A synchronous generator is a machine which produces AC power with rotating in a synchronous

speed.It is also called as Alternator. Alternators have the Armature winding on stator and the
field winding on the rotor, not like other DC generator which have the armature winding
on its rotor.Armature winding is placed on stator by which the sparking problem reduced or
almost neglected at the time of taking output to load.

Working Principle of Alternator

All the alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. According to this law, for
producing the electricity we need a conductor, magnetic field and mechanical energy. Every
machine that rotates and reproduces Alternating Current. To understand the working principle of
the alternator, consider two opposite magnetic poles north and south, and the flux is traveling
between these two magnetic poles. In the figure (a) rectangular coil is placed between the north
and south magnetic poles. The position of the coil is such that the coil is parallel to the flux, so
no flux is cutting and therefore no current is induced. So that the waveform generated in that
position is Zero degrees.
1. If the rectangular coil rotates in a clockwise direction at an axis a and b, the conductor
side A and B comes in front of the south pole and C and D come in front of a north pole
as shown in figure (b). So, now we can say that the motion of the conductor is
perpendicular to the flux lines from N to S pole and the conductor cuts the magnetic flux.
At this position, the rate of flux cutting by the conductor is maximum because the
conductor and flux are perpendicular to each other and therefore the current is induced in
the conductor and this current will be in maximum position.
2. The conductor rotates one more time at 900 in a clockwise direction then the rectangular
coil comes in the vertical position. Now the position of the conductor and magnetic flux
line is parallel to each other as shown in figure (c). In this figure, no flux is cutting by the
conductor and therefore no current is induced. In this position, the waveform is reduced
to zero degrees because the flux is not cutting.
3. In the second half cycle, the conductor is continued to rotate in a clockwise direction for
another 900. So here the rectangular coil comes to a horizontal position in such a way
that the conductor A and B comes in front of the north pole, C and D come in front of the
south pole as shown in the figure (d). Again the current will flow through the conductor
that is currently induced in the conductor A and B is from point B to A and in conductor
C and D is from point D to C, so the waveform produced in opposite direction, and
 reaches to the maximum value. Then the direction of the current indicated as A, D, C and
B as shown in figure (d). If the rectangular coil again rotates in another 900 then the coil
reaches the same position from where the rotation is started. Therefore, the current will
again drop to zero.
4. In the complete cycle, the current in the conductor reaches the maximum and reduces to
zero and in the opposite direction, the conductor reaches the maximum and again reaches
zero. This cycle repeats again and again, due to this repetition of the cycle the current
will be induced in the conductor continuously.

This is the process of producing the current and EMF of a single-phase. Now for producing 3
phases, the coils are placed at the displacement of 1200 each. So the process of producing the
current is the same as the single-phase but only the difference is the displacement between three
phases is 1200. This is the working principle of an alternator.
Applications
The applications of an alternator are
 Automobiles
 Electrical power generator plants
 Marine applications
 Diesel electrical multiple units
 Radiofrequency transmission
Advantages
The advantages of an alternator are
• Cheap
• Low weight
• Low maintenance
• Construction is simple
• Robust
• More compact
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of an alternator are
• Alternators need transformers
• Alternators will overheat if the current is high
Construction of Synchronous generator or alternator:
In Synchronous generator or alternatorthe stationary winding is called 'stator' while the rotating
winding is called 'Rotor'.
Stator:
The stator in the synchronous generator is a stationary armature.This consists of a core and the
slots to hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c generator.The stator core uses
a laminated construction.It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other with
varnish or paper.The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current losses.

Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses.The entire core is fabricated
in a frame made of steel plates.The core has slots on its periphery for housing the armature
conductors.The frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support to the core.Ventilation is
maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame.
Rotor:
There are two types of rotors used in the synchronous generators or alternators:
1) Salient pole rotor
2) Smooth cylindrical rotor
1) Salient pole rotor:
This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of the
rotor.The poles are built up of thick steel laminations.The poles are bolted to the rotor as shown
in the figure.The pole face has been given a specific shape.The field winding is provided on the
pole shoe.These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths.

