires as are connected in the given circuit of 5V
Power Supply.
 Select the “Terminals Mode” option to place the Ground in circuit.
 Now double click on the AC voltage source to set the frequency and voltage of the source.
After double clicking, a window will appear. Set the Frequency to 50 Hz.
 Here we have to enter peak voltage. To calculate the peak voltage, we use the formula
(Vpeak = Vrms* √2). As Vrms is 9V in this case, so Vpeak will be 9*√2=12.72V. Now set
the voltage of AC Source to 12.72V and then click “OK”.
 Go to “Virtual Instruments” and select “DC Voltmeter” to check the voltage at the output
terminal of the 5V regulator.
 Now run the circuit from the “Run” option at the bottom of the window. It will give exactly
5.01V on the DC Voltmeter as shown below:

Figure 6.2 Proteus Design

Task # 1:

PROBLEM # 1.

Design a power supply on Proteus software as mentioned above.

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Lab Tasks

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 Experiment No. 7
Zener Diode Characteristics

Objectives

1. To experimentally observe the characteristics curve of a Zener diode.

2. To analyze the basic Zener based voltage regulator.

Introduction

The Zener diode is a diode which is designed to be used in reverse bias, in the «breakdown»
region. The Zener diode operates as follows:

1. In FORWARD bias it behaves like a normal diode.

2. In REVERSE bias it behaves like a normal diode until the «breakdown» voltage is
reached (normally called the Zener voltage, Vz). At this point, the reverse current
rapidly increases, while the voltage across it remains almost constant.

Preparation

Figure 7.1 Diode Characteristics

53
In a real Zener, the voltage in the Breakdown region is not quite constant, but it increases
slightly, as the current increases. The slope is almost vertical, and has the inverse
dimensions of a resistance, known as the “differential resistance erz”. The Zener diode can
be represented, when biased in this normal region of operation, by a battery Vz (the Zener
voltage) in series with the resistance rz . In this region of operation the Zener resistance rz
is only a few ohms.

TASK # 1

PROBLEM #1

Experimental Plotting of forward bias characteristic curve of diode

Equipment
1. Multimeter

2. DC Power Supply

3. Resistors

4. Zener Diode

Prediction
In FORWARD bias it behaves like a normal diode.

Procedure
1. Construct the circuit shown in figure1.Measure and record the value ofVz and Iz for
each increment of voltage Vs in Table 1.
2. Draw the characteristics curve of Zener diode in forward region.

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55
 Table 7.15

S.No. Vs Vz Iz
1 0.1
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
6 0.6
7 0.7
8 0.8
9 0.9
10 1.0
11 2.0
12 3.0
13 4.0
14 5.0
15 10.0

Analysis
Current will increase as the voltage increases.

Conclusion
Write down your comments on reading obtained from table 1

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts

Figure 7.2 Zener Diode Circuit

56
PROBLEM #2

Experimental Plotting of reverse bias characteristic curve of diode

Equipment
1. Multimeter

2. DC Power Supply

3. Resistors

4. Zener Diode

Prediction
In REVERSE bias it behaves like a normal diode until the “breakdown» voltage is reached
(normally called the Zener voltage, Vz). At this point, the reverse current rapidly increases,
while the voltage across it remains almost constant.

Procedure
1. Construct the circuit shown in figure. Measure and record the value of Vz and Iz for
each increment of voltage Vs in Table 2.

2. Draw the characteristics curve of Zener diode in forward and reverse region and
calculate Rz. You can observe that Vz is not exactly constant. This shall enable you to
calculate the internal resistance Rz of Zener diode.

3. From table 2, estimate the Zener test current I Z-Test which is the current that brings the
Zener diode in breakdown region.

