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Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A

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DOI: 10.13189/cea.2021.090503

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Civil Engineering and Architecture 9(5): 1295-1308, 2021 http://www.hrpub.org
DOI: 10.13189/cea.2021.090503

Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Mechanical

and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review

Armand Augustin Fondjo1,*, Elizabeth Theron1, Richard P Ray2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Central University of Technology, South Africa
2
Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Széchenyi István Egyetem University, Hungary

Received March 19, 2021; Revised April 29, 2021; Accepted June 6, 2021

Cite This Paper in the following Citation Styles

(a): [1] Armand Augustin Fondjo, Elizabeth Theron, Richard P Ray , "Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using
Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review," Civil Engineering and Architecture, Vol. 9, No. 5, pp.
1295 - 1308, 2021. DOI: 10.13189/cea.2021.090503.
(b): Armand Augustin Fondjo, Elizabeth Theron, Richard P Ray (2021). Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using
Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review. Civil Engineering and Architecture, 9(5), 1295 - 1308.
DOI: 10.13189/cea.2021.090503.
Copyright©2021 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License

Abstract The presence of expansive soils on Mechanical Methods, Chemical Methods, Additives
construction sites is problematic in geotechnical
engineering. The swell-shrink behaviour makes these soils
not suitable to be used in their natural state. The expansive
soil damages cause financial loss yearly more than floods,
hurricanes, tornadoes, and earthquakes combined. 1. Introduction
Moreover, the cost of cut to spoil of expansive soils during
Expansive soils (ES) present significant structural and
construction projects has continued to rise because of the
geotechnical challenges worldwide. The soil deformations
high cost of earthworks, haulage, and the increasing
(swell/shrink) induce significant defects in Lightweight
scarcity of spoil areas because of the built environment.
constructions [1,2]. Lightweight constructions generally
Nonetheless, a proper stabilization technique can
exhibit damages when subjected to ES movement.
significantly enhance the expansive soil's properties. The
Reference [3] pointed out that the defects related to ES are
research project attempts to review, report the limits and
not a result of the absence of engineering solutions, but
merits of mechanical and chemical methods utilized to
the failure to diagnose the presence and intensity of
stabilize expansive soils in line with their efficiency,
swell/shrink of these soils in the early stage of the project.
environmental concerns, and cost-effectiveness. A review
Countries that reported the ES damages include South
of mechanical and chemical treatment techniques is
Africa, Morocco, Mexico, Israel, Spain, Turkey, Iran,
conducted in this regard. Ultimately, each stabilization
India, Great Britain, Ethiopia, Ghana, Australia, USA,
method exhibits its merits and limitations. The lack of
Argentina, etc. The repair cost for construction damages
standards for the treatment of swelling soils is a significant
by ES in South Africa is estimated at R100 million
problem in engineering practice. Specialists in the domain
annually [4]. In the United Kingdom, ES damages are
of soil treatment must work together to obtain an optimized
evaluated at £400 million annually [5]. The American
stabilization approach and protocol. Moreover, engineers
Society of Civil Engineers estimated that 25% of houses
should perform a geoenvironmental assessment
exhibit some damages initiated by ES [6]. ES damages
appropriate for chemical stabilization methods and
generate a yearly financial loss more than hurricanes,
additives utilized. This research work contributes as a
floods, tornadoes, and earthquakes put together [7].
guideline in the selection and application of chemical and
Reference [8] revealed that soil stabilization is achieved
mechanical stabilization methods.
utilizing various geotechnical techniques that modify and
Keywords Expansive Soils, Soil Stabilization, improve the state of the unsuitable ground where soil
1296 Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review

replacement is not possible for technical and properties, limit water absorption capacity and improve
environmental reasons or not cost-effective. Reference [9] compressibility of the treated soil [10]. Other studies
reported that the expense of cut to spoil of ES during conducted by [11,8,12,13] reported that the functions of
construction projects of airports, roads, buildings has kept soil stabilization include: increase liquefaction resistance,
on expanding because of the enormous cost of removal, fill voids, give lateral stability, reduce imposed loads,
haulage, and the increment shortage of spoil regions due control deformations, enhance shear strength, improve
to the city expansion. Besides, appropriate borrow bearing limit, increase density, reduce soil plasticity,
materials keep on exhausting, with their areas getting reduce swelling/shrinkage potential. Figure 1 shows the
further a lot from the location where they would be different stabilization techniques of ES (mechanical
required. This situation has driven the research of stabilization, chemical stabilization). The primary
reasonable methods of enhancing and utilizing ES. Soil objective is to review, describe, report limits and merits of
stabilization is a geotechnical process including mechanical and chemical treatment methods. Nonetheless,
mechanical, chemical, or other alternative treatment the study will further focus on cost effectiveness,
methods intended to sustain stability, enhance engineering geoenvironmental and standardization concerns.

