The Business and Management Review, Volume 13 Number 2 August 2022

The trade participation of developing countries in the context of the

global value chains
Heba El-Sayed Mohamed Tolba
Faculty of Economics & Political Science
Future University in Egypt, Egypt

Key words
global value chains, COVID-19 pandemic crisis, uncertainty, ripple effect, economic
resilience, MNCs.

Abstract
This Paper explores the main role of Global Value Chain on the Pattern of International Trade
and the impact on the developing and New-industrial countries through exports promotion of
intermediate goods across value chains activities globally, In Addition exploring the effects of the
participation on the pattern of international trade and the new reallocation of industrial hubs which
have been distributed along the global value chains over the world. The study applies the Qualitative
analysis using the macro indicators relevant to the phenomenon to explain its impacts on the
developing economies in a selected industry .

Introduction
Due to the expansion of the activities of Global value chains and their inclusion of all economic
sectors on an international scale, many developing and emerging countries are tended to be engaged in
global value chains through vertical specialization in one or more of the production stages of many
productive sectors. Thus, this study analyzes the main trade indicators that are related to global value
chains across a number of sectors most traded in global value chains to determine the extent of
participation of developing countries in these chains that resulting in shifting in the patterns and trends of
international trade and the change of international production centers for countries participating through
the Global value chains.

Global value chains in agricultural and food commodities

Value chains in agricultural and food industries are more international in nature than regional,
especially in the case of small economies, especially East Asian countries, which participate in many
stages throughout the global value chains. However ,China has a different situation with regard to
agricultural and food products, unlike global value chains. In other products, where the percentage of
domestic added value increases in the inputs of intermediate goods used across the various stages of
production, and the global value chain analysis includes food manufacturing industries, agricultural
commodities, in addition related to the complementary services, where global value chains are linked to
the downstream countries with the so-called “ The agri-food industry” includes both agricultural
products , the food and beverage industry.
In this Regards , the Agri-food industry is increasingly organized and structured across global value
chains through producers of processed and semi-processed food commodities, farmers and retailers in the
participating countries, which in turn requires coordination Between traders and distributors. on the one
hand, importers and exporters regarding managing and organizing how agricultural products are grown
and processing methods to ensure that the final products would meet the quality and food safety
standards . Therefore, the vertical integration of all producers at the different stages along the chain is
necessary to ensure fulfilling these Global standards.
Regarding the consumption side, it was remarkable that in many countries the consumption pattern
has changed, as consumers demand toward high-quality products that comply with health and safety
standards, which has provided an opportunity for foreign direct investment and international companies
producing food products in light of the trend towards liberalizing international trade to restructure and

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organize their value chains. Through the participation of many local producers of other countries in the
value chains organized by international companies (MNCs) in the developing countries, whose activities
are linked to producers in developed countries through value chains through the fragmentation of
production across the chain links.

The Characteristics of the value chain in agricultural commodities

In terms of length, the value chains of agricultural and food products are relatively long compared to
value chains in other products, because of the stages they include, such as animal husbandry in some
cases (such as dairy products), in addition to the fact that there are many agricultural inputs in the pre-
production stage, Then the processing stages are carried out in the countries that specialize in the final
stages of production downstream, and due to the high degree of fragmentation and the multiplicity of
production stages across this industry, it is the longest to reach the final consumer.
In terms of the participation, it is notable from the Data reports issued by the OECD that in some
developing countries such as (Vietnam, Cambodia and Argentina) the global value chain of agricultural
products represents the highest percentage of exports, and for Argentina, it participates in the initial
stages of upstream production in the chain compared to both From (Vietnam and Cambodia), China also
occupies a high position in the index of participation in the upper stages of the value chain (which
indicates that it participates in more than one stage of production with higher added value across the
value chain), while India has a lower index Despite its high participation in value chains, and despite the
similarity of the agricultural share in both countries. However , there is a difference in the participation of
both of them in the agricultural value chain, and this is explained by the fact that India produces products
that are characterized by the distance /closeness to the final consumers during less productive stages ,
while China participates in products with much longer production chains due to its participation in
production processes in its various stages, which leads to an increase in the local added value of it
through the value chains. Which mainly produce the inputs used in agricultural activities in other
countries, and the three countries (New Zealand, Vietnam, and the Netherlands) are the countries most
involved in the value chain of food and beverage products, and (Malaysia, China and Korea) are the most
specialized in inputs in the production stages Intermediate goods in the upper links of the value chain
(higher value added), while Mexico, Vietnam and Greece are among the countries that are most
specialized in the final production stages in the lower links of the chain (lower centers) with the lowest
added value, in addition to their participation in the processing services of imported food and agricultural
products 1.

