1

Structure Of The Atom

Consists of a tiny nucleus and energy levels(shells).The
nucleus is very small in size, as compared to the overall size
of the atom. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
The number of electrons in the shells is equal to the number
of protons in the nucleus making the atom electrically
neutral.
The atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom
Mass number: The sum of nucleons (protons and neutrons)
Isotopes : Atoms of the same element that have the same
atomic number but different number of neutrons.
Nuclide: Is a group of atoms that have the same atomic
number and the same mass number.

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 Structure Of The Atom
Nuclear Stability
• Stable nuclides have a proton
to neutron ratio of about 1:1.
However, as atoms get
heavier, there is a marked
deviation from this ratio,
with the number of neutrons
far superseding that of
protons. In such
circumstances, the nucleus is
likely to be unstable. When
this happens, the nucleus is
likely to disintegrate in an
attempt to achieve stability.

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 Type Of Radiations
• The radiations by a radioactive element are identified with their
properties.
• Radiations behave differently when subjected to magnetic and
electric fields. From the observations
• α- Particles are positively
Magnetic field

charged
• α are least deviated suggesting
the have a greater mass
From the observations
• β Particles are negatively charged
• β are most deviated suggesting
the have least mass
From the observations
Electric field

• γ- are not charged

• γ are not deflected hence
electromagnetic rays
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 Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity is the spontaneous random emission of
particles and energy from the nucleus of an unstable
nuclide.

Radioactivity is not affected by temperature and other

external factors.

When the radioactive element emits the radiation it is

said to undergo radioactive decay.
During the decay alpha or beta or gamma rays are
released.

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 Alpha Decay
Alpha Decay is represented by 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 and denoted by α
• If the nuclide decays by release of an alpha particle, the mass
number decreases by 4 and the atomic number by 2. This is
expressed as;
𝑨 𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁−𝟐𝒀 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆
(Parent (daughter (alpha
Nuclide) nuclide) particle)
Uranium, for example, decays by emitting an alpha to become
thorium. The decay is expressed as;
𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟎 𝑻𝒉 + 𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆
Similarly, polonium undergoes alpha decay to become lead.
𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟔 𝟒
𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 → 𝟖𝟐𝑷𝒃 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆

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 Beta Decay
• Represented by −𝟏𝟎𝒆 and denoted by 𝜷
• If the nuclide decays by release of a (𝜷-particle, the mass
number remains the same but the atomic number increases
by 1. This is expressed as;
𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁+𝟏𝒀 + −𝟏𝒆
(Parent (daughter (beta
nuclide) nuclide) particle)

Radioactive sodium, for example undergoes beta decay to

become magnesium. This is written as;

𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒 𝟎
𝟏𝟏𝑵𝒂 → 𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈 +𝜷 −𝟏𝒆

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 Gamma Radiation-is Denoted By 𝛾
• Gamma Radiation-is denoted by 𝜸
• Some nuclides might be in an excited state and to achieve
stability, they may emit energy in form of gamma radiation,
without producing new isotopes. For example:
Cobalt-60;
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 → 𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 + 𝜸

Thorium-230;
𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝟐𝟑𝟎
𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉 → 𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉 + 𝜸

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 Alpha Particles
Are positively charged hence deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
They have low penetrating power but high
ionizing effect because they are heavy and slow.
They lose energy rapidly and so have very short
range.
Can be stopped by a thin sheet of paper.
 They affect photographic plates

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 Beta Particles
Have negligible mass and are represented by −𝟏𝟎𝒆.
Are negatively charged hence deflected by both
electric and magnetic fields.
 Have more penetrating power than alpha
particles but lower ionizing effect.
Penetrate a sheet of paper but stopped by
aluminium foil.

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 Gamma Rays
High energetic electromagnetic radiation.
Have no mass and no charge hence cannot be
deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Have very high penetrating power and very low
ionizing power.
Can penetrate through a sheet of paper and
aluminium sheets but stopped by a thick block
of lead.

