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MEN227 PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By
Dr. Abbas UĞURENVER

0
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PASSIVE ELEMENTS (LOADS)

• Passive elements are elements that are not capable of generating
power. But, this element absorbs, stores, or dissipates energy flowing
to it. A passive element in a circuit is one which absorbs and converts
electrical energy.
RESISTOR
• Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the
flow of electric charge.

• This physical property, or ability to resist the flow of current, is known

as resistance and is represented by the symbol R.

• The Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω ). The circuit element used

to model the current resisting behavior of a material is called the
resistor.
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The resistance of any substance depends on the following factors,

1.Length of the substance (l).
2.Cross sectional area of the substance (A).
3.The nature of material of the substance (ρ).
4.Temperature of the substance.

the resistance of a conductor can be written as:

The inverse of the resistance is called the conductance

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The power dissipated by a resistor expressed as:

The energy lost in the resistor from time 0 to t is expressed as:

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Example
In the circuit shown in Fig. below, calculate the current i, the conductance G, the power p
and energy lost in the resistor W in 2 hours.

Solution
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2. Inductors
voltages in the inductor
• An inductor is typically a coil of conducting wire.

• Inductor stores energy in its magnetic field.

• Symbolized by the letter L, is measured in henrys (H)

• If current passes through an inductor the voltage across the

inductor is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the
current:

• Where v is measured in volts, L in henrys, i in amperes, and t in seconds.

• The current is equal to :

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1.3 Power and Energy in the Inductor

• The inductor stores energy in its magnetic field.

• The power delivered to the inductor:

• The energy stored:

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From the Inductive we can conclude the following.

1. The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is

constant. That means an inductor acts as short circuit to DC.

2. A small change in current within zero time through an inductor gives an

infinite voltage across the inductor, which is physically impossible. In a
fixed inductor the current cannot change abruptly i.e., the inductor opposes
the sudden changes in currents.

3. The inductor can store finite amount of energy. Even if the voltage
across the inductor is zero

4. A pure inductor never dissipates energy, only stores it. That is why it is
also called a no dissipative passive element. However, physical inductors
dissipate power due to internal resistance
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Example:
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Capacitors

• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an

insulator (or dielectric) stores energy in its electric field.

• The circuit parameter of capacitance is represented by the letter C, is

measured in farads (F), and is symbolized graphically by two short
parallel conductive plates

• When a voltage v is applied, the source deposits a positive charge q

on one plate and negative charge –q on the other.

• The charge stored is proportional to the applied voltage, v

where C is the constant of proportionality, which is known as the

capacitance of the capacitor.
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Capacitance is depends on the physical dimensions of the capacitor.

• For parallel-plate capacitor, capacitance is given by

where
A is the surface area of each plate
d is the distance between the plates
∈ is the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates

The current flowing through the capacitor is given by

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We can rewrite the current equation as

From the above equation we note that the voltage across the terminals of a
capacitor is dependent upon the integral of the current through it and the initial
voltage .

The energy stored by the capacitor is

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From the above discussion we can conclude the following,

1. The current in a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant; that
means, the capacitor acts as an open circuit to DC.

2. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an

infinite current through the capacitor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed
capacitance the voltage cannot change abruptly. i.e., A capacitor will oppose the
sudden changes in voltages.

3. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through
it is zero.

4. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy, but only stores it; that is why it is
called non-dissipative passive element. However, physical capacitors dissipate
power due to internal resistance.
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Example
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Example

Hence, the current wave form is as shown

in the figure
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NETWORK/CIRCUIT TERMINOLOGY

Loop, Mesh, Node and Branch Explained

Branch : represents the single circuit elements like resistor, capacitor,
inductor, voltage, or current source.

for example, for the circuit shown in the figurer, there are five branches.
A 10 V voltage source, 2A current source, 4 Ω, 5 Ω, and 3 Ω resistors.
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Node: is a point in the circuit where two or more circuit elements (or
branches) are connected.

For example, as shown in Figure 2, the above circuit contains the Four
nodes. The node A, B, C, and D.
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Loop :is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a

set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through
any node more than once.

For example, as shown in Figure., the circuit contains three loops.