The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating member
of the machine. As the mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for low-
speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m to 50 r.p.m.The prime movers used to drive such rotor
are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.
2) Smooth cylindrical rotor:
This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor.This rotor
consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number of slots to accommodate the field
coil.These slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges.The unslotted
portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles.The poles are not projecting out and the surface of
the rotor is smooth which maintains a uniform air gap between stator and rotor.
These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths.This is to keep peripheral speed within
limits.The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong and
thus preferred for high-speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high-speed
alternators are called 'turbo-alternators'.The prime movers used to drive such type of rotors are
generally steam turbines, electric motors.
ARMATURE REACTION OF ALTERNATOR:
The effect of armature (stator) flux on the flux produced by the rotor field poles is called
armature reaction.
The effect of armature reaction depends on the power factor i.e the phase relationship between
the terminal voltage and armature current.
When there is no load connected to an alternator or synchronous generator there will be no
induced voltage in the armature. Hence, the flux present in the air-gap is only due to field
ampere-turns. Once an alternator is loaded it starts supplying the load current and there will be
an induced voltage in the armature windings. Since, the induced voltage is of three-phase, the
armature current setups its own rotating magnetic field. Now there will be two magnetic fluxes in
the air-gap of the machine setup be field and armature winding.
The flux produced by the armature winding is in such a way that either it opposes or add-up with
the field flux causing decrease or increase in the air-gap flux. This causes a change in the
performance of the machine. The nature of the effect of armature flux on the field flux depends
upon the nature of the power factor of the load. Let us see the effect of armature reaction at
different power factor loads.
Consider an individual armature coil moving towards the right relative to the field system. Each
coil side has the maximum emf induced in it when it is opposite to a pole center.
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Unity Power Factor :
Consider an alternator is supplying to a purely resistive load. The current is in phase with the
voltage i.e., unity power factor, and therefore the position of the coil for maximum current will
be the same as the position for maximum voltage. The armature current produces armature flux
lags behind the main flux by 90° and it magnetizes the trailing half of the main pole and de-
magnetizes the leading half. However, these two effects neutralize each other and average field
strength remains the same. The net effect is that the main field is distorted as shown below.
The below shows the phasor diagram at unity power factor load with a phase difference of 90°
between the field flux and armature winding flux. The effect on the alternator due to the
armature reaction for unity power factor load causes a small terminal voltage drop of an
alternator. The effect of armature reaction under unity power factor load is called the 'Cross
Magnetising Effect' of armature reaction.
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Zero Power Factor Lagging :
When the load is purely inductive the current lags 90° behind the voltage, and therefore, the coil
has to advance 90° ( electrical ) from the earlier position as shown in the below figure. Hence
armature flux lags behind the main flux by a pole.
From the phasor diagram, it is seen that the fluxes due to armature winding and main field
winding are completely in opposite direction. Comparing the armature and main fluxes, we see
that with an inductive load the effect of armature reaction reduces the main flux. This results in
less emf in generation due to the weakening of main flux. To keep up the same emf, field
excitation has to be increased to compensate weakening effect. Since the effect of armature
reaction due to inductive load causes demagnetizing of main field flux. The effect is called as
'Demagnetising Effect' of armature reaction.
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Zero Power Factor Leading :
In this case, the current leads the voltage by 90°. so that the coil carries its maximum current by
90° before it reaches the position as shown below.

When the load connected to the alternator is of purely capacitive type. The armature current due
to emf induced by main field flux leads by 90° as shown in the below phasor diagram. Thus the
armature winding flux and main field flux will be in the same direction and add-up each other.
Hence, in this case, the armature reaction exerts a wholly magnetizing effect due to the addition
of both fluxes. This results in greater induced emf, and the terminal voltage of the alternator. To
keep up the same emf the excitation to the field has to be reduced. Since the armature flux assists
field flux, therefore the effect is called as 'Magnetising effect' of armature reaction.
Nature of Armature Reaction :
The effect of armature reaction on the terminal voltage generated by alternator at various power
factor loads is shown in the below figure.

