Module 1

Energy is the capacity of aphysical system to perform work.It exists in several

forms such as heat, mechanical, light , electrical or other forms of energy.
ENERGY USE SCENARIO

%of population 70% 30%

%of energy 30% 70%
usage
Causes of energy scarcity

▪ 1.Increasing population.
▪ 2.Increasing energy usage or
consumption-a)Movement of civilization
from early man to present technological man
based on energy usage.
b)Energy is constantly used
c)Energy provides the society with heat and
electricity daily and motive power to
industries, transportation systems.
Population and energy
consumption
Continued…
▪ 3.Uneven distribution of energy resources.
▪ A)middle east countries are full of crude oil resrerves-their
energy reserves are forcefully used by wealthy countries
▪ B)geographical distribution is the main consideration for
unevenly distribution of fossil fuels(coal,oil,gas and
nuclear)
▪ C)renewable energy flows are also spread out
unevenly.-cloudiness reduces solar radiation.-only few sites
with the best potential for geothermal, tides.
▪ D)Whole stretches of the continent have insufficient wind
▪ 4. Lack of technical knowledge:
▪ Inspite of having energy in abundance-several
countries –not able to fully utilise them due to
lack of knowledge of conversion,
transmission and distribution and utilisation
▪ Resources are mined, processed and used in
developed countries.
Solution to energy crisis

▪ Minimising population growth exploitation and

using large utilisation of energy resources.
▪ Development of energy conversion techniques to
basic energy from primary energy resources to
usable form (secondary energy –electrical
energy)
▪ Keep the new energy system pollution
free-environmentally acceptable to human
beings
▪ Development of cheap and reliable energy
storage systems.
Factors affecting Energy
Resource development
1)Energy or fuel substitution—there is no
readily available energy resources that is
large enough to substitute for fossil fuels
▪ Solar energy availability–magnitude
(10000000w)-practical conversion to
electricity using photovoltaic or large scale
industrial heat are negligible.
Continued…

▪ Energy density-amount of energy contained in a

unit of material object(energy resource).
▪ Crop residue(agricultural waste)-12-15MJ/Kg
▪ Energy density of good quality coal -25-30MJ/Kg
▪ In order to obtain equivalent output, replacement
of a unit of fossil fuels with approximately 2 kg of
biomass will be needed.
▪ These realities will be reflected in the reserve
capacity, cost and operation of the required
infrastructure.
Continued…

3.Power density-refers to the rate of energy

production per unit of earth’s area-and
expressed in w/m2.
▪ Fossil fuels-power density-1000w/m2
▪ Biomass-energy production density-1w/m2
▪ Power density of electricity produced by
water and wind<10w/m2.
▪ Photovoltaic electric
generation->20w/m2.(cost and performance
are the constraints)
4.Intermittency-Nuclear plants and thermal power
plants are capable of operating at high load factors.
▪ Wind and solar radiation are intermittent-cannot
deliver high load factors.
▪ 5.Geometrical energy distribution-there are uneven
distribution of fossil fuels and non fossil fuels(solar
wind…)
▪ Cloudiness in the equatorial zone reduces direct solar
radiation. Whole stretches of continent has
insufficient wind. There are few sites with best
potential for geothermal, tide, ocean thermal energy
conversion.
 Classification of energy sources
▪ Energy can be classified into several types based on the following gauges:
▪
▪

