Data Transmission

(Chapter 2)
Syllabus Content:

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Syllabus Content:

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 2 Data Transmission

2.1 | Types & Methods of Data Transmission

NOTE: Data Packets & Packet Switching are newly added topics in the Computer
Science (2210) syllabus for the session 2023–2025.

2.1.1 Data Packets:

The data is broken down into packets to be transmitted.
The packets of data are usually quite small, typically 64 KiB.

Packet Structure:
A packet of data in a unit of data has a packet header.
The header contains the destination address, packet number & the originator’s address.
The packet also has a payload and a trailer.

Header Payload Trailer

It consists of the IP address of the sender It consists of some way of

identifying the end of the packet
It consists of
which is essential for packet
It consists of IP address of the receiver/destination. the actual data
separation after transmission
being sent in
the packet
It consists of the sequence number of the packet It consists of an error checking
(usually about
which allows correct reassembly after transmission method called cyclic redundancy
64 KiB)
checks (CRCs) to ensure packet
It consists of the size of packet (in bytes) arrives error-free

Purpose of Packet Header:

It stores data about the packet and its routing to ensure it reaches its destination.
It ensures that the message can be properly reconstructed.

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Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRCs):

It is an error checking method used to check data packets.

It involves the sending computer adding up all the 1-bits in the payload and storing this as
a hex value in the trailer before transmission.
After transmission, the receiving computer recalculates the number of 1-bits in payload.
The two values are compared and if they match then no transmission errors occur.
If they do not match, then the packet needs to be re-sent.

Packet Switching:
The data is broken down into packets.
Each packet is given its own route.
The routing for a packet depends on the congestion.
The packets may not arrive in the order sent.

Process of Packet Switching:

A large message is broken down into a group of smaller chunks of the same size called
packets.
Each packet is dispatched independently and may travel along different routes/paths.
A router controls the route taken by a packet and decides where to send packet next for the
most efficient path.
The packets may arrive out of order and are reassembled into the original message at the
destination (using the information sent in the packet header).
If packets are missing/corrupted, a re-transmission request is sent.
Function of a Router in Packet Switching:

The router examines the packet’s header.

It reads the IP address of the destination from the packet header.
A router has access to a routing table which contains information about, e.g., available
hops/netmask/gateway used and the status of the routes along the route.
The router decides on the next hop/best route and sends the packet on its next hop.

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Diagram of Packet Switching:

The message sent by computer ‘A’ was split into four packets.
The original packet order was:
They arrived in the order:
It means they need to be reassembled in the correct order at the destination.

Advantages of Packet Switching:

1. It makes best use of the available (channel) capacity by using alternative routes.
2. It ensures accurate delivery of the message.
3. The use of alternative routes is more secure as harder to intercept messages.
4. It provides better security as packets are hashed and sent by different routes.
5. The use of alternative routes is more robust, and path/route is also available to other users.
6. The missing packets can be easily detected and a re-sent request is sent so the message
arrives complete.
7. If a network changes, the router can detect this and send the data another way to ensure it
arrives.
8. It doesn’t use whole/complete bandwidth.
9. It allows simultaneous use of channels by multiple users.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:

1. There are time delays to reassemble packets at the destination and correcting errors.
2. The packets can be lost and need to be re-sent.
3. The network problems may introduce errors in packets.
4. It requires complex protocols for delivery.
5. It is unsuitable for real-time transmission applications/real-time streaming e.g. a live
sporting event being transmitted over the internet.

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Uses of Packet Switching:

1. It is used in sending email messages.

2. It is used in Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).
It is a technology that allows you to make voice calls using a broadband Internet connection
instead of a regular (or analog) phone line.

Hopping:
Sometimes it is possible for packets to get lost and keep ‘bouncing’ around from router to
router and never actually get to their destination.
Eventually, the network could grind to a halt as the number of ‘lost’ packets mounts up and
clogs up the system.
To overcome this, a method called hopping is used.

Process of Hopping:

A hop number is added to the header of each packet.

Each packet is only allowed to hop a limited number of times (this number is determined by
the network protocol and routing table being used).
Each time a packet passes through a different router, the hop number is decreased by 1 as
shown below:

If the packet has not reached its destination and the hop number becomes 0, then the
packet will be deleted when it reaches the next router.
The missing packets will then be flagged by the receiving computer and the request to re-
send these packets will be made.

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Exam Style Questions:

Question 1:

Answer:

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Question 2:

Answer:

Question 3:

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Question 4:

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2.1.2 Data Transmission:
According to our syllabus, we will consider three factors regarding data transmission:

1. The direction of data transmission.

2. The method of transmission.
3. The method of synchronization between the two devices.

Direction of Data Transmission:

1) Simplex Data Transmission:

It is in one direction only (i.e. from sender to receiver).

Example: data sent from computer to a printer,
microphone to computer, sensor to computer,
computer to speaker, computer to monitor etc.

2) Half-duplex Data Transmission:

It is in both directions but not at the same time.

Example: a phone conversation between two
people where only one person speaks at a time,
a video conference where only one person speaks
at a time etc.