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Penetration Power Of Radiations

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 Summary Of Properties
Type of Nature Electrical Relative Velocity Absorbed Ionising Effect of
radiation charge mass by power magnetic
or electric
field

Alpha A stream +2e 4 units 𝟏 Thin Strong Slightly

of
𝟐𝟎
particles of paper deflected
velocity
helium
of light
nuclei

Beta A stream -e 𝟏 3-99% Alumini Weak Greatly

of a
𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟎
particles of velocity um plate deflected
unit
electrons of light
(negligib
le)
Gamma Electro No Negligib Velocity Thick Weak Not
rays magnetic charge le of light block of deflected
radiatio lead
n
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 Photographic Emulsions
• All the three radiations affect photographic emulsion or
plate. Photographic films are very useful to workers who
handle radioactive materials. These workers are given special
badges which contain a small piece of unexposed
photographic film. If, during the time it had been worn,
the worker was exposed to radiations, it should darken on
development, implying that further safety precautions should
be taken.

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 The Gold Leaf Electroscope
• A charged electroscope loses its
charge in the presence of a
radioactive source. The
radioactive source ionizes the air
around the electroscope. Ions on
the opposite charge to that of the
electroscope are attracted to the
cap and eventually neutralize the
charge of the electroscope. As a
detector a charged electroscope is
not suitable for detecting beta
and gamma radiations because
their ionizing effect in air is not
sufficiently in tense so the leaf
may not fall noticeably.

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 Cloud Chamber
• When air is cooled until the vapour it contains reaches
saturation, it is possible to cool it
• Further without condensation occurring. Under these
conditions, the vapour is said to be supersaturated. This can
only occur if the air is free of any dust, which normally acts
as nuclei on which the vapour can condense to form droplets.
Gaseous ions can also act as nuclei for condensation. The
ionization of air molecules by radiations is investigated by a
cloud chamber,
• The common types of cloud chambers are expansion cloud
chamber and diffusion cloud chamber. In both types,
saturated vapour (water or alcohol) is made to condense on
air ions caused by radiations. Whitish lines of tiny liquid
drops show up as tracks when illuminated

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 Expansion Cloud Chamber

• When a radioactive element emits radiations into the

chamber, the air inside is ionized.
• If the piston is now moved down suddenly, air in the
chamber will expand and cooling occurs.
• When this happens, the ions formed act as nuclei on which
the saturated alcohol or water vapour condenses, forming
tracks.
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 Diffusion Cloud Chamber
The alcohol from the felt ring
vaporizes and diffuses towards
the black surface. The
radioactive substance emits
radiations which ionizes the
air. The vaporized alcohol
condenses on the ions forming
tracks. The tracks are well
defined if an electric field is
created by frequently rubbing
the Perspex lid of the chamber
Dry ice: cools the blackened surface making the with a piece of cloth. The
air at the lower surface of the chamber cool. tracks obtained in the above
Sponge: it ensures that the dry ice is in contact cloud chambers vary
with the blackened surface according to the type of
Wedges: it keeps the chamber horizontal radiation. Alcohol is preferred
Light source: illuminates the tracks making
because it is highly volatile and
them visible
Blackened surface: provides better background hence evaporates readily.
for visibility of tracks
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 Radioactive tracks
• Alpha particles
The tracks due to alpha particles are short, straight
and thick. This is because:
i. Alpha particles cause heavy ionization,
rapidly losing energy, hence their short range.
ii. They are massive and their path cannot
therefore be changed by air molecules.
iii. Alpha particles cause more ions on their paths
as they knock off more electrons, see
• Beta particles
The tracks formed by beta particles are generally
thin and irregular in direction. This is because beta
particles, being lighter and faster, cause less
ionization of air molecules. In addition, the
particles are repelled by electrons of atoms within
their path.
• Gamma rays
• Gamma rays produce scanty disjointed tracks,
the electrons ejected from molecules behave like
weak beta particles hence the tracks.
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 Geiger-Muller Tube The thin mica window allows
. passage of radiations these
radiations ionizes the argon gas
inside the tube. The electrons are
attracted to the anode as the
positive ions moves towards the
cathode. More ions are produced as
collisions continue. Small currents
are produced which are amplified
and passed to the scaler connected
to the tube. This currents may be
used to produce clicks/counts. The
presence of small amount of
halogen in the tube is to help
absorbing the kinetic energy of the
positive ions to reduce secondary
ionisation and enhance quick return
to normal. This is called quenching
the tube i.e. Bromine gas acts as a
quenching agent.
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 Background Radiation
Radiations that are registered or observed in the
absence of a radioactive source are called background
radiation.
The count registered in the absence of the radioactive
source is called background count.