Figure 1. Mechanical and Chemical Stabilizations methods of expansive soils

 Civil Engineering and Architecture 9(5): 1295-1308, 2021 1297

2. Mechanical Stabilization SS and dry unit weight, whereas an exponential

correlation was negative between the SS and the moisture
The mechanical methods have been applied in content. The outcome is in line with the studies performed
engineering practice over the years for the treatment of ES. by [20,21] reported the increment of the SS when the dry
The objective of mechanical stabilization techniques of density increases. Reference [103] investigated the
ES is the reduction of the expansion potential and correlation between SS and suction of compacted
swelling stress (SS) without modifying the soil chemistry expansive soils. The outcomes reveal that at WOP, the SS
[14]. Besides, the assessment of the SS of expansive soils values range from 177kPa to 326kPa. These values are
can also be performed using the predictive model recently higher than the carrying capacity (~ 40 kPa) usually
developed by [101]. applied to the lightweight footing. A strong correlation is
observed between the SS and soil suctions with a
2.1. Compaction coefficient of determination value R2 > 80 %. Besides, the
assessment of soil moisture deficiency can be conducted
The main reason for soil compaction is to obtain a soil using the predictive model recently proposed by [104]. In
material that can satisfy three fundamental requirements: general, compaction control can reduce the swelling
Abatement of the subsequent settlement of soil material capacity of heaving, and the soil suction exhibits
under live loads. The reduction in permeability prevents significant influences on the soil SS.
an increase of water stresses inducing liquefaction issues
and water content for earth dams. Finally, enhance the 2.2. Soil Replacement
shear resistance and the bearing limit of the soil material.
Besides, compaction influence on soil properties depends Soil replacement is among the most usually applied
generally on the structure attained by the soil during mechanical soil stabilization procedures. The soil depth to
compaction. The optimum water content (WOP) and be replaced relies on active zone depth, soil profile,
maximum dry unit weight (γdmax) are estimated from the regular practices, and construction standards [22]. Backfill
compaction curve. Reference [102] proposed a materials should be impermeable and non-expansive. Also,
mathematical concept utilizing differential function (∂) backfill substances especially remolded in situ soil, should
and graphical technique to determine the WOP and γdmax of be replaced and compacted with suitable compaction
partially saturated fine-grained clay soils. The results parameters [23]. If the replacing soil material is permeable
revealed that the ∆WOP and ∆γdmax values are < 0.5 % and like gravel, coarse sand, it transmits the surface moisture
negligible in classical soil mechanics. Nonetheless, the to the swelling clay layer and induces differential
soil moisture deficiency values induced by ∆WOP are movement equivalent to the surface. The utilization of
important for partially saturated soils. The mathematical gravel and sand as replacing soil materials is prohibited
approach gives an accurate assessment of compaction [24]. However, problematic soil replacement with a
material having a better capacity to withstand loads is the
features of partially saturated fine-grained clay soils.
best approach [25]. Finally, because of the higher
Reference [15] stated that the SS values on the dry side of
replacement expenses of some undesirable soils like
the WOP are higher than values on the wet side, and
swelling soils, the cost-effective improvement procedure
compaction at WOP can diminish the SS by 15%.
may include an efficient stabilization technique.
Moreover, the swelling parameters, geotechnical index
properties influence the SS of compacted ES. Nonetheless,
there is an important effect of the kind of clay mineral on 2.3. Blending of Various Soils
SS. Reference [16] investigated the relationship between
The mechanical stabilization includes blending of local
swelling potential (SP) and plastic limit (PL). The result
soil with another soil of various degrees to get a targeted
shows that the SP of heaving soils increases significantly
degree of the last mixture. It can be performed at the
when the PL increment. The investigation performed by worksite or at different locations before the mixture is
[17] on the SP of various compacted ES placed at various delivered to the place of work, spread, and compacted to
initial water content (Wi) and dry unit weight confirms an adequate density. Moreover, soil stabilization may
that the SP of compacted ES reduces when the initial include mixing soils with specified quantities of products
water content increases (Wi). Further, the investigation as additives that can change the texture, gradation, shear
conducted by [18] on semi-empirical correlations for the stress, and plasticity or performing as binders for soil
SS of heaving soils of Barranquilla, Colombia, reveals cementation [26,27]. The impact of the replacement of ES
that the SP of compacted ES diminishes when the Wi with mixed sandy-reused EP (extended polystyrene) is
increases. Nonetheless, at WOP, the SS increases when the investigated by [28]. It is found that the blending of soils
Wi increases. Reference [19] investigated the influence of diminished the swelling capacity and enhanced the
changing γd and water content on heaving soils. The compaction parameters (WOP, γdmax) upon an increment of
results revealed a positive exponential correlation between the EP.
1298 Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review