The Global value chain of the chemical Industry

Chemical industry is characterized by the large number of different value chains intertwined over its
chain, which reflects the diversity and multiplicity of final and intermediate products across value chains
more than other Industry chains , as the structure of the entire value chain starts from the production of
oil and gas where it is converted into petrochemicals Basic chemicals, polymers, and specialized active
ingredients through another production stages along the chain .Furthermore, The chemical industries also
provide the essential raw materials and inputs for many products in multiple industries such as plastics,
clothing, etc.
The chemical industry market is also witnessing many developments across the different stages in the
chemical value chains. For instance, within the petrochemical sector, especially polymers and propylene,
it suffers from a high degree of volatility in oil prices; While the new discoveries of the many materials
that depend on natural gas able to feed the industry extracted from oil rocks all over the world. thus ,
especially in the United States, providing industries that depend on them for their needs of raw materials
and ethylene.
These various developments have also contributed to redistribute the production of the industry
geographically in the last decade, which lead to a great movement toward the Middle East countries

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through the specialization stages in the industry. The vertical Trade in the chemicals chain contains a
new number of competitors who try to seize the opportunities to participate and achieve high profits .
Most of the inputs in the chemical industry and the related subsidiary industries are characterized by
their high domestic Value added . As the indicator of the length of the global value chains indicates,
which ranges between (2 and 3) for most countries, while the length of the local production chain is longer
than other industries, which led to the high participation of relatively small countries in the global
production stages. In the value chains of the chemical industry 90% of the total participation in that sector,
which is explained by the assembling process of the chemical industry in China with the aim of
integrating them as inputs and intermediate goods through the production chains of other products in
China.
With regard to the indicator of the distance to the final demand, it shows us the centers of the
participating countries and the extent of their specialization in the activities of the global value chains for
chemical products, which indicates a large variation in the participation of developing countries. There
are some countries that specialize in basic chemicals in the initial stages, such as (Korea and China and
Malaysia), while other countries are more focused on specialized activities in the later stages, for example
(Ireland and Switzerland). A number of smaller countries appear in the index of high participation in
value chains, especially in the chemical industries. In (Ireland) participation in value chains increases
Value due to the high volume of investments for large pharmaceutical companies, especially from the
United States, while (Singapore, Belgium and the Netherlands) are important outlets for basic chemical
products, and for other countries (Switzerland, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and the United
States) their participation in the global value chain is closely linked By producing intermediate goods that
are exported for use in the production of the final product through other countries 2.

Global value chains in the Automotive Industry

The automotive industry is considered to be one of the industries in which production is highly
fragmented on a large scale. as the nature of the industry that depends on the dismantling of production
and its global distribution has prompted the outsourcing of tasks in specialized production stages, a
strategy that international companies have followed since the beginning of the nineties from by dividing
and distributing its production operations for parts, components, support services and assembly to many
countries of the world according to the comparative advantage. And hence , the value chain of
Automobiles is considered to be also one of the most organized chains as it follows a hierarchical
structure that includes the leading companies producing cars, which are concentrated at the top of the
pyramid as main companies responsible for design, brands and final assembly 3, Then the first-class
producers come to the bottom as they produce complete sub-systems through cooperation with a large
network of lower- and sub-level suppliers 4, and with the development of relationships and their
interdependence has become more and more profound between car assemblers and the first class of
producers across global value chains . For instance, the role of producers has evolved significantly
through the attribution of production operations to international companies as This includes the product
design stage, where the global demand for them from major companies is increasing for the efficiency of
their design capabilities for automotive production systems and more complex operational processes.
In view of the slowdown in growth rates experienced by the developed countries during the global
crisis of 2008-2009 and its significant impact on international car producers, many of them have taken a
new strategy to internationalize car production by dividing production processes geographically and
distributing them to production centers. In developing countries to take advantage of their comparative
advantages, especially the emerging countries in the Asian region, the participation of developing
countries in the value chains of the automotive industry is divided into three groups:
The first Group: has been led by China, which is one of the most important centers for assembling
and manufacturing auto spare parts and its support services, as well as the Philippines, Turkey, Brazil and