Sources of these backgrounds radiation include:

Cosmic rays from outer space.
Radiations from the sun
Some rocks which contain traces of radioactive
material, e.g., granite,
Natural and artificial radioisotopes.
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Mass in (g)
Decay Curve

Time ( years)
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 Half-life
• Decay Law
• States that the rate of disintegration at a given time is
directly proportional to the number of nuclides present
at that time.
• Half life is the time taken for half the number of
nuclides initially present in a radioactive sample to
decay.

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 Decay Formula
𝑻
𝒕𝟏
𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎
𝟐
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆,
𝑵 = 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑵𝒐 = 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑻 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚
𝒕 = 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 − 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆

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Example 1
For a certain radioactive material, the average count-rate is found to be 82
counts per second. After a time of 210 seconds, the count rate had dropped 19
counts per second. The average background count-rate remained constant at 10
counts per second. What is the half-life of the material?
Solution
Let the half-life be x seconds.
𝟐𝟏𝟎
Number of half-lives =
𝐱
Since the background count is 10, the initial and final count rates due to the
material are; 82 – 10 = 72 and 19 – 10 = 9 respectively.
𝟗
Remaining fraction = 𝟕𝟐
𝟐𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝐱
=
𝟐
𝟗 𝟏
But 𝟕𝟐 = 𝟖
Number of half-lives for count rate drop 72 to 9 is
𝟏 𝟑
=
𝟐
3,i.e.
So,
𝟐𝟏𝟎
= 3 72 36 18  9
𝐱 𝟐𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟏𝟎 Therefore, half-life =
x = 𝟑 𝟑
= 70 seconds
= 70 seconds
The half-life of the material is 70 seconds.
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 Example 2
The graph below sows a decay curve of a radioactive material use
the graph to find the half life.

Half-life = 30s

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 Applications Of Radioactivity
• C14 is made by the action
Carbon- Dating of cosmic rays.
• Life is based on carbon.
• Whilst organisms are alive
C14 will be absorbed at
the same rate as C12.
• As C14 decays it is
continually replaced.
• But after death no more
C14 is absorbed.
• It is as if a stop clock is
started.
• Archeologists have only to
measure the C14 in bones,
wood, hair….to date
them.
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Medicine
• Gamma rays, like X-rays, are used in
the control of cancerous body
growths. The radiation kills cancer
cells when the tumour is subjected to
it. Gamma rays are also used in the
sterilization of medical equipment,
and for killing pests or making them
sterile.
Detecting Pipe Bursts
• Underground pipes carrying water or
oil many suffer bursts or leakages. If
the water or oil is mixed with
radioactive substances from the
source, the mixture will seep out
where there is an opening. If a
detector is passed on the ground near
the area, the radiations will be
detected.
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Determining Thickness of
Metal Foil
• In industries which
manufacture thin metal foils,
paper and plastics, radioactive
radiations can be used to
determine and maintain the
required thickness. If a beta
source, for example, is placed
on one side of the foil and
G -M tube on the other, the
count rate will be a measure
of the thickness of the metal
foil.
• A thickness gauge can be
adapted for automatic control
of the manufacturing process.
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Trace Elements
• The movement of traces of a weak
radioisotope introduced into an
organism can be monitored using a
radiation detector. In agriculture,
this method is applied to study the
plant uptake of fertilizers and
other chemicals.
Detection of Flaws
• Cracks and airspaces in welded
joints can be detected using gamma
radiation from cobalt-60. The
cobalt-60 is placed on one side of
the joint and a photographic film
on the other. The film, when
developed, will show any weakness
in the joint.
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Hazards of Radiation