At unity power factor i.e., when a load is of purely resistive type, there will be a small change in
the terminal voltage compared to inductive and capacitive loads.
Generally, most of the loads on an alternator is resistive-inductive type. When a load is
disconnected suddenly from the transmission line connected to the alternator this causes
capacitive loading on the alternator. If there are no proper preventive measures incorporated, the
capacitive loading rises the terminal voltage and may create a desperate situation for the
alternator.
Therefore, the change in terminal voltage due to the armature reaction effect at zero lagging and
leading power factor is more.
Also, in addition to the armature reaction, there will be a voltage drop due to winding resistance
and leakage reactance. Therefore, the total voltage drop in an alternator when it is loaded is the
combination of drops due to winding resistance, leakage reactance, and armature reaction effect.
The induced emf in the alternator has to supply the above drops while supplying the load.
Therefore the equation for terminal voltage of an alternator is given as,
Eph = Vph + IaRa + IaXs volt
From the above voltage equation, let us draw the phasor diagram of a synchronous generator
operating at different load power factors. The relation between terminal voltage and current for
power factor analysis can be done by the phasor diagram.
Let,
Eph = Induced emf on load per phase.
Vph = Terminal voltage per phase
Ia = Armature current
φ = Phase angle between Ia and Vph (i.e., p.f.)
Ra = Armature resistance per phase
Xs = Synchronous reactance ( leakage reactance + armature reaction reactance )

Taking Vph as the refernce phasor. The phase relationship between armature induced emf E due
to field flux φf and the current flowing through the armature Ia depends upon the power factor of
the load.
Phasor Diagram at Unity Power Factor Load :
When the alternator is driving a unity power factor load ( resistive ) i.e., cos φ = 1. The armature
current Ia will be in phase with Vph as shown below.

From the triangle OBC, the expression for induced emf E ph is given as,

At unity power factor cos φ = 1 and sin φ = 0. The equation is modified as,

Phasor Diagram at Lagging Power Factor Load :

For lagging power factor loads the current I a will lag the terminal voltage Vph with an angle φ. At
zero lagging power factor ( pure inductive ) the current I a lags the voltage Vph exactly by 90°.
The below shows the phasor diagram for the lagging power factor.
The armature resistance drop IaRa is due to armature current Ia. Hence it always lies in phase with
current Ia i.e., DE. Therefore, from the triangle OCE,

Phasor Diagram at Leading Power Factor Load :

Similar to the lagging power factor the current Ia leads the voltage Vph by φ at leading power
factor loads as shown below. At zero leading power factor ( pure capacitive ) current Ia lead Vph
exactly by 90°.
 From triangle OCE,

From the above, we can conclude that,

 For unity and lagging p.f. the sign of I aXs will be positive. Because the armature reaction
effect in Xs will be demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing effect at unity and lagging
power factor.
 For leading p.f. the sign of IaXs will be negative. Thus Vph is more than Eph due to the
magnetizing effect of armature reaction.

The impedance ZS in the above equation (7) is the Synchronous Impedance, and XS is
the Synchronous Reactance.
Load Characteristics of Synchronous Generator:
While the exciting current and the speed remain constant, the terminal voltage changes with the
load current in the armature and the relationship between the terminal voltage and load current of
an alternator is known as its load characteristics.
When the armature current increases, the terminal voltage drops. This is mainly due to
(a) Resistance and reactance of armature winding, and
(b) Armature reaction.
The load characteristics of an alternator is shown in the figure.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF AN ALTERNATOR