2.4. Pre-wetting 2.5. Wetting-Drying Cycles

Reference [29] reported that the pre-wetting of swelling The wetting-drying cycle is not commonly described as
soil has been performed in engineering practice over the a standardized stabilization method. However, the
years. The essential idea driving this technique is that the technique may be used to reduce the SP of ES in a specific
soil saturation induces a swell before the construction construction project [33]. A few studies have been
works started so that residual wetting of the soil material performed on the influence of wetting-drying cycle
would be marginal to initiate defect on the foundation by technique on ES. Based on the outcomes of these studies,
keeping up a high water content condition. Reference [22] a repeated technique may either induce an increment or
conducted a study on prewetting of ES. It was observed reduction of expansion potential. Research works
that the value of moisture content must be maintained conducted by [34,35,36] reported that heaving soils
high to prevent variation of the soil material volume. exposed to successive drying and wetting exhibits a
Reference [30] reported that, in field conditions, keeping considerable reduction in expansion potential. Also, other
the soil at a high constant moisture level is not easy to researchers like [37,38,39] have reported a contrary
impact in which the cyclic procedure of wetting and
achieve and the technique isn't good and not generally
drying induces a perceptible increment of SP.
suggested. Reference [31] reported that the technique is
Wetting-drying cycles are additionally utilized to
efficient when pre-wetted soils have hydraulic
investigate the durability of chemical additives utilized in
conductivity to allow the drenching procedure to perform
soil stabilization to comprehend the time-dependent
within a limited period. Swelling soils that exhibit
performance of such substances under field conditions by
hydraulic conductivity cast doubt on the ability of the changing drying -wetting cycle on stabilized soil material.
pre-wetting method. The common practice utilizes The precedent investigations show that the plastic
materials commonly known as surfactants to speed up deformation (the difference between shrinkage and SP
water drainage measures through the swelling soil layer. subject to a particular cycle) tends to decrease or reach a
Reference [30] stated that effective utilization of the steady value by repeating the wetting-drying procedure.
pre-wetting technique is reported at Hawthorne clay
development in Gainesville, Florida, and Yazoo clay 2.6. Soil Reinforcement
development in Mississippi, USA. Reference [32]
Soil reinforcement technique is the utilization of
revealed that for pavement construction in ES, the most
synthesized or natural additives to enhance the properties
prewetted clay subgrade is injected with water at the depth of soils. Soil stabilization can be achieved by adding
of subgrade. After this cycle, they are either covered with materials with higher tensile strength such as fiber to
a polyethylene sheet to hold moisture, kept wet by enhance the shear resistance of soil material [40,41].
sprinkling, or built on fast. However, their utilization is Besides, soil reinforcement of poor soils includes fibrous
getting more frequent. The combined impact of a materials such as geosynthetics (geotextile, geogrid,
moistened subgrade and moisture boundaries, when geonet, geocomposite, and geo-cell) or randomly
applied effectively, can be extremely beneficial. The distributed fibers from synthetic or natural origin [42].
utilization of moisture treatment combined with Various sorts and patterns of synthetic and natural fibers
appropriate compaction is used widely. utilized for soil reinforcement are outlined in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of various natural/synthetic fibres used for soil reinforcement [43]
Dosage/optimal Fibre configuration (length)
Fibre source Fibre type
content (%) / optimal length (mm)
Coir fibre 0.2-1 >4.75
Coir pith 0.5-3 <4.75
Sisal fibre 0.25-1 10-25
Natural Palm fibre 0-1 20-40
Jute fibre 0.3-0.9 6-18
Flax fibre 0.6a 85a
Barley-straw fibre 0-0.35 10-500
Carpet waste fibre 1-5 2-20
Polypropylene fibre 0.5-1.5 10-30
Waste rubber fibre 0-10 ≤ 15
Synthetic Polyester fibre 0-2 3-12
Glass fibre 0.25-1 10-30
Polyethylene fibre 0-4 12-36
Polyvinyl alcohol fibre 1a 12a
 Civil Engineering and Architecture 9(5): 1295-1308, 2021 1299