57
Measurements
Table 7.2

S.No. Vs Vz Iz
1 0.5
2 1.0
3 1.5
4 2.0
5 3.0
6 4.0
7 5.0
8 6.0
9 7.0
10 8.0
11 9.0
12 10.0
13 11.0
14 12.0
15 13.0

Analysis

1. A zener diode is a PN junction diode that is normally biased in the reverse (high
resistance)
2. When the reverse voltage applied to a zener diode exceeds the break-down voltage, the
diode develops a constant voltage drop over a wide range of currents.
3. When the reverse voltage applied to a zener diode decreases to a value less than the
breakdown voltage, the diode recovers and offers the normal high resistance
characteristic.
4. The zener diode is normally used as a voltage regulator but can be used to provide a
reference voltage.
5. Zener diodes may be connected in series to produce higher voltages equal to the sum of
the zener voltages.
6. The zener diode junction can be tested with an ohmmeter the same as other diodes, but
the ohmmeter cannot determine the zener voltage.
7. Zener diodes have the same physical appearance as other junction diodes.
Conclusion
Write down your comments on reading obtained from table 1 and 2.
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Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts

Figure 7.3 Zener Diode Circuit

TASK # 2

PROBLEM#1
Design of a loaded Zener regulator

Equipment
1. Multimeter

2. DC Power Supply

3. Resistors

4. Zener Diode

Prediction

The output voltage should remain constant if the zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.

Procedure
1. We now consider the design of a loaded Zener regulator. Refer to the loaded
Zener regulator circuit shown in Fig3. Let a 1k ohm load be driven by Zener
diode. Let us assume that the input supply Vs has a voltage fluctuation from
1.5Vz to 5Vz. The objective of this design is to provide the load with constant
supply Vz even though the input voltage fluctuate from 1.5Vz to 5Vz. in order
to meet this objective, it is necessary that the Zener diode works in the 59
 breakdown region when the input fluctuates between 1.5Vz to 5Vz. To achieve
this objective, we have to ensure that IZ-Test flows through the Zener diode
when V is between 1.5Vz to 5Vz . Let IL be the load current. Therefore the
current flows through Rs when Vs = 1.5 VZ will be:
Is= IZ-Test + IL

Rs = 1.5Vz – Vz

Is
2. The value of Rs will ensure that the Zener will be in breakdown region when
supply is 1.5Vz . It is trivial to note that Zener will be in breakdown if Vs >
1.5Vz . Change the input from 0.5Vz to 5Vz and tabulate your results as shown
in table 3.

Measurements
Table 7.3

S.No. Vs VL (V) Is (mA) IL (mA) Iz (mA)

1 0.5 Vz
2 0.8 Vz
3 0.9 Vz
4 1.0 Vz
5 1.5 Vz
6 2.0 Vz
7 2.5 Vz
8 3.0 Vz

9 3.5 Vz
10 4.0 Vz
11 4.5 Vz

Analysis
The Zener is reverse biased in the breakdown zone by the voltage Vi through the resistance R.
For an ideal Zener, the voltage Vo across the load RL does not vary, and is the same as the Zener
voltage, Vz. The main points of the stabilizer operation are:

1. If the load current IL increases, the current Iz through the Zener drops.

2. If IL drops, Iz increases

3. If the input voltage Vi increases, Iz also increases.

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4. If Vi decreases, Iz also decreases.
Conclusion

Write down your comments on reading obtained from table 1, 2 and 3.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

Figure 7.4 Zener Diode Circuit

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 Experiment No. 8

Transistors Identification and DC Current Gain

Part 1: Transistor Identification

Objectives
1. Identify transistor schematic symbols.
2. Describe transistor operating characteristics.
3. Identify types of transistors.
4. Measure circuit values of voltage, current and resistance in NPN transistor circuits.

Introduction
A solid-state device made from semiconductor material with connections made at three or
more points where the electrical characteristics are different.

Preparation

1. A transistor is a solid state device with three (3) or more elements; it amplifies by
controlling the flow of current that passes through it.
2. The two basic types of transistors are the NPN and PNP. The only difference in
symbology between the two transistors is the direction of the arrow on the emitter.
3. If the arrow points in, it is a PNP transistor; if it points outward, it is an NPN
transistor. NPN transistor operation is basically the action of a relatively small emitter-
base bias voltage controlling a relatively large emitter-to-collector current.