3) Full-duplex Data Transmission:

It is also called “Duplex data transmission”.

It is in both directions simultaneously
(at the same time).
Example: broadband connection on a phone
line, instant messaging, computer to modem etc.

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Methods of Data Transmission: It means bits are sent one after the
other in a single stream.
1) Serial Data Transmission:

It is when data is sent, one bit at a time, over a single wire or channel.
The bits arrive in sequence.
It can be synchronous or asynchronous.

NOTE: Serial data transmission can be simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

Advantages of Serial Transmission:

It uses a single wire/channel hence:

1. It is more reliable over longer distances.

2. The cost of wiring is less expensive since a single wire is used.
3. Single wire means less chance of interference/data corruption.

Data is sent one bit at a time so:

4. The data is sent more accurately over longer distances.

5. There is less chance of data being skewed.

Disadvantages of Serial Transmission:

It uses a single wire/channel hence:

1. Data is transmitted at a slower rate.

Applications of Serial Transmission:

1. Sending data from computer to a modem.

2. Data transmission in Universal Serial Bus (USB).
3. Data transmission in Wi-Fi.
4. It is used in places where data transmission is to be done over long distances e.g. 100
meters and above.

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2) Parallel Data Transmission:

It is when several bits of data (usually 1 byte) are sent down several wires or channels at the
same time. (one wire or channel is used to transmit each bit)
The bits may arrive out of sequence.
It can only be synchronous.

NOTE: Parallel data transmission can be simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

Advantages of Parallel Transmission:

It uses multiple wires/channels hence:

1. Data is transmitted at a faster rate.

Disadvantages of Parallel Transmission:

It uses multiple wires/channels hence:

1. It is less reliable over longer distances.
2. The cost of wiring is more expensive since many wires are used.
3. Multiple wires means more chances of interference/data corruption.

Data is sent several bits at a time:

4. Data is sent less accurately over longer distances.

5. There is a likely chance of data being skewed.

Applications of Parallel Transmission:

1. Sending data from a computer to a printer.

2. Data transmission in internal electronics of computer.
3. Data transmission on pathways between CPU and the memory.
4. Data transmission in integrated circuits (IC), buses and other internal components.
5. It is used in places where data transmission is to be done over shorter distances e.g. 10
metres and less.
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Method of Synchronization:
1) Asynchronous Data Transmission:

It refers to data being transmitted in an agreed bit pattern.

Data bits (1s and 0s) are grouped together and sent with control bits (without these, it
would be impossible to separate groups of data as they arrive).

Advantages of Asynchronous Transmission:

1. It prevents data being mixed up/skewed.

Disadvantages of Asynchronous Transmission:

1. It is a slower method of data transfer.

2) Synchronous Data Transmission:

It is a continuous stream of data.

Data is accompanied by timing signals generated by an internal clock (to ensure both
sender and receiver are synchronized with each other).
The receiver counts how many bits (1s and 0s) were sent and then reassembles them into
bytes of data.

Advantages of Synchronous Transmission:

1. It is a faster method of data transfer (mostly used in network communications).

Disadvantages of Synchronous Transmission:

1. The timing must be very accurate as there are no control bits sent along otherwise data will
be mixed up/skewed.

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Exam Style Questions:

Exam Tip:
If examiner tells you that a person is using any of the following be it:

1) serial simplex data transmission 4) parallel simplex data transmission

2) serial half-duplex data transmission 5) parallel half-duplex data transmission
3) serial duplex data transmission 6) parallel duplex data transmission

And asks you to explain why the person is using that specific data transmission
method. Just remember that you have to address both parts of the questions to gain
full marks. This kind of question is mostly asked for 4 marks and above.

One part will address the advantages/benefits/choice of using either serial or parallel
transmission.
The other part will address the advantages/benefits/choice of using either simplex,
half-duplex or duplex transmission.

If it is a 4 mark question, then 2 statements for direction of transmission + 2 statements for

method of transmission will earn you 4 marks.
If you only address either direction or method and forget the other, no more than 2/4 marks
can be secured.

Question 1:

A computer includes an Integrated Circuit (IC) and a Universal Serial Bus (USB) for data
transmission. Describe how the computer uses these for data transmission, including the
type of data transmission used. (4)

Integrated circuit (IC) is used for sending data internally.

In IC, parallel data transmission is used. It means data is sent several bits over several wires
or channels at the same time.
Universal serial bus (USB) is used for sending data externally (between devices).
In USB, serial data transmission is used. It means data is sent one bit at a time over a single
wire or channel.

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Question 2:

Priya stores her website on a webserver. To transmit the website data to the webserver she
uses parallel duplex data transmission. Describe how data is transmitted using parallel
duplex data transmission. (4)

It allows several/multiple bits to be transmitted simultaneously.

Several/multiple wires are used for transmission of data.
Moreover, data is transmitted in both directions at the same time.

Question 3:

A file server is used as a central data store for a network of computers. Rory sends data from
his computer to a file server that is approximately 100 metres away. It is important that the
data is transmitted accurately. Rory needs to be able to read data from and write data to the
file server at the same time.