Thus in the equivalent circuit shown,

Eph = induced e.m.f. per phase on no load
Vtph = terminal voltage per phase on load
Iaph = armature resistance per phase
Zs = synchronous impedance per phase
REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal voltage when full
load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided by the rated terminal
voltage.
 The value of the regulation not only depends on the load current but also on the power
factor of the load.
 For lagging and unity p.f. conditions there is always drop in the terminal voltage hence
regulation values are always positive.
 While for leading capacitive load conditions, the terminal voltage increases as load
current increases. Hence regulation is negative in such cases.
 The relationship between load current and the terminal voltage is called load
characteristics of an alternator.
 Determination of Voltage Regulation
 In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading.
 The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated
value V.
 The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for the purpose) indicate the
rated values at desired p.f. Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and field
excitation are kept constant.
 The open-circuit or no-load voltage E0 is read.

V = Rated terminal voltage, E0= No load induced e.m.f.

 In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by direct loading
becomes prohibitive.
 Hence, other indirect methods are used as discussed below.
Methods ofdetermining voltage regulation
1. Synchronous Impedance method or E.M.F method
2. The Ampere-turn or M.M.F. Method.
3. Zero Power Factor or Potier Method.
4. A.S.A. method

1. SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD OR E.M.F METHOD

Generally, we use this Synchronous Impedance Method for high-speed or synchronous

generator. This method is also known as EMF method.The Synchronous Impedance Method or
Emf Method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction by an imaginary
reactance. The method requires following data to calculate the regulation.Before calculating the
voltage regulation we need to calculate the following data.
1.Armature Resistance per phase [Ra]
2.Open Circuit characteristics which is a graph between open circuit voltage [Vo.c.] and
field current.
3.Short circuit characteristics which is a graph between short circuit current [Is.c.] and
field current.
1. Armature Resistance per phase
Armature Resistance per phase can be obtained by conducting stator resistance test on the
alternator. It is done by connecting the dc voltage supply to the stator armature winding and the
corresponding current is measured.

By doing so, the dc stator resistance is calculated and then by using the formula R ac = 1.6 Rdc the
ac stator resistance is determined.

2. Open Circuit Characteristics(OCC)

 Open circuit characteristics is obtained by conducting open circuit test in the Alternator. To
do that, the connections are given as per the following circuit diagram.

 To perform this test, the stator windings are kept open.

 The Alternator was made to run at synchronous speed by adjusting the field rheostat of the dc
motor.

 The field current of the alternator was varied in steps until the machine attains its maximum
voltage. The corresponding readings were noted down.

 From the readings, a graph is drawn as below, where OCC represents the open circuit
characteristics.
Experiment to determine the voltage regulation by EMF method

3. Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC)

 Short circuit characteristics is obtained by conducting short circuit test in the Alternator. To
do that, the connections are given as per the above circuit diagram.

 The stator windings of alternator are Shorted and an ammeter is connected to measure the
current flow.

 The Alternator was made to run at synchronous speed by adjusting the field rheostat of the dc
motor.

 The field current of the Alternator was adjusted so that the armature current reaches its
maximum rated value.

 Note the corresponding current readings and draw the graph. SCC in the graph below
represents the short circuit characteristics.

Determination of Zs from the graph

Model Graph for determining the voltage regulation by EMF method

The value of Zs to be determined for the “SAME VALUE OF FIELD EXCITATION”.

 Follow the simple procedure to draw the graph and obtain the voltage regulation.

1. Plot the OCC and SCC curve in a graph.

2. For the rated full load current (I sc) of alternator [which is to be found from the rating of
alternator], draw a line that cuts the SCC curve, from that draw a vertical line towards the x-axis
and find the field current(If).

3. For that field current, extend the line so that it cuts the OCC curve and find the open circuit
voltage Voc volts (phase value).