a. Primary and Secondary energy

▪ The sources are categorized based usability of energy. Primary energy sources are either found
or stored in nature. The primary energy sources are fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas),
renewables (hydro, solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, ocean energy), nuclear energy from
radioactive substances, and potential energy due to earth's gravity. Some of these sources are
directly used for energy supply. Ex: burning fuel in furnaces, transportation, industries etc. Coal
or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.
▪ The secondary energy sources such as steam, thermal and electricity are derived from the
primary sources. Burning of fossil fuel and biomass produces heat which is utilized for
production of steam and electricity. Similarly other primary sources used to produces
secondary energy sources. Fig. 1 shows the major primary and secondary energy sources.
Fig. 1. The primary and secondary energy
resources.
b. Commercial and Noncommercial energy
▪ Commercial Energy: The energy sources which are available for a definite price are
known as commercial energy. Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
Commercial energies sources are directly used in process of industry, agricultural,
transport, commercial and domestic purposes.
▪ Non-Commercial Energy: Non-commercial energies are fuels which are traditionally
gathered and are not available in the commercial market for a price. Non-Commercial
energies are generally used in rural households. Examples: firewood, cattle dung,
agricultural wastes. Natural resources such as: solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation, drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting
water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water, cleaning grain
and electricity generation.
▪
c. Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
▪ Renewable and Non-Renewable energies are available in nature
▪ Renewable Resources: The resources which cannot be exhausted even
after continuous utilization are termed as renewable resources. Examples:
Solar radiation, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, and ocean energy.
▪
Non-Renewable Resources: The non-renewable resources are depleting
which cannot be immediately replaced once they are exhausted. Examples
fossil fuels include coal, petroleum and natural gas.
d. Conventional and Non-conventional energy
▪ Conventional Energy: Conventional energy resources are predictable.
Conventional resources traditionally used for many decades and were in
common use around oil crisis of 1973. Example: fossil fuels, nuclear and
hydro resources.
▪ Non-conventional energy resources are considered for large scale use
after oil crisis of 1973. Examples: Solar radiation, wind, hydro, biomass,
geothermal, and ocean energy.
 1. Importance of Non -conventional (Renewable )Energy Sources:
▪
▪
▪ The concern for environment due to ever-increasing use of fossil fuels and rapid depletion
of these resources has led to development of alternative sources of energy, which are
renewable and environment friendly. Following points may be mentioned in this
connection:
1. Conventional sources (except hydro) are non-renewable and finite assets. With present rate
of consumption their availability is rapidly declining.
2. The demand of energy is increasing exponentially due to rapid industrialization and
population growth, the conventional sources of energy alone will not be sufficient in the
long run, to meet the growing demand.
3. Conventional sources (fossil fuels, nuclear) also cause pollution leading to degradation of
the environment. Ultimately, their use has to be restricted within acceptable limits.
4. Large hydro resources affect wild life, cause deforestation and pose various social problems.
5. In addition to supplying energy, fossil fuels are also used extensively as
feedstock for the manufacture of organic chemicals. As reserves deplete, the
need for using fossil fuels exclusively for such purposes may become
greater.
▪ Due to these reasons it has become important to explore and develop
nonconventional energy resources to reduce too much dependence on
conventional resources. However, the present trend of developments of
non-conventional sources indicate that these will serve as supplement
rather than substitute for conventional sources for some more time to
come.
 Salient Features of Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Merits

1. Non-conventional sources are available in nature free of cost.

2. They produce no or very little pollution. Thus by and large they are environment
friendly.
3. They are inexhaustible.
4. They have low gestation period.

▪ Demerits

1. In general the energy is available in dilute form from these sources.

2. Though available freely in nature the cost of harnessing energy from
nonconventional sources is generally high.
3. Uncertainty of availability: the energy flow depends on various natural phenomena
beyond human control.
4. Difficulty in transporting this form of energy.
5. Difficulty in storage
Worldwide Renewable Energy Availability:

▪ About 16% of total final energy consumption

comes from renewables with 10% from
traditional biomass, which is mainly used for
heating and 3.4% from hydroelectricity.
Continued…
Renewable energy in India
Renewable energy sources in
India(capacity breakdown by
various technologies)
Sun earth geometric
relationship
▪ The earth rotation-refers to the spinning of the earth on
its axis
▪ The orbit of the earth around the sun –earth revolution
▪ Motion of earth takes 365 days to complete one cycle
▪ Earths orbit around the sun is elliptical not circular
▪ Earths orbit around the sun is elliptical with a
mean centre to centre distance from the
sun-9300000 miles
▪ Sun is 109 times larger in diameter than the
earth
Distance from the sun to the earth varies plus or
minus 1.7% over the average distance.Hence the
solar energy reaching the earth to vary plus or
minus 3% during a year.
Peak energy received at its peak on 1st January
And lowest energy on 1st July.
Layers of the sun
▪ Sun -is divided into 6 layers
▪ Core-innermost layer of the sun with a density of 160g/cm3 Core
temperature-1,50,00,0000C.
▪ Solar envelope-(radiative zone) Outside of the core is the radiative
envelope –which is surrounded by convective envelope-temperature is
7 million degree F. Core contains 40% of the mass. Solar envelope has
60% of the mass. Solar envelope puts pressure on the core and
maintains the core temperature.
▪ Heat energy move by convection in huge cells of circulating gas with
several hundred kms in diameter. Top of each convection cell is
called-granule.
▪ These granules-looks like tiny speeks of light-when observed through a
telescope.

▪
▪ Photosphere-it is a thin layer of low pressure gases
surrounding the envelope. It is the zone from which the
sunlight is both seen and emitted. It is only a few hundred
kms thick with a temp of 6000 degree centigrade.