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 TASK # 1
PROBLEM #1

Identification of the transistor (NPN or PNP)

Equipment
1. Transistor
2. Multi meter
3. Transistor
4. Multi meter

Prediction
The type of diode can be determined using multimeter

Procedure
1. The multimeter on the diode option consider the three legs as 1, 2 and 3and fill the table

2. The diodes can be tested using the diode tester available in the digital Multimeter.

3. This test will make possible to classify which transistor is NPN or PNP.

4. In case off or ward biased diode drop will be 0.7V and in case of reverse biased diode
drop will be 3V

Measurements
Table 8.1

Red lead Black lead Voltage drop

1 2
1 3
2 1
2 3
3 1
3 2

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Analysis

PNP transistor operation is essentially the same as NPN operation, except the bias polarity is
reversed.

Conclusion

The type of diode can be determined using multimeter Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If
Applicable)

Figure 8.1 NPN Transistor

65
 Figure 8.2 PNP Transistor

PROBLEM #2
Leg Identification

Equipment
1. Transistor
2. Multi meter

Prediction
We can determine the collector, base and emitter using multimeter.

Procedure
Oncethebaseterminalisidentifiedusingtheaboveprocedurethansetyourmultimeteronresistanc
e measuring option and note the following:

Base to leg 1
resistance Base
to leg 2
resistance

The leg which gives the higher resistance with the base is emitter the other is collector
The leg which gives the higher resistance with the base is emitter the other is collector.

Figure 8.3 Leg Identification

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Measurements

Draw the transistor leg configuration in your notebook.

Analysis

We can determine the collector, base and emitter using multimeter

Conclusion

We can determine the collector, base and emitter using multimeter

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 Part 2: DC Current Gain

Objectives
1. To determine the Base current of an NPN transistor.

2. To determine the collector current gain of an NPN transistor.

3. To determine the DC current gain of an NPN transistor.

Introduction
A bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device. The terminals of the device
are labeled the emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C). Each terminal connects to one of three
semiconductor regions of the BJT. The three regions could be an n type emitter, a p type base,
and an n type collector, in which case the transistor is a NPN transistor. A PNP transistor has
an n type base sandwiched between a p type emitter and a p type collector. BJTs have three
possible modes of operation: cutoff, active, and saturation. The biases on the emitter-base
junction (EBJ) and the collector-base junction (CBJ) determine the mode of operation. The
DC Current Gain is determined by measuring the current in the collector circuit and dividing
it by the current in the base circuit. The highest result obtained from a number of
determinations is selected and used as the value for the transistor. It is the value supplied in
the specification sheets. This value is quite often completely different from what you get
when using the transistor in practice as it is generated under ideal conditions. It is determined
under very low current conditions. When a higher current is required to be controlled by the
transistor, the gain drops considerably.

Preparation

1. The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure
of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the
base region cause many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base
than holes to be injected from the base into the emitter. The common- emitter current
gain is represented byβ F or hfe. It is approximately the ratio of the DC collector current
to the DC base current in forward-active region, and is typically greater than 100.
Another important parameter is the common-base current gain, αF. The common base
69
 current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the
forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and
0.998. Alpha and beta are more precisely related by the following identities (NPN
transistor).

2. Alpha and beta are the ratios of current in a transistor. They are a measure of the
transistor's efficiency. Alpha is a ratio of the collector current to the emitter current. As all
of the transistor's current flows through the emitter and then divides between the base
current (IB) and the collector current(IC), alpha is a measure of the overall efficiency.
Ideally, 100% of the electrons leaving the emitter would arrive at the collector; however,
due to base current, the actual figure is more likely to be only 95 - 99%.

3. Beta is the collector current compared to the base current. As less than 5% of the
collector current is lost to the base current, beta is always a whole number. Typical
values are in the range of 50 and up. The formula is:

70
 TASK # 1
PROBLEM #1
Determine Base current

Equipment
NPN Transistor
1. Resistors(1kohms, 600 -900kohms)

2. Supply 15V

3. Trainer

4. Multi meter

Prediction
The base current can be measured using the transistor. The calculated and measured current
should be equal.

Procedure

1. Prepare the above circuit on the bred board.

2. Use base resistance of 600 k ohms and note the base current, collector to emitter voltage.

3. Write down these values under measured columns.

4. Use collector to emitter voltage to determine the calculated values. 5. Change the base
resistance and repeat the above steps.