Identify the most suitable data transmission methods for this application: (2)

Method 1 Tick Method 2 Tick

Serial ✓ Simplex

Parallel Half-duplex

Duplex ✓

Explain why your answer is the most suitable data transmission. (4)

Serial duplex is used since serial uses a single wire hence there is a less chance of
interference.
It is more reliable over longer distances (100 metres and above).
It is more accurate and bits won’t be skewed over a long distance.
Moreover, duplex transmits data in both directions simultaneously which allows read and
write operations at the same time.
Read and write at the same time won’t be allowed by other methods such as simplex and
half-duplex.

Question 5:

A company has over 100 cameras. At the end of each day all these cameras send their
images, capture over the last 24 hours, to a central computer.
Explain why a company uses dedicated fibre optic cable rather than transmitting the data
over the local broadband network? (2)

Data is transmitted more securely because it is a dedicated line.

Fibre optic is not only more reliable than local broadband but it also transmits data at a
faster rate.
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Question 6:

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Question 7:

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Question 8:

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Question 9:

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Question 10:

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Question 11:

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Question 12:

Answer:

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2.1.3 Universal Serial Bus (USB):
It is an asynchronous serial data transmission method.
It uses serial transmission so bits of data are sent one at a time.
It is a Universal standard used for transfer of data between a computer and devices.
The USB allows both half-duplex and full-duplex data transmission.

Structure of USB cable:

A four-wire shielded cable.

Two of the wires are used for power and earth; other two are used in data transmission.

When a device is plugged into a computer using USB port:

The computer automatically detects the presence of device due to slight change in voltage
level.
The device is automatically recognized, and the appropriate device driver is loaded.
If a new device is detected, the computer looks up the device driver which matches the
device; if it’s unavailable, the user is prompted to download the appropriate software.

Advantages of USB Systems (fully detailed):

Exam Tip:
1. Memorize any four of the advantages and use them when the question demands an
explanation of any number of advantages.
2. If question simply demands stating of advantages (no explanation), then write according
to marks by summarizing the following given points.

1. The devices are automatically detected and configured when initially attached due to
changes in voltage level.
2. It is a universal standard so it is likely to be compatible with every computer.
3. It is impossible to connect device incorrectly as connector only fits one way.
4. It is a high-speed connection so data will be transmitted quicker.
5. It uses serial transmission so it is cheaper to manufacture/buy and less chance of skewing of
data.
6. It doesn't require a wireless network therefore, can be used if a network is down.
7. It is backwards compatible (with earlier versions of USB ports) so no additional technology
is needed.
8. It can power the device therefore no separate source of power is needed.
9. The drivers are automatically downloaded so there is no need to find them online or install
manually.

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Disadvantages of USB Systems:
1. The maximum cable length is presently about 5 metres.
2. The present transmission rate is limited to less than 500 megabits per second.
3. The older USB standard (e.g. 1.1) may not be supported in near future.

USB-C System:
USB-C is a new type of USB connector which has now become more common in laptops
and tablets/phones.
It is a 24-pin symmetrical connector which means it will fit into a USB-C port either way
round.
It is expected to become the new industry standard (universal) format.

Advantages of USB-C:

1. It is much smaller and thinner than older USB connectors

2. It offers 100 watt (20 volt) power connectivity, which means full-sized devices can now be
charged
3. It can carry data at 10 gigabits per second (10 Gbps) which means it can now support 4K
video delivery.
4. USB-C is backward compatible (to USB 2.0 and 3.0) provided a suitable adaptor is used.

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Exam Style Questions:
Question 1:

Answer:

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Question 2:

Answer:

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Question 3:

Answer:

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Question 4:

Answer:

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 2 Data Transmission

2.2 | Methods of Error Detection

2.2.1 Checking for Errors:

The errors can occur during data transmission due to:

1. Interference as all types of cable can suffer from electrical interference, which can cause
data to be corrupted or even lost.
2. Problems during packet switching which can lead to data loss or data gain
3. Skewing of data which occurs during parallel data transmission can cause data corruption if
the bits arrive out of synchronization.

There are a number of error detection methods for detecting errors in data after
transmission:

1. Parity checks (odd and even), including parity byte & parity block check
2. Checksum
3. Echo Check

2.2.2 Parity Checks, Checksum & Echo Check:

1) Parity Checks:
It checks a byte of data, and the parity can be set to odd or even.
The sender and receiver agree on the parity to be used (agreement).
The data is split into bytes (blocks of 7 bytes).
The sender counts the number of 1s & 0s in each byte and each byte is assigned a parity bit
to be transmitted with it to match the even or odd parity used.
The receiving device recounts the number of 1s & 0s in each byte and compares them to
the even or odd parity being used.
If it does not match the parity, an error is reported/identified.
In a block check, the location of the error(s) can be identified at the intersection.

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Question: Describe a situation in which a parity check cannot detect corruption of a byte OR
describe a situation in which an error during parity check goes undetected.

1. Error will not be detected if there are multiple errors in same byte that still produce the
same parity bit.
2. It will not be detected if an even/odd number of digits are changed (depending upon
even/odd parity used).
3. It will not be detected if a transposition error has occurred.