The first is loop A-B-D-A, the second loop is B-C-D-B. And the third loop
is A-B-C-D-A.
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mesh is a closed path in the circuit, which does not contain any other
close path inside it.
For example, as shown in Figure , loop 1(A-B-D-A) and loop 2 (B-C-D-B)
does not contain any other closed path within them. And they are the
example of the Mesh. While loop 3 (A-B-C-D-A) contains loop 1 and loop
2 within it. So, it can’t be called as a Mesh.
Note: All Mesh are loops but not all the loops are Mesh.
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Kirchhoff’s Laws
• A circuit is said to be solved when the voltage across and the current
in every element have been determined.
• Ohm’s law is an important equation for deriving such solutions.
However, Ohm’s law may not be enough to provide a complete
solution.
• There is two Kirchhoff laws that can be used to determine the
voltage and the currents for each element of the circuit:

1- KIRCHHOF’S CURRENT LAW

2-KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

ASSUMPTIONS:
• Any increase in energy level is taken as positive and any decrease in
energy level is taken as negative.
• All the entering currents are taken as negative.
• All the leaving currents are taken as positive.
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KIRCHHOF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit
equals zero.
Or in another word :
Sum of entering currents + sum of leaving currents =0

Example
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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL):

The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit
equals zero. M

∑
m =1
v = 0
Where M is the total number of branches in the loop.
OR

Sum of voltages rises and voltage drops around any closed path or loop
is equal to zero.

∑v drops + ∑ v rises =
0
NO. OF EQUATIONS: No. of equations to be written are equal to the no.
of loops or closed paths.
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Example:

Solution:
+VR1 - 5 + VR2 – 15 +VR3 – 30 =0
which can be written as
VR1+ VR2 +VR3 = 5 +15 +30
= 50
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RESİSTANCE CONNECTİON WİTH THE SOURCE.

EXAMPLE : Resistive Touch Screens

When the screen is

touched, the two x

resistive layers are

pressed together, creating
a voltage that is sensed
in the x-grid and another
voltage that is sensed in
the y-grid. These two voltages precisely
locate the point where the screen
was touched.
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Resistors in Series
When two elements connected at a single node, they are said to be in series
Series-connected circuit elements carry the same current
The resistors in the circuit shown are connected on series

a
R1 b R2 c R3

is
i1 i2 R4
+
vs
−

h g f e
R7 R6 R5

The resistors carry the same current as can be shown

KCL @ node a i s − i1 =0 i s = i1
i s = i1 = i2
KCL @ node b i1 − i 2 =0 i1 = i 2

We can apply KCL t o the other nodes b,c,e,f,g,h to conclude that the
current is the same namely is
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Applying KVL around the loop we obtain

a
R1 b R2 c R3

is
+
R4
vs
−

h g f e
R7 R6 R5

0
−v s + i s R 1 + i s R 2 + i s R 3 + i s R 4 + i s R 5 + i s R 6 + i s R 7 =
v s= i s ( R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 + R 5 + R 6 + R 7 )

The significant of the equation is that the seven resistors can be replaced by a single
Resistor whose value is the sum of the individual resistor
a
R1 b R2 c R3 a

≡
is is
R eq
+
R4 vs +
vs −
−

h
h g f e
R7 R6 R5

R eq = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 + R 5 + R 6 + R 7
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is R1 R2 R3 is
a b c
a
7

∑R
+
+

vs
R4
⇒ vs
R eq
R eq =
i =1
k

−
−
h g f e
R7 R6 R5 h

In general, if k resistors are connected in series, the equivalent single

resistor has a resistance equal to the sum of the k resistances

R eq = ∑R k
i =1
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Example: Calculate the Current I through the circuit

Solution:
2 kΩ and 3 kΩ are in series so,
the combined effect will be
=2k + 3k = 5 kΩ

We want to calculate current through

5 kΩ resistor.

the current flowing through 5kΩ resistor,

by Ohm’s law

I=V/R =10/5k
=2 mA
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Example Calculate the Current I through the circuit

The resistors of 25,10, and

5 ohm are in series, so their
combined effect
= 25+10+5 = 40Ω

the current flowing through 40 ohm resistor by Ohm’s law is

I=V/R=40/40=1 A
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Resistors in Parallel
When two elements connected at a single node pair, they are said to be in parallel

Parallel-connected circuit elements have the same voltage across their terminals

The resistors in the circuit shown are connected on parallel

a

+ R1 R2 R3 R4
vs
−

R2

R1 R3

We can show that the parallel connection have the same voltage by applying KVL
to the each loop in the circuit
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Applying KCL at node a

From Kirchhoff’s
is current law,
a
the current will be :

+ R1 R2 R3 R4 i s = i1 + i 2 + i 3 + i 4
vs
−
i1 i2 i3 i3

From the
h parallel connection the elements have the same voltage and polarity namely vs

Vs=VR1=VR2=VR3=VR4=…..=VRN
vs vs vs vs
i1 = i2 = i3 = i4 =
R1 R2 R3 R4

is =
From which
vs vs vs vs
+ + +
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
= vs (1
+
1
+
1
+
1
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4 )
is
vs
=
1
Req
= ( 1
+
1
+
1
+
1
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4 )
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The four resistors on the circuit can be replaced by a single equivalent resistor
is is
a