Analysis

IB = (VCC -VBE)/RB
Base current be verified using the equations given above.

71
Measurements

Table 8.1

Base Base Current

Resistance
Calculated Measured
600 Kohms
700 Kohms
800 Kohms
900 Kohms
1 M.ohm
Conclusion
The measured and calculated values should match each other.

Circuit Diagram

Figure 8.4 Transistor Circuit Arrangement

IB = (VCC -VBE)/RB
Base current be verified using the equations given above.
Measurements

Table 8.2

Base Base Current

Resistance
Calculated Measured
600 Kohms
700 Kohms
800 Kohms
900 Kohms
1 M.ohm
72
Conclusion
The measured and calculated values should match each other.
Circuit Diagram

Figure 8.5 Transistor Circuit Arrangement

PROBLEM #2
Determine collector current

Equipment

1. NPN Transistor
2. Resistors
3. Supply 15V
4. Trainer
5. Multi meter

Prediction
The calculated and measured current should be equal.
Procedure
1. Draw the above circuit on the bred board.

2. Use base resistance of 600 k ohms and note the collector current, collector to emitter voltage.

3. Write down these values under measured columns.

4. Use collector to emitter voltage to determine the calculated values.

5. Change the base resistance and repeat the above steps.

73
Measurements

Table 8.3

Base Collector Current

Resistance
Calculated Measured
600 Kohms
700 Kohms
800 Kohms
900 Kohms
1 M.ohm
Analysis

IC = (VCC -VCE)/RC
Conclusion

The measured and calculated values should match each other.

TASK 2
PROBLEM #1

Determining Current Gain

Equipment
1. NPN Transistor

2. Resistors (1kohms, 600 -900kohms)

3. Supply 15V

4. Trainer
5. Multi meter

74
Prediction

The Gain can be measured using the transistor. The calculated and measured Gain should be the
equal.

Procedure
1. Use the values of base current, obtained due to varying base resistances .

2. Use the values of collector current, obtained due to varying base resistances .

3. Write down these values under measured columns.

4. Using formula, find the dc current gain.

Measurements

Table 6

Base Current Gain

Resistance
IC IB β
600 Kohms
700 Kohms
800 Kohms
900 Kohms
1 M.ohm

Conclusion

The average value of measured and calculated current gain is approximately equal to the
current gain measured through multimeter.

75
Lab Tasks
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76
 Experiment No. 9

BJT as a Switch
Objectives

To the theoretically and experimentally analyze the use of BJT as a switch.

Introduction
A transistor's collector current is proportionally limited by its base current, thus it can be
used as a sort of current- controlled switch. A relatively small flow of electrons sent through
the base of the transistor has the ability to exert control over a much larger flow of electrons
through the collector.

Preparation
The circuit parameters are defined as follows:

1. IB Base current

2. IC Collector current

3. VCEVoltage at collector w.r.t. emitter

4. VBE Voltage at base w.r.t. emitter

5. RC Collector resistance

6. RB Base resistance

7. VCC Collector supply

8. VBB Base supply

77
 TASK # 1

PROBLEM #1
Estimation of Forward Voltage Drop

Equipment
1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Resistors

4. LED

5. DC power supplies

Procedure
1. Estimate the DC current gain, βdc of the BJT using the steps outlined in Lab. 11.

2. By forward biasing the LED, estimate the forward voltage drop, VFLED of the LED.
Usually this value is between 1.5V to3V.

Measurements
Write down the forward voltage drop in your notebooks.

Analysis
Con necting several LED sin parallel with just one resistor shared between them is
generally not a good idea. If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest
voltage LED will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it.
Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one resistor this
rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the same
as connecting the LEDs individually. If LEDs are in parallel each one should have its own
resistor.

Conclusion

Usually, VF value is between 1.5V to 3V

78
Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

Figure 9.1 Forward Voltage Drop LED

PROBLEM #2

Evaluation of Operating Characteristics of BJT as a Switch

Equipment
1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Resistors

4. LED

5. DC power supplies.

Prediction

The calculated values and the measured values should be approximately same.