Practical Method/Approach of Parity Byte Checking:

NOTE: The following steps explain the way of solving practical parity checking questions asked
in examination mostly. Theoretical knowledge of parity checking given above is rarely asked.

1) Systems that use EVEN PARITY have an even number of 1- bits; systems that use ODD
PARITY have an odd number of 1-bits.

2) If it is given in a question that even parity is used and an incomplete register like below is
given, you need to count the number of 1’s to see if they are even or odd. If they are even
already, then simply add 0’s in the blank space. If 1’s are odd, then you need to balance and
write 1’s until the total number of 1’s become even.

3) Similarly, if it is given in a question that odd parity is used and an incomplete register like
above is given, you need to count the number of 1’s to see if they are even or odd. If they are
odd already, then simply add 0’s in the blank space. If 1’s are even, then you need to balance
and write 1’s until the total number of 1’s become odd.

4) If the examiner gives you a complete register filled with 8 bits, and tells you that even parity
is used, asking you to identify if the data was transmitted correctly. You simply need to count
the number of 1’s in the register and check if they are even. If they are even, then data was
transmitted correctly and if they are odd then it was corrupted during transmission.

5) Similarly, if the examiner gives you a complete register filled with 8 bits, and tells you that
odd parity is used, asking you to identify if the data was transmitted correctly. You simply
need to count the number of 1’s in the register and check if they are odd. If they are odd then
data was transmitted correctly and if they are even then it was corrupted during transmission.

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Practice Questions:

Q1. A system uses even parity.

Tick (✓) to show whether the following three bytes have been transmitted correctly or
incorrectly.

Received byte Byte transmitted correctly Byte transmitted incorrectly

11001000

01111100

01101001

Q2. A system uses odd parity.

Tick (✓) to show whether the following three bytes have been transmitted correctly or
incorrectly.

Received byte Byte transmitted correctly Byte transmitted incorrectly

10110100

01101101

10000001

Q3.

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Q4.

Q5.

Q6.

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Practical Method/Approach of Parity Block Checking:
In this method, a block of data is sent, and the number of 1-bits are totaled horizontally and
vertically (in other words, a parity check is done in both horizontal and vertical directions).

As the following example shows, this method not only identifies that an error has occurred but
also indicates where the error is.

To solve questions like the following:

This example uses even parity.

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1) First we need to see what type of parity is used.
2) According to the even/odd parity used, we need to count 1’s in all columns and check which of
the column does not follow the even/odd parity used.
3) Then we need to count 1’s in all bytes (rows) and check which of the rows does not follow the
even/odd parity used.
4) The intersection point of that column and byte gives the corrupted bit.
5) If the examiner asks you to circle the corrupted bit, then simply encircle the bit at the
intersection point.
6) If the examiner asks you to write byte number and column number, simply write the byte
number with wrong parity and the column number with wrong parity in the provided space.

(iii) How did you arrive to your answer in part (i)(ii)? (2) *The corrupted bit has been

Column 4 has odd number of 1’s (3 ones). encircled as well for you to

Byte 5 has odd number of 1’s (5 ones). understand (though it is not the
requirement of this question)*

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Exam Style Questions:

Question 1:

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Answer:

Question 2:

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Answer:

Register C

Count the number of 1 bits in each byte/register.

Two registers have an odd number of 1 bits (odd parity).
Odd parity must be the parity used.
One register has an even number of 1 bits (even parity).
One with an even number of one bits is incorrect.
Register C should have odd parity.

Question 3:

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Answer:

Register Y

Count the number of 1 bits in each byte/register.

Two registers have an odd number of 1 bits (odd parity).
Even parity must be the parity used.
One register has an even number of 1 bits (even parity).
The two registers with an odd number of one bits is incorrect.
Register X and Z should have even parity.

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2) Checksum:
Before transmission, calculation is performed on data to get an additional value called
checksum using an algorithm.
The value is then transmitted with the block of data.
The value is recalculated by the receiver using same algorithm on the block of data
received.
A comparison is made between checksum values before and after transmission.
If checksum values are different, then error is detected, and retransmission request is sent.
If checksum values are the same, then data has been transmitted correctly.

3) Echo Check:
When data is sent to another device, a copy of the data is sent back to the sender.
The returned data is compared with the original data by the sender’s computer.
If there are no differences, then the data was sent without error.
If the two sets of data are different, then an error occurred at some stage during the data
transmission.
It is not very reliable because if both sets of data are different, it is not known whether the
error occurred while sending the data in first place, or when sending the data back for
checking to the sender.

The following diagram shows the process of echo check:

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2.2.3 Check Digits:
They are used to identify errors in data entry caused by mistyping or mis-scanning a
barcode.
They are used for barcodes on products, such as International Standard Book Numbers
(ISBN)(found on the cover of a book) and Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).

They can usually detect the following types of error:

1. An incorrect digit being entered (such as 5327 entered instead of 5307).

2. Transposition error where two numbers have changed order (such as 5037 instead of 5307).
3. Digits being omitted or extra digits (such as 537 instead of 5307 or 53107 instead of 5307).
4. Phonetic errors (such as 13 (thirteen), instead of 30 (thirty).