Reference [44] studied the impact of two sorts of carpet The stabilization of ES can be performed by adding
waste from various sources on swelling behaviour of higher tensile natural or synthetic fibers as reinforcement.
compacted clays. Class 1 was exclusively designed of The literature review revealed that this technique reduces
short fibres of nylon from sheared piles of the carpet, the swelling/shrinkage potential and soil settlement.
whereas class 2 was a combination of polyester, Moreover, enhance the mechanical property such as the
polypropylene, and wool got from the edge of the shear strength and bearing limits.
trimming of the carpet. The outcome revealed that for clay
compacted with 10% activated bentonite sodium content 2.7. Merits and Limitations of Mechanical Stabilization
at the γdmax and WOP, the SS reduced from 20% at 1%
class 1 fiber content. However, the SS increased for the References [12,48,13,43] investigated the stabilization
other fiber content. Nonetheless, for class 2 fiber, the soil of ES and reported the merits of mechanical stabilization
material SS increases remarkably, reaching a rising peak as follows: During rainy seasons, climate-related deferrals
of around 83% at 3% fiber content. Further, the SS can be decreased by stabilizing the soil and proceed with
dropped with the increment in water content at steady γd site work, soil stabilization can positively impact the
and increases with the increment of γd at constant water construction schedule and save the cost of waiting for
content. good weather to continue with work, It can serve as a
Reference [45] examined the mechanical property of a viable waste management option in contrast to landfills by
fiber-clay composite and natural fiber. They found that the utilization of waste materials; It doesn't represent the
incorporating fiber to strengthen the soil material induces danger of giving an adverse environmental impact from
a reduction in pre-consolidation pressure and increases the discharge of potential unhealthy compounds, the
swelling parameters and compressibility. In addition, the application can be quick when the engineering
internal frictional angle and shearing stress increment characteristics of soils are not considered critical; It
upon effective and total stress. doesn't need time-consuming standardized lab
Reference [46] investigated the enhancement in the experiments when supplements substances are unincluded;
characteristics of ES utilizing hay fibers. They discovered The procedure of application is relatively simple and
no significant or acceptable variation of Atterberg limits doesn't require highly trained staff for implementation.
because of the incorporation of hay fibers. The γdmax References [12,13,43] reported the limitations of
diminished with the hay addition. The WOP reduces with mechanical stabilization are as follows: Mechanical
the increment of hay content up to 1.0% then starts to techniques are not usually independent techniques and
decrease. The shrinkage limit decreases upon an regularly need to be enhanced with chemical stabilization.
increment of the hay content up to 1.0% after reduces. The It includes delayed physical activity to implement in-situ
unconfined compression stress diminished with the when quality control is fundamental, which could be
increment of hay content to soil proportion. The direct time-consuming. It may not be viewed as adequate when
shear stress increased remarkably upon the addition of hay. the soil material condition is critical such as heaving soils.
The tensile stress of air-dried blend increased with hay The predicted result might be unreliable for
addition and the expansion diminished upon the addition wetting-drying/pre-wetting cycles.
of hay.
Reference [47] studied the impact of waste rubber
fibers on geotechnical properties of clay. The fibers of 3. Chemical Stabilization
rubber were added within the range of 0% -10% contents
with 2.5% constant addition by weight of the dry soil Chemical stabilization is the commonly utilized
material. The outcome of density-moisture correlation technique for ES treatment. The purpose of the chemical
exhibited a progressive decrease in both WOP and γdmax stabilization of soils is to enhance their stability by
from 20.1% to 18.25% and from 16.35 kN/m3 to 14.78 increasing grain size particles of soil material, decreasing
kN/m3, respectively. The uniaxial compressive stress plasticity index, swelling-shrinking potential, and
(UCS) exhibited a slight increment from 60.59 kPa to cementation. Soil stabilization is performed by adding a
62.69 kPa at 2.5% fiber of rubber content. Nonetheless, specific chemical compound amount to the ES.
further augmentation of rubber fiber diminished the axial
stress peak with a maximum decrease of about 21.7% at 3.1. Traditional Stabilizers (Chemical Additives)
10% fiber of rubber content. The soaked CBR
continuously dropped with fiber rubber content, whereas 3.1.1. Cement stabilization
the unsoaked CBR reaches a peak of around 38.6% at 2.5% Portland cement is a hydraulic binder, which means it
fiber rubber addition. The SS of ES gradually diminished hardens and reacts chemically upon water addition.
with increment in fiber content from 70.12% for the Reference [49] reported that the common techniques
natural soil material to 39.58% at 10% fiber of rubber utilized in chemical stabilization consisted of blending the
content. soil material with cement to obtain soil cement. Soil
1300 Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review