79
Procedure
1. Estimate the DC current gain, βdc of the BJT using the steps outlined in Lab. 11.

2. By forward biasing the LED, estimate the forward voltage drop, VFLED of the
LED. Usually this value is between 1.5V to 3V.
3. Suppose our design requirement is to operate the BJT as a switch such that a current

of 10mA flows through the LED when the switch is ON, i.e .IC(SAT) =10mA
when the BJT is in saturation. Using (1), we can calculate the value of RC that
will enable a current of 10mAtoflowthrough the LED when the BJT is in saturation,
i.e. when VCE = 0V.

ICRC - VCC +VFLED +VCE =0 (1)

4. The required base current to get 10mA saturation current can be estimated using (2).

IC(SAT) (2)
I =

B(SAT) βdc

5. The required base current to get 10mA saturation current can be estimated using (2).

6. Practically it is better to keep the base current a bit high. This is called
‘hardsaturation’.Letthe hard saturation current be represented by IB(SAT-
HARD). For example IB(SAT-HARD) can be 1.5 times IB(SAT). This ensures that
the base current is high enough to keep the transistor in saturation. The required
value of RB to pump IB (SAT-HARD) into the base of the transistor can be
calculated using (3).

RB IB(SAT-HARD) = VB B -VBE (3)

7. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 with the calculated values of RC and
RB. Experimentally evaluate the circuit using the calculated values and
observed values and compare your results. Use two different values of Rc. 80
Measurements

Table 9.1

Parameters RC RC
Calculated Measured Calculated Measured
RB
VRB
VRC
VFLED
IC

Analysis
Write down the calculated values and the measured values on your notebook and compare
them.

Conclusion
The calculated values and the measured values should be approximately same.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

81
 Figure 9.2 BJT Circuit Arrangement

TASK # 2

PROBLEM #1

Locate operating point (Q)

Equipment
1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Resistors

4. LED

5. DC power Supplies

Prediction
The operating point of a BJT can be found graphically using the concept of a load line. A
load line is the relationship between Ic and VCE that is imposed on BJT by the external
circuit. For a given value of IB, the Ic and VCE characteristics curve of a BJT is the
relationship between Ic and VCE as is set by BJT internals.
82
Procedure

Draw the load line of the circuit and locate the Q-point (VCE , IC) on the load line.

Measurements

Draw the graph to locate the Q point on your notebooks

Analysis

The intersection of the load line with the BJT characteristics represents a pair of IC and
VCE values which satisfy both conditions and, therefore, is the operating point of the BJT
(often called the Q point for Quiescent point)

Conclusion

The location of the operating point can be found.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

Figure 9.3 Q-Point Graph

83
Lab Tasks
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84
 Experiment No. 10
Common Emitter I-V Characteristics of a Bipolar
Junction Transistor

Objectives
In this lab, transistor current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of Common Emitter (CE) circuit
will be investigated. The characteristics will be derived by I-V measurements

Introduction
In electronics, a common-emitter amplifier is one of three basic single-stage bipolar-junction
transistor (BJT) amplifier topologies, typically used as a voltage amplifier. In this circuit the
base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the collector is the output, and the emitter
is common to both (for example, it may be tied to ground reference or a power supply rail),
hence its name.

Preparation
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) can be modeled as a current controlled current source.
The circuit symbol and the pin out for the actual device. A transistor circuit is said to be in
common-emitter configuration if the emitter is the terminal common to both the input and the
output. In the analysis of transistor circuits, the input current and output voltage are usually
considered the independent variables. Thus, for the common-emitter configuration, the
independent variables are the input current IB and the output voltage VCE, while the
dependent variables are the input voltage VBE and the output current Ic.

Figure 10.1 Pin Identification

85
 TASK # 1

PROBLEM #1

Measurement of Collector Current when base current is 10µA

Equipment

1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Resistors

Prediction
Common emitter configuration acts as a voltage amplifier. So output voltage should be amplified.