Process of Check Digit:

It is an additional digit that is calculated from the data.

It is then added to the data.
The digit is recalculated when data is entered.
Both digits are compared to check for error.
If digits are different, error is detected.
If digits match, no error is detected.

There are a number of different methods used to generate a check digit. Two common
methods will be considered here:

1. ISBN 13
2. Modulo-11

NOTE: You will not need to remember the steps shown in following algorithms as the steps
will be given to you in the question. However, it is important that you understand how to use
an algorithm to calculate or verify check digits. Therefore, study the following examples &
. calculations very carefully so you can learn how to apply these steps.

1) ISBN 13:
As the ‘13’ in the ISBN 13 suggests, the check digit in ISBN 13 is the thirteenth digit in the
number.
This 13th digit (check digit) is generated from the other 12 digits in the number.

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Steps of Calculation (without check digit):

1. Add all the odd numbered digits together.

2. Add all the even numbered digits together and multiply the result by 3.
3. Add the results from Step 1 & Step 2 together and divide by 10.
4. Take the remainder, if it is zero then use this value, otherwise subtract remainder from 10 to
find the check digit.

Example Calculation 1: Generation of the check digit from the other 12 digits in a number

We will use the following sample barcode (ISBN 13 code with check digit):

The first 12 digits in this barcode are: 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2

We will now use the first 12 digits to calculate the 13th check digit given below.
The last 13th digit in this barcode is: 9 (which is the check digit)

9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2

odd even odd even odd even odd even odd even odd even

Step 1 – 9 + 8 + 3 + 0 + 8 + 8 = 36

Step 2 – 3 x (7 + 0 + 4 + 9 + 3 + 2) = 3 x (25) = 75

Step 3 – (36 + 75)/10 = (111)/10 = 11 remainder 1

Step 4 – 10 – 1 = 9 (the check digit)

The calculated thirteenth digit is 9.

Writing it together, we end up with the thirteen-digit number 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 9
which matches the number in barcode.

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To check that an ISBN 13-digit code is correct, including its check digit, similar steps are followed.

Steps of Recalculation (including check digit):

1. Add all the odd numbered digits together, including the check digit.
2. Add all the even numbered digits together and multiply the result by 3.
3. Add the results from Step 1 & Step 2 together and divide by 10.
4. The number is correct if the remainder is 0 (zero).

Example Calculation 2: Re-calculation of the check digit from the thirteen-digit number
(which now includes the check digit)

We will use the same following barcode (ISBN 13 code with check digit):

The 13 digits in this barcode are: 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 9 (including check digit)

We will now use these 13 digits to confirm if the check digit is correct.

9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 9

odd even odd even odd even odd even odd even odd even odd

Step 1 – 9 + 8 + 3 + 0 + 8 + 8 + 9 = 45

Step 2 – 3 x (7 + 0 + 4 + 9 + 3 + 2) = 3 x (25) = 75

Step 3 – (45 + 75)/10 = (120)/10 = 12 remainder 0

Step 4 – The number is correct because the remainder is 0

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2) Modulo-11:
This method can have different lengths of number which makes it suitable for many
applications, such as product codes or VINs.

Steps of Calculation:

The following algorithm is used to generate the check digit for a number with seven digits:

1. Each digit in the number is given a weighting of 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, or 2 starting from the left
(weightings start from 8 since the number will become eight-digit when the check digit is
added).
2. The digit is multiplied by its weighting and then each value is added to make a total.
3. The total is divided by 11.
4. The remainder is then subtracted from 11 which gives the value of check digit and if the
remainder is 10 then check digit ‘X’ is used.
Example Calculation 1: Generation of the check digit from the other digits in a number

The example to be used has the following seven-digit number: 4 1 5 6 7 1 0

The second row contains the weighting values for each digit in the table given below:

4 1 5 6 7 1 0

8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Step 1 – Each digit is given weightings starting from left, e.g. digit 4 has weighting 8 and so on.

8 x 4 = 32 7x1=7 6 x 5 = 30 5 x 6 = 30 4 x 7 = 28 3x1=3 2x0=0

Step 3 – (32 + 7 + 30 + 30 + 28 + 3 + 0) = 130

130/11 = 11 remainder 9

Step 4 – 11 – 9 = 2 (check digit)

Therefore, we end up with the eight-digit number 4 1 5 6 7 1 0 2.

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To check that the eight-digit number is correct, including its check digit, similar steps are followed.

Steps of Recalculation (including check digit):

1. Each digit in the number is given a weighting of 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or 1 starting from the left.
2. The digit is multiplied by its weighting and then each value is added to make a total.
3. The total is divided by 11.
4. The number is correct if the remainder is 0 (zero)..
Example Calculation 2: Re-calculation of the check digit from the eight-digit number (which
now includes the check digit)

The example to be used has the following eight-digit number: 4 1 5 6 7 1 0 2

The second row contains the weighting values for each digit in the table given below:

4 1 5 6 7 1 0 2

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Step 1 – Each digit is given weightings starting from left, e.g. digit 4 has weighting 8 and so on.