1
( 1 1 1 1
)
+ +

vs
R1 R2 R3 R4 R eq = + + +
vs Req R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
−
−
h

In general, if k resistors are connected in parallel, the equivalent single resistor

has a resistance equal to
k
1
Req
= ∑ 1
Ri
i =1

Using conductance when dealing with resistor in parallel is more convenient

G eq
= ∑
= G i G1 + G2 + + Gk
i =1
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Many times there is only two resistors. We calculate the equivalent

resistance from
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 . 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐
= + =
𝑹𝑹𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐
Example: Find is ,i1 and i2 in the circuit
Sol: Vs=120 , 4 resistance (4,18,3,6)

first write the KCL equation Is=I1+I2 (1)

Second Simplified the circuit
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From the previous circuit

(18 * 9)/(18 + 9)=6

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 120
Is= = = 12 A
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 10

But is the voltage drop from node x to node y, so we can return to the
orignal circuit and again use Ohm’s law to calculate and Thus,
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6. The voltage-Divider and Current-Divider Circuits

In some applications, we need to develop more than one voltage level from a
single voltage supply
One way of doing this is by using a voltage-divider-circuit

+ i +
R1 v1 R1 v1
−
−
+
vs + vs +
+ −
−
v2 R2 v2
R2
− We analyze this circuit as follows −

vs
v= iR 1 + iR 2 i =
s
R1 + R 2
Using Ohm’s law, we have
R1 R2
v 1 = iR 1 = v s v 2 = iR 2 =vs
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
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+
R1 v1 R1 R2
− v1 = vs v2 = vs
vs + R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
− +
R2 v2
−
We can see that v1 and v2 are each fraction of vs .

Each fraction is the ratio of the resistance across which the

divided voltage is defined to the Sum of the two resistances.

Because this ratio is always less than 1.0 , the divided voltages v1 and v2
are always less than the source voltage vs

If vs is specified , say 15 V and a particular value of v2 is desire say 5 V

1 R2 1 1
v2 vs = = R2 = R1
3 R1 + R 2 3 2

There are an infinite combinations of R1 and R2 that will satisfy this ratio
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The Current-Divider
The current divider consist of two resistors connected in parallel as shown
+

is R1 i1 v i 2 R2

We will find the relationship between is and i1 and i2 as follows

R1R 2 R2 R1
v = i 1R1 = i 2 R 2 = i i1 = i i2 = i
R1 + R 2 s R1 + R 2 s R1 + R 2 s

R1||R 2

The equation shows that the current is divided between two resistors in
parallel such that The current in one resistor is controlled by the other resistor

This is similar to a main water pipe that split into two pipes with different dirt
and sand and obstacle . The pipe with the less obstacle will have the current
flow in it more than the Other pipe with more obstacle
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7. The Voltage and Current Division

We can generalize the voltage and current division as follows
Voltage division v v
i = =
R1 R2 R eq
R1 + R 2 +  + R n
+ +

Rj were R eq = R 1 + R 2 +  + R n
Circuit v v j
i Rj
− − v j = iR j = v
R eq
Rn R n −1

Current division
i
+ v = i ( R 1 || R 2 ||  || R n ) = iR eq
Circuit
R1 R2 Rj i R n −1 Rn v
j
were R eq = ( R 1 || R 2 ||  || R n )
−

v R eq
using Ohm's law ij = = i
Rj Rj
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Example a) Calculate the no-load voltage for the voltage (vo) divider
circuit shown in Figure
b) Calculate the power dissipated in R1 and R2

solution
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Example 3.4 Use current division to find the current io and use voltage
division to find the voltage vo

R eq = (36+ 44) || 10 || ( 40+10+30) || 24 = 80 || 10 || 80 || 24 = 6Ω

  
80 80

6
io =
24
(8A) = 2A v = ( 24Ω )( 2A ) = 48 V

30 30
vo = (48 V) = ( 48 V) = 18 V
40+10+30 80
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INDUCTIVE NETWORKS

• Consider the circuit below with 3 inductors in series:

When

Applying the KVL

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hens v=𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
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Now Consider a circuit with inductors in parallel:

•
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Example: Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit in Figure below:

SOL
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CAPACITORS NETWORKS

Consider the circuit as shown in Figure below with N capacitors in

parallel:

The equivalent circuit will be:

•
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Consider the circuit as shown below with N capacitors in series:

•
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Example: Find the equivalent capacitance seen at terminals of the

circuit below.

Solution