Procedure
1. Make a circuit as shown is figure 2 on your bred board.
2. You need to set a base current of 10 micro ampere which means the voltage across
the base resistor 100KΩ will be (10 x 1100) 0.1V.
3. Place your multimeter across the 100 Ω resistors and rotate the 100Ω
potentiometer to make the voltage 0.1V.
4. Once base current has been set you don’t need to disturb the potentiometer.
5. Now adjust the collector to emitter voltage as given in the table by adjusting the
1Ω potentiometer and note the collector current.
6. Fill the table

Measurements
Table 10.1

Base current

Voltage(collector 1V 2V 3V 4V 5V
to emitter)
Collector current

86
Analysis
The family of input characteristic curves may therefore be described by the function f1
wherein Vbe = f1 (Vce, Ib), while the family of output curves may be described by the
function f2, wherein Ic = f2(VCE, IB).The output curves corresponding to f2 are drawn with
the collector-to-emitter voltage VCE as the abscissa, and the collector current Ic as the
ordinate. Different output curves are generated for different values of base current Ib, which
are all drawn on the same plot

Conclusion
The input voltage will be amplified at the output.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

Figure 10.2 Collector Current Measurement

87
 PROBLEM #2

Measurement of Collector Current when base current is 20µA

Equipment
1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Resistors

Prediction
Common emitter configuration acts as a voltage amplifier. So output voltage should be amplified.

Procedure

 Make a circuit as above on your bred board.

 You need to set a base current of 20 microamperes which means the voltage across the
base resistor 100kohms will be (20micro x 100k) 0.2V.
 Place your multimeter across the 100kohm resistor and rotate the 100 k ohm
potentiometer to make the voltage 0.2V.
 Once base current has been set you don’t need to disturb the potentiometer.
 Now adjust the collector to emitter voltage as given in the table by adjusting the 1kohm
potentiometer and note the collector current
 Fill the table

Measurements
Table 10.2

Base current

Voltage(collector 1V 2V 3V 4V 5V
to emitter)
Collector current

88
Analysis
The family of input characteristic curves may therefore be described by the function f1
wherein Vbe = f1 (VCE, Ib), while the family of output curves may be described by the
function f2, wherein Ic = f2 (VCE, Ib).The output curves corresponding to f2 are drawn with
the collector-to-emitter voltage VCE as the abscissa, and the collector current Ic as the
ordinate. Different output curves are generated for different values of base current IB, which
are all drawn on the same plot.

Conclusion
The input voltage will be amplified at the output.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

Figure 10.3 Collector Current Measurement

89
 TASK # 2

PROBLEM #1
Measurement of Collector Current when base current is 30µA

Equipment:
1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Resistors

Prediction
Common emitter configuration acts as a voltage amplifier. So output voltage should be amplified.

Procedure
 Make a circuit as above on your bred board.
 You need to set a base current of 30 micro amperes which means the voltage across the
base resistor 100kohms will be (30micro x 100k) 0.3V.
 Place your multimeter across the 100kohm resistor and rotate the 100 k ohm
potentiometer to make the voltage 0.3V.
 Once base current has been set you don’t need to disturb the potentiometer.
 Now adjust the collector to emitter voltage as given in the table by adjusting the 1kohm
potentiometer and note the collector current.
 Fill the table

90
 Figure 10.4 Collector Current Measurement

Measurements
Table 10.3

Base current

Voltage(collector 1V 2V 3V 4V 5V
to emitter)
Collector current

Analysis
The family of input characteristic curves may therefore be described by the function f1 where
in Vbe = f1 (VCE, Ib). While the family of output curves may be described by the function f2,
wherein Ic = f2 (VCE, Ib). The output curves corresponding to f2 are drawn with the collector-
to-emitter voltage VCE as the abscissa, and the collector current Ic as the ordinate. Different
output curves are generated for different values of base current IB, which are all drawn on the
same plot. 71

Conclusion
The input voltage will be amplified at the output.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

91
Lab Tasks
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92
 Experiment No. 11
Design and Analysis of a Common Emitter Amplifier

Objectives
To design and experimentally analyze a common-emitter amplifier

Introduction
In electronics, a common-emitter amplifier is one of three basic single-stage bipolar-
junction transistor (BJT) amplifier topologies, typically used as a voltage amplifier. In this
circuit the base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the collector is the output, and the
emitter is common to both (for example, it may be tied to ground reference or a power supply
rail), hence its name.