8 x 4 = 32 7x1=7 6 x 5 = 30 5 x 6 = 30 4 x 7 = 28 3x1=3 2x0=0 1x2=2

Step 3 – (32 + 7 + 30 + 30 + 28 + 3 + 0 + 2) = 132

132/11 = 12 remainder 0

Step 4 – The number is correct because the remainder is 0

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Practice Questions

Q1.

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Q2.

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2.2.4 Automatic Repeat Query (ARQ):
They are used to establish that data is received without error.

It is also known as Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ).

Process of Automatic Repeat Query (ARQ):

It uses acknowledgment and timeout.

The sender starts a timer when data is transmitted, and a request is sent with data requiring
acknowledgment.
The receiver uses an error checking method (e.g., error detected by parity check or check
sum) to check whether the data has been received accurately.
If no error is detected, then a positive acknowledgment is sent back to the sender.
If an error is detected, then negative acknowledgment is sent back to the sender and a
request is automatically sent to resend data.
If the sender gets no acknowledgment within the set time, it resends the data.
Resend requests are repeatedly sent until data is received correctly or limit is reached.

Positive Acknowledgment: Negative Acknowledgment:

It is a message sent by the receiver indicating It is a message sent by the receiver indicating
that data has been received correctly. that data has been received incorrectly.

Timeout:

It is the time allowed to elapse before an acknowledgment is received.

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Exam Style Questions:

Question 1:

A library’s archive system uses an error detection and correction system that combines a
parity check with an automatic repeat request (ARQ)

Describe how this system uses the parity check and ARQ. (6)

The system could use either odd or even parity.

A parity bit is added to the byte of data.
Each byte is checked after transmission to see if it matches the odd/even parity used as
numbers of 1’s are counted.
If parity is correct, no error is found.
An acknowledgment is sent that data is received correctly and the next packet of data is
transmitted.
If parity is incorrect, an error is detected and a request is automatically sent to resend data.
Resend request is repeatedly sent until data is received correctly or limit is reached.

Exam Tip:
Each error-checking method is asked for no more than 4 marks in an exam.
The examiner can either give a specific error-checking method alone for 4 marks or ask
you to write any one of your choices.

If methods are combined, then examiner can ask in following ways:

Question 2:

There are various methods used to detect errors that can occur during data transmission and
storage.

Describe each of the following error detection methods: [8]

1) Parity check

2) Check digit

3) Checksum

4) Automatic Repeat request (ARQ)

Exam Tip:
Since 4 methods are asked and 8 marks are assigned, each method will be answered for
no more than 2 marks so (2 x 4 = 8 marks).

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Question 3:

Data can sometimes be corrupted when it is transmitted from one computer to another,
causing errors to be present in the data.

Identify and describe three methods of error detection that could be used to see if an error
has occurred. [9]

Exam Tip:
Since 3 methods are asked and 9 marks are assigned, each method will be answered for
no more than 3 marks so (3 x 3 = 9 marks).

Question 4:

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Answer:

Question 5:

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Answer:

Question 6:

Answer:

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Question 7:

Answer:

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 2 Data Transmission

2.3 | Encryption

2.3.1 Purpose of Encryption:

When data is transmitted over any public network (wired or wireless), there is always a risk of it
being intercepted by, for example, a hacker.

Under these circumstances, a hacker is often referred to as an eavesdropper. The use of encryption
helps to minimize this risk.

Why is encryption used?

It is used so that data cannot be understood if intercepted without the decryption key.

Encryption:
It is scrambling for data to make it meaningless.
It uses an encryption algorithm and key to encrypt data and decryption key to decipher
encrypted message.
Encryption is used primarily to protect data in case it has been hacked while encryption
won’t prevent hacking, it simply makes the data meaningless to the eavesdropper unless
the recipient has the necessary decryption tools.
This is particularly important if the data is sensitive or confidential such as credit card/bank
details, medical history, or legal documents etc.

Plain Text & Cipher Text:

i) Plain Text ii) Cipher Text

It is the original text or original data being sent It is the encrypted version of the plain text
before an encryption algorithm is applied. after an encryption algorithm is applied.

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General procedure/working of encryption:

The details/text before encryption is called plain text.

The plain text/details are encrypted using an encryption algorithm.
The plaint text/details are also encrypted using a key.
The encrypted text is called cipher text.
The key is transmitted separately from the text.
The key is used to decrypt the cypher text after transmission.

Types of Encryptions:

1) Symmetric encryption
2) Asymmetric encryption

2.3.2 Symmetric & Asymmetric Encryption:

1) Symmetric Encryption:
It uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt a message and so the key is referred to as
either an encryption key or a decryption key depending upon its use.
It is a security system and uses a secret key which can be a combination of characters.

How data is encrypted using symmetric encryption:

The data before encryption is known as plain text.

To scramble the data, an encryption key & encryption algorithm is used.
The encryption key & algorithm are applied to plain text to convert it into cipher text.
The data after encryption is known as cipher text which is meaningless unless the recipient
also has the decryption key.
The same key is used to encrypt and then decrypt the text.
Encryption prevents the data from being understood by a hacker.