cement is a combination of soil, estimated quantities of workability, decreased swell, and incremented shear stress.
Portland concrete, and water compacted to the targeted The improvement of soil characteristics results from three
density. Portland cement is utilized to enhance and modify fundamental chemical processes [62]:
the quality of soil material, transform the soil material into 1.flocculation-agglomeration and Cation trade 2.
a cemented mass with an increment of durability and Carbonation, and 3. Cementation (pozzolanic response).
shear resistance. Reference [50] reported that concrete Reference [63] Stated that soil stabilization by lime
treatment slightly increases the γdmax of sand and highly increases the resilient modulus value of soil material by
plastic clay and diminishes the γdmax of silt [51]. Another about 10% or more, enhances the shear strength value by
investigation conducted by [52] reveals that cement about 20%. The strength continues to increase over time
increases the WOP and reduces the γdmax of sandy soils [52]. even after the duration of load or environmental
Cement addition reduces the LL, increases the PL, and destruction (self-restoration) and long-term service life of
ultimately reduces the PI [51]. The other relevant impacts upon harsh environment over decades. Figure 2 describes
of stabilization using soil-cement are the decrease in SP the soil modification upon the addition of lime.
and shrinkage, the increment in elastic modulus, shear Reference [64] assessed the cyclic feature of ES
stress, and the resistance to the effect of dampness, thaw, stabilized with lime utilizing the modified odeometer. The
and freeze. Reference [53] reported that SS reduces when results show that the issue of the cyclic features of ES is
stabilizer content increases in specimens treated with neglected in the stabilization process. However, the cyclic
cement. During cement stabilization, the compaction of features of ES material are likewise significant when the
soil-cement specimens is conducted in two hours of soil stabilization is performed, as the durability of
primary mixing. The strength obtained during soil chemical compounds is critical for long-term stabilization
compaction might be smaller than the ultimate stress of impact. Moreover, further studies on lime behaviour at the
the soil-cement samples [54]. Nonetheless, the stabilized microstructural level can contribute to a good
ES material will still be gaining strength throughout a few understanding of the potential stabilizer and
days [55,56]. hydro-mechanical properties of the stabilize soil clay
matrix.
3.1.2. Lime stabilization
It is a well-established practice to utilize lime to
enhance the engineering behaviour of expansive clayey
soils. Generally, fine-grained treated with exhibit decrease
plasticity, enhancement of workability, and decrease
volume variations characteristics. The three kinds of limes
utilized to enhance the soil parameters include hydrated
lime (calcium hydroxide-Ca(OH)2, hydrated lime slurry,
and quicklime (calcium oxide-CaO). The impact of lime
in ES includes: reduction of consistency limit, expansivity
potential, and γdmax of soil material, but increase the Figure 2. The visual influence of lime addition [63]
shrinkage limit, strength, and WOP [49,57]. It improves the
workability and compact ability of subgrade soils [58]. 3.1.3. Cement and lime stabilization
Lime diminishes the plasticity index, γdmax, and SP of soil Cement and lime are utilized to enhance the
material. Besides, lime increases the shear strength, WOP, hydro-mechanical characteristics and handling process of
and shrinkage limit [49,57]. Lime stabilization technique soils during construction works [65]. Mixing soft soils or
improves the hydro-mechanical parameters of soil ES with cementitious material such as lime and cement is
material like shear strength, higher resistance to crack, an efficient method to mitigate the swell shrink.
permanent deformation, and fatigue. Lime improves References [66,67] utilized various rates and mixed
resilient properties, decreases SS, and protects the soil pozzolana cement and lime to stabilize ES. The SP
from destructive impacts of water. The most significant includes the percentage of swelling (swelling load
enhancement in these properties is shown in medium to technique and constant volume technique). The outcomes
high plastic clay [59,60]. The efficiency of lime treatment exhibited changes in various soil behaviour upon the
in soil material is mainly related to lime content, soil type, variation of chemical substances and the decrease of SP
curing time, clay minerals, and soil pH [61]. Nonetheless, within the stabilized soil material. Finally, lime decreases
not all soil materials display enhanced strength parameters. the SP, whereas cement increases the SP. Reference [68]
It should be mentioned that the qualities of soil lime assessed the swelling organic soils, the optimum quantity
combination are subject to numerous factors include lime of cement for soil-lime, and soil-cement were determined
type, Soil type, lime content, and conditions of curing that within the range of 3% to 6.5% (related to soil nature)
are the most significant [26]. Lime will essentially react with 1035kPa UCS after a week of curing. They noticed
with medium and fine-grained soils to improve that the organic matter of soils increases the WOP. They
 Civil Engineering and Architecture 9(5): 1295-1308, 2021 1301