Preparation

The circuit parameters are defined as follows:

1. IE DC emitter current.

2. VCE Voltage at collector w.r.t. emitter. (DC)

3. VBE Voltageatbasew.r.t. emitter. (DC)

4. VB Voltage at base w.r.t. ground. (DC)

5. VE Voltage at emitter w.r.t. ground. (DC)

6. RC , RL , RE Collector resistance, load resistance, emitter resistance.

7. βac, βdc AC, DC current gain of the transistor.

8. R1 and R2 Resistances of voltage divider network.

9. VCC Power supply.

10. AV Voltage gain of the amplifier.

11. 11. r’e AC emitter resistance.

93
 TASK #1

PROBLEM #1
Design Specifications for the Amplifier

Equipment
1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Capacitors

4. Resistors

5. DC power supply

6. Sine wave generator.

Prediction

The parameters such as input impedance and output impedance will help in sign of the circuit.

Procedure
1. The input impedance of the amplifier should be roughly 5KΩ.

2. The output impedance of the amplifier should not exceed 1KΩ.

3. The voltage gain of the amplifier should be around 100.

Measurements

Write down the design equations on your notebooks

Analysis

Once we have selected the design parameters than we can implement the circuit.
Conclusion

Selecting reasonable design parameters helps in designing a good voltage amplifier. 94

 PROBLEM #2

Design Equations

Equipment:

1. Multimeter
2. Transistor
3. Capacitors

4. ResistorsDC power supply

5. Sine wave generator.
Prediction
Calculate Ic, re, Av, VE, VB.

Procedure
Using the following simple rules and equations, design the amplifier to meet the above
requirements.
 R1 and R2 should be chosen such that the requirement of Z in (AMP) is met, where Z
in(AMP) is the input impedance of the amplifier,

 Calculate RE such that RIN (base) >10R2, where RIN (base) is the input impedance of
the base for DC signal.
 Calculate the value of RC to meet the requirement of the amplifier’s output impedance.
Equation (3) will give the saturation current of the transistor. The minimum saturation
current should be 10mA. In case the requirement of saturation current is not met, change
the appropriate circuit parameters.

 Using (4), calculate r’e required for the given voltage gain.
 Using (5), calculate the required emitter current.
 Calculate the values of R1 and (or) R2 using the following equations.\

95
Measurements
Calculate all the values mentioned in the procedure section.

Analysis
The proper design parameters give reasonable voltage gain.

Conclusion:
If values are according to specified conditions the transistor will amplify the voltage.

96
 TASK # 2

PROBLEM #1
Operating Characteristics

Equipment

1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Capacitors

4. Resistors

5. DC power supply

6. Sine wave generator.

Prediction
Increase the input voltage and measure the voltage gain. You will observe reduction in the gain.
You will also notice reduction in gain if the frequency of the input signal is decreased.

Procedure
1. Draw the DC load line of the circuit and locate the Q-point (VCE , IC) on the load line.
Observe the value of IE and compare it with the value calculated using (5). Also
measure VCE and verify its observed value using (9).

2. Draw the re - model of the amplifier.

3. Using theory, estimate the range of input signal frequency for the given coupling and
by-pass capacitors.

4. Apply a sinusoidal input signal having amplitude of 1mV and frequency of 8-10KHz.
Measure Vo and calculate the voltage gain. Compare it with the calculated value
obtained from (4). Also observe the phase shift between the input and output signals.

5. Increase the input voltage and measure the voltage gain. You will observe reduction
in the gain. You will also notice reduction in gain if the frequency of the input signal is
decreased. Using theory, try to explain why this happens. 97
Measurements

Calculate the voltage gain.

Analysis

The gain decreases as the input voltage increases and the frequency of the input signal is decreased.

Conclusion
Using theory, try to explain why this happens to gain

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

Figure 11.1 Operating Characteristics

98
Lab Tasks
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99
 Experiment No. 12
Design and Analysis of a Common Base Amplifier

Objectives
To experimentally analyse a common base amplifier .

Introduction
In electronics, a common-base (also known as grounded-base) amplifier is one of three

basic single stage bipolar junction transistor (BJT) amplifier topologies, typically used as a

current buffer or voltage amplifier. In this circuit the emitter terminal of the transistor serves

as the input, the collector the output, and the base is common to both, hence its name.