How encryption improves security:

The encrypted text is meaningless.

It needs a key to decrypt the text.

Some data is encrypted with an 8-bit key. How this encryption can be made more secure:

It can be made more secure by increasing the length of the key such as making the key 12-
bit or more etc.
It will generate more possibilities for key and hence less chance of decryption by brute force
method.

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A system uses 64-bit symmetric encryption. How increase the level of security provided by
the encryption:

The length of the key can be increased by using more bits for the encryption key.
It will generate more possibilities for key and hence less chance of decryption by brute force
method.

A system uses 128-bit symmetric encryption. How the strength of encryption can be
improved:

The length of the key can be increased by using more than 128 bits for the encryption key.
A more complex encryption algorithm can be used.
It will generate more possibilities for key and hence less chance of decryption by brute force
method.

Security Risks in Symmetric Encryption:

(i) Cracking of key:

The modern computers can crack the encryption key in a matter of seconds.

Solution:

To overcome this issue, we now use 256-bit binary encryption keys that give 2256
(approximately 1.2 x 1077) possible combinations.

(ii) Interception of Key (also known as Key Distribution Problem):

The same key is used for encryption & decryption and so required for both sender and
recipient.
Therefore, the key has to be sent in an email or text message to the recipient which can be
intercepted by, for example, a hacker which puts the security of encrypted message at risk.
The real difficulty is keeping the encryption key a secret and so this security issue referred
to as the key distribution problem is the main drawback of symmetrical encryption.

Solution:

A system based on Modulo-11 can be used, where both sender and receiver can calculate the
encryption key without it actually being exchanged in any way electronically.

The following routine shows how both the sender and recipient end up with the same key
without sending the actual key electronically (using Modulo-11):

The table below is an encryption algorithm through which messages are produced in
encrypted form.
The algorithm uses an encryption key to produce a message which appears meaningless
unless the same key is applied to decrypt the original message.

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Drawbacks of Symmetric Key Encryption:
1. The key has to be exchanged very securely.
2. Once the key is compromised then it can be used to decrypt both sent and received
messages.
3. Symmetric encryption cannot ensure non-repudiation (proof of integrity & origin of data).

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 Examples of Symmetric Encryption System:
1) A simple system is considered that uses a 10-digit denary encryption key and a decryption
key (this gives 1 x1010 possible combinations). Suppose our encryption key is:

4 2 9 1 3 6 2 8 5 6 (10-digits)

which means every letter in a word is shifted across the alphabet +4, +2, +9, +1, and so on,
places.

For example, a message ‘COMPUTER SCIENCE IS BEST’ is being sent:

Plain Text C O M P U T E R S C I E N C E I S B E S T

Key Applied 4 2 9 1 3 6 2 8 5 6 4 2 9 1 3 6 2 8 5 6 4

Cipher Text G Q V Q X Z G Z X I M G W D H O U M C I M

one sequence of encryption key applied another sequence of encryption key applied
again
When the encryption key is applied to plain text, the following process happens: another
sequence of
When key is applied to plain letter ‘C’:
encryption
C + shifting 4 letters = D → E → F → G key applied
Cipher Text of ‘C’ = ‘G’

When key is applied to plain letter ‘O’:

O + shifting 2 letters = P → Q
Cipher Text of ‘O’ = ‘Q’

When key is applied to plain letter ‘M’:

M + shifting 9 letters = N → O → P → Q → R → S → T → U → V
Cipher Text of ‘M’ = ‘V’

When key is applied to plain letter ‘P’:

P + shifting 1 letter = Q
Cipher Text of ‘P’ = ‘Q’ and so on…

Therefore, the message is encrypted into cipher text letter by letter.

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For decryption, the same key will be used to get back to original message, but the
decryption process would be the reverse of the encryption:

–4 –2 –9 –1 –3 –6 –2 –8 –5 –6 (10-digits)

which means every letter in a word is shifted backward -4, -2, -9, -1, and so on.

When the decryption key is applied (same key) to cipher text, the following process
happens:

When key is applied to cipher letter ‘G’:

G + shifting 4 letters backwards = F → E → D → C

Plain Text of ‘G’ = ‘C’

When key is applied to cipher letter ‘Q’:

Q + shifting 2 letters backwards = P → O

Plain Text of ‘Q’ = ‘O’

When key is applied to cipher letter ‘V’:

V + shifting 9 letters backwards = U → T → S → R → Q → P → O → N → M

Plain Text of ‘V’ = ‘M’

When key is applied to letter ‘Q’:

Q + shifting 1 letter backward = P

Plain Text of ‘Q’ = ‘P’ and so on…

Therefore, the message is decrypted into plain text letter by letter.

2) In a simple symmetric encryption system, each letter of the alphabet is substituted with
another.

The plain text message:

The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

becomes the cypher text message:

Zag towns jumpy dmh coilp mngu zag bfke qmx.