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 Nuclear Fission
• It was discovered that if a nucleus of uranium is bombarded with a
neutron, the uranium nucleus splits into two almost equal nuclei. When
a nucleus is bombarded and it splits, it is said to have undergone nuclear
fission as shown below.
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝟗𝟓 𝟏
𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟎𝒏 → 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 + 𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑 𝟎𝒏 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
• Protons and neutrons (nucleons) are kept together in the small volume of
the nucleus by what called binding energy. To split the nucleus, this
binding energy has to be released. The energy released during the
splitting is called nuclear energy.

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 Nuclear Fusion
• Experiments show that a lot of energy is released when the
nuclei of light elements fuse together to form a heavier
nucleus. The fusing together of nuclei to form a heavier nucleus
is called nuclear fusion. An example of nuclear fusion is the
formation of alpha particles when lithium fuses with
hydrogen

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1. Define Radio-activity.
2. What is meant by the following terms:
(i) Radioactive decay
(ii) Isotope.
3. What is meant by a radioactive substance?
4. What is meant by Unstable nuclide
5. State one precaution that has to be observed when using a radioactive
substance
6. State one use of radioactivity in each of the following;
i) Medicine
ii) Agriculture.
7. Give one application of radioactivity.
8. Give two uses of cobalt - 60 as a Radioactive source.
9. One of the applications of βeta emission (β) is controlling thickness gauge.
Explain how they are used for this purpose.
10. State one application of radio isotopes in medicine and one in industry

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 𝟏𝟎𝟕
11. State the number of neutrons in the nucleus 𝟑𝟐
𝐗
12. The following is part of a radioactive decay series. Determine the values of
a and b.
𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝝱 𝒂 ∝ 𝟐𝟑𝟎
𝑩𝒊 𝑿 𝒀
𝟖𝟑 𝟖𝟒 𝒃
13. 𝟐𝟑𝟑
𝟗𝟎
𝐓𝐡 disintegrates into radium (Ra) by emission of two alpha and two
beta Particles State:
(i) the atomic number of the daughter nuclide
(ii) The mass number of the daughter nuclide
14. Explain how Geiger- Muller tube detects radioactive particles/rays.
15. State two factors that determine the extent of the damage to the body cell
caused by the radiation from radioactive substances.
16. State what is meant by background radiation as used in radioactivity
17. A Geiger – miller tube registers some effects even in the absence of a
radioactive source. Explain this observation and state one cause.
18. Alpha particles() are more ionizing than Beta() particles. Give two
reasons for this.

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19. Define the term half life.
20. The half-life of a certain radioactive substance is 57 days. Explain the
meaning of this statement.
21. Name the quantities, which must be measured so as to determine the half-
life of a radioactive sample whose half-life is known to be a few hours.
22. Explain what causes chain reaction in a nuclear reactor.
23. Differentiate between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
24. Cobalt 60 is a radioisotope that has a half-life of 5.25 years. What fraction
of the original atoms in a sample will remain after 21 years.
25. A nucleus of an element X of atomic mass 238 and atomic number 92
decays by emitting 8 alpha particles and 10 beta particles and finally forms a
nucleus of an element y. Write the equation of the reaction.
26. Given that 5g of cobalt-60 is kept in a laboratory and it has a half-life of 5
years. Calculate its mass after 15 years.
27. A radioactive substance has a mass of 0.2g and an activity of 1.0 x 103
disintegration per second at t =0. What would be the activity of a sample of
mass 0.6g of the same substance at the time t = 0

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