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India, the latter of which was able to maintain reasonable growth rates in the automotive sector and
attract foreign investments in the automotive sector, most notably the Toyota companies Volkswagen,
Ford, and Hyundai for the production of parts and components, as well as installation, assembly and
maintenance services. Due to their ability to perform these services at a lower cost than their production
in the mother countries, which suffered during the financial crisis from high production costs in addition
to transportation and marketing costs in different regions and what is characterized by markets
Developing countries from the expansion of the size of the local market to absorb the production of
international companies across the value chain in addition to their ability to better provide information
related to markets and consumer preferences.
Moreover , the role of international companies is limited to designing products in the initial stages of
the value chain, which provides the opportunity for local companies such as (Tata and Cherry) in China to
participate in the value chain for the production of auto parts, maintenance and assembly services for
them and the ability to grow faster than in the past This enables it to produce complete parts and
assemble them regionally through the regional value chains spread in East Asia and export them to the
American and African markets.
As for the second group, includes countries that do not have the ability to introduce modifications to
parts and components, such as the countries of South Africa, Thailand, Turkey and Egypt, whose
participation is limited to the final assembly of finished components in the last stage of value chains (such
as the assembly of heavy and light parts, glass, seats and car bodies), according to To the standards and
criteria set by the parent companies, which gave them the opportunity to increase exports in this sector.
The Third group relied on integrating into the global value chains of the automotive industry by
relying on regional trade agreements as an entry point for participation, including: Mexico within the
framework of the NAFTA agreement, Hungary through the European Union, and Thailand within the
framework of ASIAN, and specialization in the production of components that depend on the intensity of
hands operating such as wire production, electronics assembly and export to leading companies in the
United States and Eastern European countries that specialized in the production of capital-intensive
components and exported to the European market

Global value chains in the electronics Industry

It is one of the most widespread chains, as indicated by many applied studies that studied a number
of individual products in the electronics sector. The most prominent characteristics of electronics value
chains are as follows:
a- The modularity of its products.
b- Standardized products.
c- Codification and computing systems that allow the interoperability of parts and components for
the segmentation of production as it includes different stages of production such as (product design,
logistics and different parts of the production process) and is often implemented by different companies and
institutions working through stages different from the value chain5.
d- Low transportation costs over large distances for most electronic products, which are characterized
by high values and low weights, which led to dependence on fast transportation with ease and speed
(often by air), in addition to low transportation, delivery and shipping expenses for intermediate and final
electronic products in most parts of the world.
e- Ease of coordination and linking between the different stages of production across the different
countries participating in the value chains, which are carried out via the Internet in order to share and
monitor a chain of information related to them.
Therefore, the participation of developing countries takes place within the framework of international
contracts, whose role is limited to assembling products to leading companies. Most of the leading
companies in the electronics industry are settled in advanced economies, especially in Europe, Japan and
the United States. It is also noted here that emerging economies are the most represented in companies
Contract manufacturing, where companies from emerging countries (Acer and Huawei) have been able to

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develop their activities and move up the value chain from OEM to ODM with true original brand as the
leading companies, while PC manufacturers in China also failed a bit and remained It operates under the
same type of contracts.
In light of the available data, the participation of small countries has been shown to a high degree,
most notably (Hungary, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Ireland) and others, through
participation in importing a huge volume of inputs from abroad to participate in the assembly operations
of the final products. Thailand and China) as contract producers by relying on transformational processes
of imports and re-exports as semi-manufactured goods, as well as the high participation of countries such
as (Finland and Japan) largely driven by their intermediate exports with high value-added and often
exported to the industrialized countries according to contracts.
In this context , the analysis of the total network of the electronics industry based on vertical trade, it
turns out that there are three regions that are considered to be the dominant poles of the global
production of electronics (Asia, NAFTA and Europe) and the industry is highly concentrated in Germany,
while the Asian pole remains dominant in the global perspective in this industry Most of the leading
companies are concentrated in Japan as major producers of spare parts and electronic components, while
China is concentrated in the producers according to contracts, and most other Asian countries are linked
with Japan and China through value chains in the import and export of electronic components according
to the comparative advantage and vertical specialization of each country, with particular importance for
the participation of some Countries such as (Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia) and others.