The key would be T = Z, h = a, e = g, q = t, u = o, i = w, c = n, k = s and so on…

Decoding the cypher text message: “Agbbm Pmubq”

Hello World

Converting these words to cypher text: “Computer Science”

Nmilozgu Pnwgyng

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3) A simple symmetric encryption system is used to encrypt messages. Each letter of the
alphabet is substituted by another letter.

Plain text

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

Cypher text

v p n a q b r u z s c o y k w f x i e m d j t l h g

Converting the plain text “d a t a s e c u r i t y” to cypher text:

◼ a v m v (data)
◼ e q n d i z m h (security)

a v m v e q n d i z m h (data security)

A new cypher text is created by shifting each letter of the alphabet five places to the right.
Showing the new cypher text below:

Plain text

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

New cypher text

v w x y z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u

Which cypher text would be more secure?

◼ The first cypher is more secure.

◼ This is because the rest of the cypher cannot be deduced after identifying some characters
as there is more random substitution and not in an alphabetic sequence.

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2) Asymmetric Encryption:
It is a more secure method which overcomes security problems associated with symmetric
encryption.

It makes use of two types of keys, called the public key and the private key:

Public key is made available to everybody

Private key is only known to the computer user.

Both types of keys are needed to encrypt and decrypt messages.

Public Key:

◼ This key is widely available and can be used to encrypt message that only the owner of
private key can decrypt.

How data is encrypted using asymmetric encryption:

1. It uses a matching pair of keys (private and public).

2. A public key is made available to everyone.
3. The receiver sends their public key to the sender before a message is sent.
4. The message is encrypted by sender’s computer using the public key of the receiver.
5. The encrypted message (cipher text) is then sent by sender to the receiver.
6. A private key is only known to the owner of the keys.
7. The receivers private key is used for decrypting the message after it has been received by
the receiver’s computer.
8. This works because the public key used to encrypt the data and the private key used to
decrypt it are a matching pair generated on receivers computer.

Note:

◼ The public key can’t be used to decrypt the message.

◼ The receiver can also exchange their public key with any number of people so they can
receive encrypted messages (which have been encrypted using receiver’s public key) and
receiver can then decrypt them using matching private key.

NOTE: A number of examples have been given on the next page to better explain how
asymmetric key encryption works. The standard procedure of asymmetric encryption
including concepts of sender, receiver, public key, private key, encryption & decryption is
same for all the examples, but they have been given for you to understand how to apply
these concepts according to different scenarios asked in examination paper.

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Examples of Asymmetric Encryption:
1) Wiktor is an employee of a travel agent. He uses asymmetric encryption to send
confidential information to this female manager and the manager also replies confidentially.
How data is encrypted using asymmetric key encryption:

It uses different keys for encrypting (public key) and decrypting data (private key).
When Wiktor sends a message to his manager, the message is encrypted into cipher text
using his managers public key.
When the manager receives the message, it is decrypted using her private key.
When the manager replies, the message is encrypted using Wiktor’s public key.
When Wiktor receives the message, it is decrypted into plain text using his private key.

2) Ben wants to send a highly confidential email to Mariah so that only she can read it. How
data is encrypted using asymmetric key encryption:

It uses different keys for encrypting (public key) and decrypting data (private key).
Ben acquires Mariah’s public key.
Ben encrypts the email using Mariah’s public key.
Ben sends the encrypted email to Mariah.
Mariah decrypts the email using her private key.

3) Some data is being sent from one computer user to another over the internet. How data
is encrypted using asymmetric key encryption:

It uses a matching pair of keys.

A public key is made available to everyone.
The receivers public key is used for encrypting the message by sender before it is sent.
A private key is only known to the owner of the keys.
The receivers private key is used for decrypting the message after it has been received.

4) Mohammad is working away from his company’s head office. He wants to send a secure
message over a computer network to the head office. How data is encrypted using
asymmetric key encryption:

Two matching keys are used, one public & one private.
Mohammad obtains the public key of head office.
Before a message is sent, the message is encrypted by (sender’s computer) using the public
key of the head office.
When the message is received at head office, it is decrypted by (receivers computer) using
private key of the head office.

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5) Laura wants to send an important message to her bank over the internet. How data is
encrypted using asymmetric key encryption:

Two matching keys are used, one public & one private.
Laura obtains the public key of the bank.
Before a message is sent, the message is encrypted by (sender’s computer) using the public
key of the bank.
When the message is received at bank’s computer, the message is decrypted by (receivers
computer) using private key of the bank.

Benefits of Asymmetric Key Encryption:

1. It has increased message security as one key is private.
2. A private key does not need to be transmitted along with message so it cannot be
intercepted by eavesdropper/hacker.
3. It allows message authentication.
4. It ensures non-repudiation (proof of integrity & origin of data).
5. It detects tampering with data.

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Exam Style Questions:

Question 1:

Answer:

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Question 2:

Answer:

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Question 3:

Answer:

Question 4:

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Answer:

Question 5:

Answer:

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Question 6:

Answer:

Question 7:

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Answer:

Question 8:

Answer:

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Question 9:

Answer:

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Question 10:

Answer:

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Question 11:

Answer:

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Question 12:

Answer:

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