recorded a decrease of γdmax of treated swelling organic 31.5 (good condition). Therefore the stabilized soil can be
soils because of the γdmax reduction in soil. Lime induces a utilized as base or sub-base in pavement design.
significant reduction in plasticity compared to cement, and
the augmentation in the UCS for soil material treated with 3.2. Non-Traditional stabilizers (Other Additives)
the chemical additive was marginal for lime and even
diminished for cement after a curing period of 28 days. 3.2.1. Cement kiln dust
Reference [69] has mentioned observable facts to the Cement kiln dust (CKD) is produced in a huge amount
organic matter of the ES material. They stated that lime by the cement industry. Over the years, investigations are
treatment of swelling soil containing 7% lesser organic performed on the utilization of CKD in soil stabilization,
matter induced significant enhancement in the UCS to the addition of CKD to initial pH value, etc. Reference [77]
893kPa contrasted with other different nature of ES investigated the influence of CKD on hydro-mechanical
specimen. Reference [53] examined the stabilization of properties of ES. Soil specimens are tested with CKD
over-consolidated swelling material with different from 0% to 25% of dry-weight soil. The outcome
lime-cement blending proportions. The addition of exhibited an important increment in soaked UCS and
stabilizers reduced the SP of soil from a greater methylene CBR values. The SP diminishes from 31% to 5%.
blue value above two. The CBR values increment with Compaction test revealed an increment γdmax from
soil treatment. 8% lime and 2% cement induce the optimal 1.73gm.cc-1 to 2.03gm.cc-1 and a considerable reduction in
results for soaked CBR. 4% lime and 8% cement produce WOP from 20.04% to 10.94%. Permeability is found to
the optimal results for un-soaked CBR. The direct shear increases from 4.80x10-4 cm.s-1 to 1.43x10-3cm.s-1.
test revealed that 8% cement and 4% lime induce the Conclusively, the CKD improved the desirable
optimal value to enhance the bearing limit. hydro-mechanical properties of ES. Vivek Singh et al. [78]
3.1.4. Fly ash investigated the influence of CKD addition on compaction
characteristics of ES. The results show that the WOP of ES
Fly ash (FA) is extracted by electrostatic precipitators diminishes and γ
dmax increments upon addition of CKD.
of filter bag from the flues gases of furnaces fired with There is an important reduction of the swelling parameters
pulverized coal. Fly ash is divided into two classes related of the soils. The FSR values diminish from 31% to 5%,
to the presence of calcium content. Class C fly ash (CFA) demonstrating that the SP has decreased from high to low.
usually has a calcium percentage above 20%, and it is The soaked CBR values increment upon addition of CKD
originated from sub-bituminous coal. Class F fly ash (FFA) content. The incorporation of 25% CKD into ES increases
resulted from the burning of bituminous coal, usually with the CBR from 1.514% to 3.54%. The soil permeability
a calcium percentage above 10%. References [66,70] increases from 4.80x10−4cm.s-1 to 1.43x10−3cm.s-1. The
investigated the impacts of adding lime and FFA upon the addition of CKD enhances the UCS. The UCS of
ES behaviour and noticed positive outcomes. Cement and stabilized soil specimens significantly incremented from
FFA stabilization of swell soil is examined by [71]. The 142 kN/m2 to 178 kN/m2. Reference [79] studied the
impact of 3% FA and 9% cement is better than 12% stabilization of ES using CKD. Lab tests are conducted
cement related to soil stabilization. References [72,73,74] using non-traditional stabilizer CKD to improve the
investigated the effect of CFA addition in swell soils with hydro-mechanical behaviour of ES with partial
various geotechnical parameters and had obtained varied substitution by CKD (5%,10%,15%,20%, and 25%) upon
success. Reference [75] examined the swell soil various curing periods (1,3,7,14 and 28 days). The
stabilization utilizing a different fraction of FA. The outcomes revealed an enhancement of soil properties upon
outcome shows that the FA augmentation in the soil-FA CKD addition with curing.
mixture induces a significant reduction of free swell ratio
(FSR) value and PI values. The SP is directly proportional 3.2.2. Lime kiln dust
to the Atterberg limits. Thus, influence the expansive Reference [80] carried out a large-scale field study to
behaviour of the soil-fly ash mixture. Finally, FA assess the efficiency of the post-construction work of road
decreases the SS and enhances the shear resistance of ES. stabilized with lime kiln dust (LKD) with at least five
Reference [76] investigated the stabilization of ES years service life. To determine the stiffness, the strength
utilizing different FA fractions. The CBR test is of the stabilized ES, six areas are selected for dynamic
performed by the WOP obtained from the compaction test. cone penetration test, standard penetration test, and falling
After that, the CBR tests are conducted using differents weight deflectometer test. Moreover, soil sampling is
FA contents and water content required for the optimum performed utilizing split spoon samplers and run in the lab
FA and the water content necessary for the maximal value for geotechnical index parameters and compared to
of CBR. From the test outcomes, 16% of FA and 17.8% natural soil material. They found that the addition of LKD
of water substance give the maximal value of CBR. The diminished the plasticity of soil material significantly.
CBR value of the natural soil is about 2.05 (poor Long-period enhancement of soil is validated because the
condition), and the CBR of the stabilized soil using FA is lime from LKD is available in the soil material after 11
1302 Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review