Changing the pattern of international trade through participation in global value chains
The change in the pattern of international trade means a change in the relative weights of the various
components of international trade, through an increase in the trend towards trade within the industry
instead of trade between industries, which indicates a change in the pattern of international trade through
an increase in the volume of trade in parts and components at the expense of trade in final goods and thus
change The structure of exports and imports (change in the pattern of international trade) (), which is
largely due to changes in the production structures of many countries participating in global value chains,
through two main directions:
The first trend: the tendency of the developed countries to reshape their production system through
global value chains and the fragmentation of production processes according to the competitive
advantage in the production stage and their distribution along the chain, which led to the inclusion of
developing economies in their productive circles according to their specializations.
The second trend: the tendency of developing countries to participate in value chains through deep
specialization in tasks and production stages, according to two basic approaches 6:
• The first approach: developing the traditional, historical competitive advantage of some developing
countries and focusing on the most efficient production stages for them to enable them to maintain their
international competitive position through summit chains such as: the Philippines, Brazil, Mexico,
Vietnam, Argentina by specializing in the production of components of value chain products Agricultural
and food crops, which have a historical competitive advantage.
• The second approach: the trend towards creating a new competitive advantage away from the
traditional advantage of the state through participation in new sectors such as electronics chains, cars and
services, which is the approach followed by China, Malaysia, India, Singapore and other countries, as
previously explained.
• The third approach: It is the approach that is considered the most successful in developing
countries, which involves integrating the two previous approaches by preserving the comparative
advantage in the traditional sectors and developing them in line with global developments within the
framework of the international segmentation of production processes in addition to participating in
promising new sectors and benefiting from Participating in acquiring experiences and skills through
contracting systems across value chains and specializing in low value-added activities locally, enabling
them to grow and mature in the long term and move to higher centers in the value chain. Among the most

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prominent countries that have followed this approach: China, India, Mexico, Morocco, Turkey, Malaysia, the
Czech Republic, Ireland.
We refer here to the distinction between the change in the pattern of international trade resulting
from the change in the relative weights of the components of the various total international trade, and the
change in the pattern of international trade resulting from the ability of production functions to be
switched or reversible (which Menhas presented in his study as one of the explanations provided to solve
the Leontief paradox), which means that the function of Labor-intensive production can become after a
certain level of relative prices a capital-intensive function, and thus the pattern of exports changes from
labor-intensive goods to capital-intensive goods, and the structure of imports changes from capital-
intensive goods to labor-intensive goods, which means that there is no clear pattern The change in the
foreign trade pattern of the country occurs through a change in the structure of the goods that are traded
internationally (Exports / Imports) and resulting from many factors and economic policies. This is due to
the fact that international trade is affected by the patterns of production and consumption in the country,
in addition to the changes that the change in the state’s mode of production means the transition from the
integrated production system to the production of the entire final commodity within the state’s borders to
the international division of production. Furthermore, each country specializes in the stage of its
production segmentation to produce a part or more of the final commodity, which affects the pattern of
international trade in quantity and quality.
In terms of quantity, the volume of international trade increases; This is a result of the increasing
transit of large shipments of parts and components across countries several times and their circulation
through international trade, and in terms of type, the relative weight of parts and components trade is
increasing at the expense of the traditional form of international trade in final goods.
In light of what we have presented previously regarding the strong relation between international
trade & global value chains the following conclusions would be detected :
• The high participation of developing countries in many sectors through deep vertical specialization
in the specialized production stages (one stage or several stages) - as we have previously explained -
which reflects their ability to integrate into value chains and support their competitiveness in
participation.
• The participation of some developing countries in value chains leads to a rise in the volume of their
intermediate exports in the components of international trade, whether (goods or services through
participation in international outsourcing services).
• The participation of developing countries in value chains also leads to an increase in the efficiency
of human capital through participation in global production in accordance with the new production
requirements and standards, which require the development of labor skills and raising the efficiency of
performance, which is provided by participation through participation in the production systems of
international institutions that lead to the transfer of expertise. skills and production technology to their
suppliers in developing countries, in addition to increasing job opportunities in participating countries
through specialized activities created by value chains that do not require the transfer of labor from one
country to another, such as (outsourcing services).
• The high share of the participation of newly industrializing countries on a large percentage of trade
in the inputs and components of many industries that were monopolized by the developed countries,
which means that the economic geography of production has changed dramatically, as many of these
countries were able to form specialized global production centers as previously mentioned In the Asian
region, in which China is considered the Factory of Asia due to the multiplicity of specialized tasks that

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Figure 1: The participation of Developing Countries in the Global Value Chain 2020

Source: OECD , "DATA BASE" , 2021.