▪ Chromosphere-during an eclipse, a red circle is seen

outside the sun –which is called chromosphere. Its red
colouring is caused by the abundance of hydrogen. From
centre of the sun to chromosphere, temp decreases
proportionately as the distance from the core increases.
Chromosphere temp is 7000 degree kelvin
▪ Corona-outermost layer of the sun-also called
as crown. Corona is very thin- can be
observed during solar eclipse –using
telescope.It is hottest. Corona extends
several million kms into space-there is a lot
of space for molecules to move-this
movement forms the source of the solar
winds.Temp of the corona can force ions to
move as fast as million km/hr.
Earth–sun angles and their
relationship
▪ To describe the earths rotation about its polar axis, the concept of hour angle is used
▪ Hour angle(ω)-it is the angular distance between the meridian of the observer and the meridian whose plane
contains the sun

▪ Hour angle increases by 15 degree every hour. Hour angle can be calculated from
▪ ω=15*(ts-12) in degrees
▪ ts=solar time in hours
▪ Hour angle can also be calculated using
▪ ω=1/4*tm
▪ tm=time in minutes

▪ The hour angle is zero at solar noon(12:00) (when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky)
▪ Declination Angle (δ )
• It is the angle between a line extending from the center of the sun to

the center of the earth & the projection of this line upon the earth
equatorial plane.
▪

The declination angle (δ) can be approximately obtained as,

Where n is day of the year counted from 1st January

▪ Latitude Angle (φ )
▪ The latitude of a location on the earth surface is the angle made by a
radial line joining the given location to the centre of earth with its
projection on the equatorial plane. The latitude is positive for northern
hemisphere and negative for southern hemisphere
▪ Solar Altitude Angle or Inclination Angle (Altitude) (α)
▪ The angle between sun’s ray and its projection on horizontal surface is known
as inclination angle

Zenith Angle (θZ)

It is the angle between sun’s ray and perpendicular (normal) to the
horizontal plane. (Refer Fig. 4.16)
Solar Azimuth Angle (γS)
It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south and the
projection of sun’s ray on the horizontal plane. (Refer Fig. 4.16)
▪ Tilt angle(β)-It is the angle between the inclined plane surface under consideration and horizontal. It is taken to be
positive for the surface sloping towards south.

▪ Angle of incidence(θ)-it is the angle between the sun rays incident on the plane
surface(collector) and the normal to that surface
▪ Surface azimuth angle(γ)-it is the angle in the horizontal plane between the plane
due south and the horizontal projection of the normal to the inclined surface
▪ Cosθ=(cosфcosβ+sinфsinβcosγ)cosδcosω+ cosδsinωsinβsinγ+sinδ
(sinфcosβ-cosфsinβcosγ)--------------(1)
▪ Special cases
▪ i)surface facing due south(γ=0).substituting in
equation 1
▪ Cosθ=cos(ф-β)cosδcosω+sinδ
(sinфcosβ-cosфsinβ)-------(a)
▪ Ii)for horizontal surface,β=0,θ=θZ substituting in
equation 1
▪ Cos θZ =(cosфcosδcosω+sinδsinф)-----(b)
▪ Iii)For vertical surface facing due south, γ=0,
β=90° substituting in equation 1
▪ Cosθ=sinфcosδcosω-sinδcosф-------(c)
Sunrise, Sunset, and Day length Equations

▪ Sun rise,sunset and solar day length

▪ At the time of sun rise or sunset, zenith angle, θZ = 90°
▪ Substituting in(b),we get sun rise hour angle ωs
▪ i.e cos ωs = -tanꬾ tanδ
▪ ωs= cos-1(-tanꬾ tanδ)----- in degrees
▪ As 150 hour angle=1 hour, sun rise and sun set from solar noon
is= ωs/15-----hours
▪ Day light hour, t =sun rise time +sunset time(both measured
d
from solar noon)
▪ =2* ωs/15
▪ =2*(cos-1(-tanꬾ tanδ))/15
▪ The length of day is function of latitude and solar declination
angle
▪ Solar time-it is the time based on the angular
motion of the sun across the sky.
▪ Solar time is location (longitude) dependent and
different from local clock time.
▪ Solar time is used to define the rotation of the
earth relative to the sun.
▪ Solar time does not time coincide with local
clock time.
Hence necessary to convert standard time to solar
time
▪ LST(Local solar time) can be obtained from
the standard time(ST) by using the following
equation
▪ LST=standard time-4*(LSTM
▪ -longitude of location)+EOT

▪ EOT=9.87*sin(2B)-7.67sin(B+78.7)
▪ B=360(n-81)/365
▪ Calculate the number of daylight hours (sunshine
hours) in Srinagar on January 1st and July 1st .The
latitude of Srinagar is
▪ 3405’

▪ (Solved in the class)

▪ (Refer notes for problems solved in the class)