Preparation
The common base amplifier is also known as the grounded base amplifier. This amplifier can

produce a voltage gain but generates no current gain between the input and the output

signals. It is normally characterized by very small input impedance and an output impedance

like the common emitter amplifier. Because the input and output currents are of similar size,

the stray capacitance of the transistor is of less significance than for the common emitter

amplifier. The common base amplifier is often used at high frequencies where it provides

more voltage amplification than the other one- transistor circuits.

100
 TASK # 1

PROBLEM #1

Common Base Amplifier Characteristics

Equipment

1. Multimeter

2. Transistor

3. Capacitors

4. Resistors, DC power supply

5. Sine wave generator

Prediction
Perhaps the most striking characteristic of this configuration is that the input signal source
must carry the full emitter current of the transistor. As we know, the emitter current is
greater than any other current in the transistor, being the sum of base and collector currents.
In the last two amplifier configurations, the signal source was connected to the base lead of
the transistor, thus handling the least current possible. Because the input current exceeds all
other currents in the circuit, including the output current, the current gain of this amplifier
is actually less than 1. In other words, it attenuates
current rather than amplifying it. With common-emitter configurations the transistor
parameter most closely associated with gain was β. In the common-base circuit, we follow
another basic transistor parameter: the ratio between collector current and emitter current,
which is a fractional ways less than
This fractional value for any transistor is called the alpha ratio, or α ratio.

101
Procedure

1. Fig. shows a common-base amplifier.

2. The base is grounded.
3. The input signal, Vin, is applied to the emitter and the output is taken from the collector.
4. The input impedance looking into the emitter is quite small. The output impedance
of this circuit is never greater than Rc.
5. Measure the output voltage and output current.

Measurements
Note down the output voltage and output current in your notebooks.

Analysis

1. The common-base CB amplifier is used less often than the CE or CC amplifiers.

2. The common-base amplifier provides a high voltage and power gain but the current
gain is less than one.
3. The common-base amplifier has an extremely low input impedance, zin.
4. The CB amplifier provides some desirable features for operation at higher frequencies.
5. The CB amplifier is also used in a differential amplifier which is used in linear
integrated circuits known as op amps.

Conclusion
The common base amplifier attenuates current and amplifies voltage.

Circuit Diagram / Flow Charts (If Applicable)

Figure 12.1 Common Base 102

Lab Tasks
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103
 Experiment No. 13
Frequency Response of Common Emitter Configuration

Objectives
The purpose of this experiment is to observe the frequency response of a CE amplifier with

two different by-pass capacitors.

Equipment / Tool
1. Transistor 3904.
2. MCP M21-7000 trainer.
3. Multimeter.
4. Oscilloscope.
5. 10µF Capacitors.
6. Resistors are shown in the Circuit.

TASK # 1

PROBLEM # 1:
1. Connect the circuit of figure 1.
2. Measure all the DC parameters and note them with calculated values in table 1.
3. For CE = 100µF: Now apply the AC signal and calculate the maximum gain of the circuit.
4. Set the frequency range at 10 kHz and rotate the frequency dial from 0 to 360 degree (a
complete rotation) and observe the maximum output that is constant for a wide range of
frequency. This is the maximum output of the circuit and calculates the maximum gain of
the circuit (Avmax ) and note down in table 1.
5. Now start with 50Hz frequency and note the value of Vo at different frequencies (50Hz,
100Hz, 500Hz, 1kHz, 5kHz, 10kHz, 50kHz, 1Mhz) and note down in table2. Also find the
lower and higher cutoff frequencies where the output is 70.7% of Vomax.
6. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for CE = 20µF

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Circuit Diagram:

Figure 13.1 Common Emitter

Observations
Fill in the following results obtained from the experiment:

Table 13.1

Parameters Calculated Values Measured Values

VB
VE
VC
IC
IB

VCE
AVmax

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 Table 13.2

Frequency (Hz) Vo Av Av(db)

=20log Av

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Lab Tasks
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 Experiment No. 14
Open Ended Lab

Lab Tasks
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