Note: Trade is global exports of goods and services. GVC share of trade is proxied by the share of
foreign value added in exports, based on the UNCTAD-Eora GVC database (Casella et al., 2019). The
underlying FDI trend is an UNCTAD indicator capturing the long-term dynamics of FDI by netting out
fluctuations driven by one-off transactions and volatile financial flows. (FDI, trade and GDP indexed, 2010
= 100; GVCs per cent)
As shown in the Figure above , the participation of developing countries in trade in intermediate
goods and components and parts of products and services in the sectors referred to, and the ability of
middle-high income countries to participate in industries with high added value such as electronics, cars
and clothing, in addition to Low-middle-income countries, whose shift from specializing in primary
commodities to participation in semi-processing industries, on the other hand, we note the decline in the
participation of high-income countries in some sectors such as shoes, clothing and electronics, due to
many developing countries seizing opportunities to integrate into the value chains of these Industries and
the limited role of the developed countries in participating in their (upstream) activities through the
processes of (design, innovation of trademarks and innovation of production systems).
As the previous figure shows the distribution of the share of trade in value-added over regions in the
world as a percentage of GDP, which shows the development of participation in value-added chains for
developing and developed countries. We note the high share of developing countries in them, especially
the Asian region and China, which is the global center for the assembly of many chain products. In
addition to the middle-income European countries and the rest of the world, which includes the countries
of the Middle East, which refers to the phenomenon of geographic transformation of international trade
through value chains, which allowed emerging and developing countries to participate in trade in value-
added and benefit from it in improving the gross domestic product by increasing foreign trade, especially
Exports, whether of low or high added value 12, as it is clear that countries specialized in aggregating
products may add little value to foreign production inputs, but they generate a large proportion of
national income through exporting value-added products according to the ability of the participating
country to integrate in value chains. The global additive and by looking at the countries specialized in the
assembly stage, we find that it does not import basic high-cost inputs, adds a relatively small value to
these elements, and exports goods with a large foreign added value, and the ratios of exports with these
value-added countries are often the lowest in the total exports. But even if it performs aggregation tasks
with low value-added, its exports still generate a large part of its income - that is, the proportion of
exports with a value-added to its total - as shown in the figure - is high and growing. Also, the ratio of
exports to the value added of its Gross Domestic product with larger countries such as Japan, Germany
and Spain.

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The Role of Global value chains in The Economic Development

Global value chains at the international level contribute to the acceleration of the pace of developing
countries catching up with developed countries in the levels of GDP and income, by increasing the
convergence between developing and developed economies. At the local level, the local added value
resulting from trade through global value chains can be extremely important given the size of local
economies. In developing countries, value-added trade contributes about 30% to GDP on average,
compared to an 18% contribution in developed countries. This indicates the positive correlation between
participation in global value chains and per capita GDP growth rates. The per capita GDP growth rates in
the economy whose participation in global value chains is increasing faster than others are two percentage
points higher than the average. Moreover, participation in global value chains usually leads to job creation
in developing countries and employment growth at a greater rate, even if participation in those chains is
linked to the imported contents that make up exports.
Most developing countries are also increasingly participating in global value chains, whose share in
global value-added trade has increased from 20% in 1990 to 30% in 2000 13and then to more than 40%
today. However, many poorer developing countries are still striving to access GVCs in sectors other than
primary resource exports. GVCs are usually coordinated by transnational corporations that have cross-
border exchanges of inputs and outputs across the networks of their affiliates, contracting partners and
independent suppliers and form value chains. Global coordinated transnational corporations 80% of
world trade. Investment decisions made by international firms shape to a large extent the models of
value-added trade in global value chains, so countries in which FDI is concentrated are able to participate
more in global value chains and reap relatively higher domestic value added from trade.

Conclusion
Participation in the global added summit series is a new framework for international trade that
allows increasing interdependence between North and South countries, which leads to benefit for both
parties. For developing countries to specialize in the specific stages, and developing countries also benefit
from participating in the production of intermediate products for international companies according to
specific specifications, which gives them many advantages related to modernizing their production
structures and participating in new sectors, in addition to increasing the volume of intermediate exports
and increasing the international trade movement through their regions.

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