▪
Solar radiations reaching the earth
surface
Distance between sun and earth is 151 million km
▪ Extraterrestrial Radiation, Iext
▪ The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as it propagates away from the
surface of the sun. Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is
known as Extraterrestrial Radiation, Iext.
▪ Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing through the earth’s
atmosphere is known as Terrestrial Radiation.
▪
▪ The terrestrial radiation expressed as energy per unit time per unit area
(i.e.W/m2) is known as Solar Irradiation.
▪
▪ The term Solar Insolation (incident solar radiation) is defined as solar radiation
energy received on a given surface area in a given time (in J/m2 or kWh/m2 ).
 Solar constant: The radiation intensity on the surface of the
sun is approximately 6.33*107 w/m2. The solar energy reaching
the periphery of the earths atmosphere is considered to be
constant for all practical purposes and is known as solar
constant. Because of the difficulty in achieving accurate
measurements, the exact value of the solar constant is not
known with certainity, but it is believed to be between 1353 and
1395 w/m2. The solar constant value is estimated on the basis of
the solar radiation received on a unit area exposed
perpendicularly to the rays of the sun at an average distance
between the sun and the earth.
 ▪ DEPLETION OF SOLAR RADIATION(Ref Fig 4.3)
▪ The earth’s atmosphere contains various gaseous constituents, suspended dust
and other minute solid and liquid particulate matter. These are air molecules,
ozone, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapour,
dust, and water droplets. Therefore, solar radiation is depleted during its
passage through the atmosphere. Different molecules do different things as
▪ Below.
1. Absorption
▪ Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs by different molecules. The absorbed
radiation increases the energy of the absorbing molecules, thus raising their temperatures:

(a) Nitrogen, molecular oxygen and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-rays and extreme
ultraviolet radiations.
(b) Ozone absorbs a significant amount of ultraviolet radiation in the range (l < 0.38 μm).
 (a) Water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide absorb almost completely the
infrared radiation in the range (l > 2.3 μm) and deplete to some extent the
near infrared radiation below this range.
(b) Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant energy
irrespective of wavelength.
2. Scattering
▪ Scattering by dust particles, and air molecules (or gaseous particles of
different sizes) involves redistribution of incident energy. A part of scattered
radiation is lost (reflected back) to space while remaining is directed
downwards to the earth’s surface from different directions as diffuse
radiation. It is the scattered sunlight that makes the sky blue. Without
atmosphere and its ability to scatter sunlight, the sky would appear black, as it
does on the moon.
 ▪ In cloudy atmosphere, (i) a major part of the incoming solar radiation is
reflected back into the atmosphere by the clouds, (ii) another part is
absorbed by the clouds and (iii) the rest is transmitted downwards to the
earth surface as diffuse radiation.

▪ The energy is reflected back to the space by (i) reflection from clouds, plus
(ii) scattering by the atmospheric gases and dust particles, plus (iii) the
reflection from the earth’s surface
 ▪ Thus on the surface of earth we have two components of solar radiation:
(i) direct or beam radiation, unchanged in direction and
(ii) diffuse radiation, the direction of which is changed by scattering and reflection.
▪ Total radiation at any location on the surface of earth is the sum of beam radiation and
diffuse radiation, what is known as global radiation.

▪ These terms may be properly defined as follows:

▪ Beam radiation: Solar radiation propagating in a straight line and received at the earth
surface without change of direction, i.e., in line with sun is called beam or direct radiation.
▪ Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust and molecules is known as
diffuse radiation. It does not have a unique direction.
▪ Global radiation: The sum of beam and diffuse radiation is referred to as total or global
radiation.
Solar thermal energy
applications
▪ Passive systems
▪ Active systems
▪ Passive systems: These systems collect energy without the
need for pumps or motors, through orientation,materials
and construction of collectors. Ex; solar water heater which
transfers heated water for domestic use.
▪ Active system: These systems use pumps to circulate water
or another heat absorbing fluid through solar collectors.
▪ Direct thermal applications: solar energy can be collected
directly to create high temperature steam(>100 degree
centigrade) and low temperature heat(<100 degree
centigrade) for various applications.
Solar thermal energy
applications
▪ Solar Cookers: Solar cookers or ovens are primarily used in
developing nations as a primary method for cooking using
passive solar heat to cook primary meals Insulated box that
collects solar radiation enhanced by reflectors attached to each
side.
▪ Solar water heater-For heating water
▪ Space heating for commercial buildings, homes and offices.
▪ Swimming pool water heating
▪ Solar steam generation for industrial process
▪ Agricultural crops drying.
▪ Desalination-removing impurities in water.
▪ Production of power-solar pond can be used to generate
electricity by driving a thermos electric device.