years of pavement service life. Conclusively, the LKD is a bentonite. Lab tests which include Atterberg limits, CEC
reliable and efficient non-traditional stabilizer for (Cation exchange capacity), FSR test, and UCS test are
pavement sub-based material and offered excellent quality conducted to determine the hydro-mechanical properties
control for the construction and repair works. Reference on stabilized and non-stabilized tested through standard
[81] Investigated the use of LKD to stabilize the clay proctor test at WOP and cured for a week. They found that
pavement material. UCS, Proctor compaction test, the stabilization of ES with gypsum is more cost-effective
non-damaging test modulus, and thermal conductivity test than lime and noticed an augmentation of UCS of
are conducted on modified soil material. They found that bentonite with a gypsum ratio equal to or less than 5%
the LKD is an efficient stabilizer for clay soil material and optimal outcomes. However, the utilization of gypsum in
could raise the UCS and stiffness under smaller mixing soil stabilization can induce groundwater pollution.
ratios of WOP (4% and 8% ). However, the γdmax
diminished upon the increment of the LKD mixing ratio. 3.2.6. Silica fume
Reference [88] Stabilized ES soils utilizing silica fume
3.2.3. Ground granulated blast furnace slag to enhance its resistance against cyclic drying and wetting
Reference [82] attempted to enhance the soil material conditions and durability. The swelling characteristics of
properties of ES utilizing GGBS as an alternative to lime the mixture of expansive clayey soil and silica fume are
or concrete. Lab tests are performed on local Indian ES conducted in a laboratory. The SP and the SS test are
with GGBS mixed with ES in various ratios. Soil samples performed in a one-dimensional consolidometer
are compacted at the WOP and γdmax and cured during 7, 14, oedometer. Alongside the swell tests, the stabilized ES are
and 28 days and their UCS measured. The enhancement of subjected to the specific surface area, cation exchange
the strength relies upon the quantity of GGBS utilized, capacity (CEC), compaction characteristics, and
and the impact of curing time is marginal. Moreover, the consistency test. The outcomes show that the utilization of
initial tangent modulus increments with an increment of silica fume in stabilization soils decreases the CEC,
GGBS. Reference [83] conducted the stabilization of specific surface area, γdmax and incremented the WOP and
clayey soils utilizing five kinds of GGBS at a 5 % ratio as pH. The SS and SP diminished significantly with
suggested by Reference [84]. They noticed positive increment in silica fume. Besides, the application of silica
outcomes such as the decrease of SP, strength volumetric fume in ES stabilization enhances its durability by
capacity, and higher CBR compared to natural soils. reducing the SP even upon the drying and wetting cycle.
Reference [85] studied the stabilization of soil using Reference [89] reported the beneficial outcomes of
GGBS. The addition of the GGBS in stabilized soil enhancing the properties of ES by silica fume
specimens induced the increment of UCS values. The stabilization.
augmentation is about 28% from the UCS value of natural
soil upon the addition of 9% on the mix. 3.2.7. Bitument emulsion
Reference [90] conducted a review on ES treated
3.2.4. Bottom ash utilizing bitumen emulsion. Laboratory tests are related to
Reference [86] investigated the influence of bottom ash the fundamental characteristics of soil material and its
on ES for pavement construction. The assessment of strength in terms of CBR. The outcomes reveal the
geotechnical properties is conducted through the Proctor compaction characteristics (WOP, γdmax) of ES increments
compaction test, consistency limit test, CBR test, and upon addition of 6%, 7%, and 8% bitumen emulsion to
UCS test. Soil specimens are prepared at different the soils. The permeability of stabilized soil utilizing the
fractions of bottom ash as follows: 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, bitumen emulsion is higher than natural soils. The
10%, 5%. The outcomes revealed that the compaction addition of the bitumen emulsion on soil material
characteristics (WOP, γdmax) of stabilized ES are greater improves the CBR values. The utilization of bitumen
than natural soil by adding 30% bottom ash. The emulsion on pavement construction reduces the thickness
consistency limits of stabilized ES are smaller than the of the sub-grade, cost of soil material, amount of soil
standard value by adding 30% bottom ash. The UCS material, etc. Bitumen is less in cost and easily accessible.
values of stabilized ES are greater than natural soil by The highest limit of replacement of bitumen emulsion in
adding 30% bottom ash. By adding 20% of bottom ash, soil material is 8% only since at 9% CBR, and γdmax values
the CBR value is higher than the CBR of natural soils. reduce. Finally, when the bitumen emulsion is smaller
The addition of 30% of bottom ash enhances the than 8%, the treated soil material exhibits good soil
hydro-mechanical characteristics of soil materials. waterproofing and strength enhancement.
3.2.5. Gypsum 3.2.8. Calcium-based stabilizer materials
Reference [87] investigated the stabilization of ES Reference [91] reviewed the past four decades the
using gypsum. Samples are prepared at the WOP with techniques to stabilize highly ES utilizing calcium-based
various gypsum content ratios (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10) and stabilizer materials (CSMs). The impact of the adequately
 Civil Engineering and Architecture 9(5): 1295-1308, 2021 1303

demonstrated CSMs on the geotechnical, engineering, and can induce hazards to the environment and can be very
microstructural properties of stabilized ES are analyzed. expensive at times. Besides, a specific additive mix
Moreover, a new investigation related to the utilization of efficiency can be determined if tested in the laboratory for
environmentally friendly and non-conventional ES material. Reference [43] reported that the utilization of
stabilization materials and methods is discussed. The the toxic product produces some harmful substance, and
results of the literature review are as follows: further the hazard of groundwater pollution through the
 The ES microstructure is a fundamental parameter in leachate of dangerous substances. These products may not
assessing the compressive strength characteristics, be appropriate when the expense of chemical substance
shrink-swell parameters, and the environmental gets restrictive according to the amount required to
potential in various soil stabilization construction stabilize soil efficiently. The application in situ might be
projects. A suitable and best selection of stabilizers practically inefficient if field conditions change
should be related to their resulting impact on their significantly from that model during the lab simulation
microstructure. tests. Based on the quality of the additive utilized and its
 The microstructure impacts the rate of hydration, the application, some properties which could have
pozzolanic responses in the polymerization procedure. unfavorable environmental impacts should be verified.
Cementation plays a significant part in the necessary The properties include the soil material pH value,
period and state of soil curing. The optimal dosage, diffusion of toxic products such as carbon, etc., and
the application should be defined before CSM leachate to groundwater of heavy metals. When the
stabilization. condition is not favorable, the impact of chemical
 Although cement being the broadly utilized CSM, stabilization may get detrimental. For example, soil
mindful of the costs and challenges of CO2 discharge stabilization using lime-sulfate induces cracks, etc.
and related harmfulness levels in treated soils, lime
with other pozzolans is an effective selection to
stabilize ES. 4. Expansive Soil Stabilization
Problems
3.3. Merits and Limitations of Chemical Stabilization
4.1. Geoenvironmental Problems
A few researchers investigated the merits of chemical
stabilization. Reference [48] reported a significant saving During the stabilizing ES using mechanical methods
when stabilizing an existing sub-grade rather than and chemical methods, the geoenvironmental issues are
changing the current sub-grade with appropriate soil essentially related to the chemical methods. The
material. Moreover, the stabilization of sub-grade utilization of traditional stabilizers and non-traditional
decreases the section of asphalt paving base material and stabilizers leads to environmental pollutions
reduces the cost. Reference [43] stated that chemical (Groundwater pollution, Land/Soil pollution).
stabilization is an efficient method regardless of the Nonetheless, mechanical stabilization exhibits a marginal
properties of soil materials. The procedure is influence on environmental pollution. Nevertheless,
time-dependent on the chemical additive response, which mechanical stabilizations are not usually independent
happens immediately after primary mixing, and it is not techniques and regularly improved with chemical
time-consuming. The expected results are obtained stabilization in practice. The treatment of ES using
through standard laboratory tests. The mass of chemical chemical stabilizers can be harmful to the natural
additives required for an efficient stabilization process is environment if not conducted properly. There is a need for
generally small, making it cost-effective. This method engineers to perform the geoenvironmental investigation
serves as a management waste technique to reuse as appropriate to their studies on the stabilizer used for the
industrial by-product materials. assessment to be sustainable. Reference [94] utilized 17%
Researchers investigated the limitations of chemical rice husk ash (RHA) and 2% bentonite mixed with clay as
stabilization. Reference [92] stated that chemical a liner landfill to diminish chromium leachate. Reference
stabilization lowers the compaction of clays, a significant [95] used the sawdust-stabilized clay as a landfill liner to
loss in the γdmax and increment of WOP. Moreover, contain lead and cadmium leachate. Reference [96]
manufacturers and merchants of these compounds make conducted a study to check if the level of iron from the
claims of how they work around and inside the clay. stabilizer that can contaminate the groundwater is within
However, few compounds are tested and assessed the drinking water standard proposed by WHO. Another
independently. Before the utilization of stabilizer, it technique applied to prevent the seepage of heavy metals
should be tested by an independent lab; using similar into groundwater is the utilization of designed landfills
testing sequences for all compared agents, financial like landfill liners. These liners play the role of barriers to
analysis of his utilization should be considered. Reference absorb heavy metals and accordingly keep them from
[93] reported that the manufacture of chemical substances groundwater contamination. Reference [43] reported that
1304 Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review

the soil treatment that required a hydrogen sulfide or characteristics, and stabilization cost are limited in the
high-carbon manufacturing additive is prohibited. The literature.
utilization of materials made out of heavy metals that can  The efficiency and the proportion of any specific
pollute the groundwater by filtering is not accepted. additive mix to optimize the outcomes depend
significantly on the type of ES, soil chemistry,
4.2. Standardization Problems mineralogy of clay, physical composition, initial
moisture content, moisture variation, plasticity, etc.
The lack of standards in the treatment of ES is a  ES is a typical case of unsaturated soils. Researchers
significant problem in geotechnical engineering. A have discussed the impacts of stabilization on index
comprehensive guideline on ES treatment utilizing properties, compaction properties, UCS, CBR, and
different materials and methods has not yet been swelling properties of ES. Very few studies are
developed. Therefore, specialists in the domain of soil conducted on the splitting tensile strength, shear
treatment must work together toward a solution to this strength, stiffness, hydraulic conductivity properties,
matter. Nonetheless, a few endeavors have been and the impact of matric suction on mechanical
performed to develop in this regard. Reference [97] characteristics of treated soils.
proposed a manual that presents the procedures to apply  Forthcoming studies on the treatment of ES using
the coal fly ash as a chemical additive. Reference [98] chemical and mechanical techniques should be
also published guidelines for soil treatment utilizing fly performed considering the remarks above-mentioned.
ash material. References [99,100] proposed guidelines
limited to the traditional stabilizers and specific
applications. Based on the available research outcomes,
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