4. Now, we know the open circuit voltage Voc volts and short circuit current Isc. From this,
determine the value of ZS using the formula,

5. From the known resistance value and determined ZS found the value of Xs using the formula,

6. Now, using the following formulas, obtain the value for Eph, [obtained from phasor diagram]

For Lagging Power factor,

For Leading Power factor,

7. Finally the voltage regulation of alternator can be determined from the formula,
Find voltage regulation at full load means, from given machine rating we have to find Ia
There for Ia=Isc
Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method:
Advantage:
synchronous impedance Zs for any load condition can be calculated. Hence regulation of the
alternator at any load condition and load power factor can be determined.
Limitations:
The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large values of synchronous
reactance. This leads to high values of percentage regulation than the actual results. Hence this
method is called pessimistic method.
This is all about synchronous Impedance method for calculation voltage regulation of
synchronous machine.
2. MMF METHOD (AMPERE TURNS METHOD)
This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called Ampere-turn method or
Rothert's M.M.F. method.
The method is based on the results of open circuit test and short circuit test on an alternator. For
any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires M.M.F. which is product of field current
and turns of field winding for two separate purposes.
It must have an M.M.F. necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit.
2. It must have an M.M.F. equal and opposite to that of armature reaction m.m.f.
In this method, drop due to leakage reactance is considered as drop due to additional armature
reaction
Data required for this method,

 Armature resistance
 Open circuit characteristics
 Short circuit characteristics
1. When the armature resistance is neglected
2. then Fo is to be calculated from OCC such that Fo represents the excitation (field current)
required to produce a rated terminal voltage Vph at output terminals
3. But if effective armature resistance Raph is given
4. then Fo is to be calculated from OCC such that Fo represents the excitation (field current)
required to produce a voltage of Vph+IaphRaCosΦ
5. Far is field mmf required to circulate full load current (I L or Iaph) is to be calculated from
SCC
6. (Fr)2=( Fo)2+(Far)2-2 Fo Far cos(Fo ʌ Far)
7. Fo ʌ Far =90+Φ if Φ is lagging Fo ʌ Far =90-Φ if Φ is leading
8. Once the Fr is known, obtain the corresponding induced emf Eph required to get rated
terminal voltage Vph from OCC.
3. ZERO POWER FACTOR (ZPF) FOR REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR

1. Plot open circuit characteristics on a graph paper as shown in the below figure.
2. Draw the tangent to O.C.C. through origin which is line OB as shown dotted in below
figure. This is called the airline.
3. Plot ZPF Curve using two points:
a)Plot the excitation corresponding to zero terminal voltage i.e. short circuit full load zero
power factor armature current. This point is shown as A on the x-axis.
b)Another point is the rated voltage when the alternator is delivering full current at zero p.f.
lagging. This point is P as shown in the below figure.
4. On ZPF Curve from Point P, Draw the horizontal line PQ parallel and equal to OA.
5. From the point, Q draw the line parallel to the airline which intersects O.C.C. at point R.
Join RQ and join PR. The triangle PQR is called Potier triangle.
6. From point R, drop a perpendicular on PQ to meet at point S.
7. The perpendicular RS gives the voltage drop due to the armature leakage reactance i.e. IaphXL
8. The length PS gives field current necessary to overcome the demagnetising effect of armature reaction
at full load.

9. The length SQ represents field current required to induce an EMF for balancing leakage reactance drop
RS.
These values can be obtained from any Potier triangle such as OAB, PQR and so on.

10. Phasor sum of Vph rated, Iph Raph and Iph XLph gives the e.m.f. which is say E1ph.

E1ph = Vph +Iph Raph +Iph XLph

11. Obtain the excitation corresponding to E1ph from OCC which is drawn. Let this excitation be Ff1.
This is excitation required for inducing EMF which does not consider the effect of armature reaction

12. The field current required to balance armature reaction can be obtained from Potier triangle method,
which is say FAR.
FAR = l (PS) = I (AC) ........

13. The total excitation Fr required is the vector sum of the Ff1 and FAR. This can be obtained exactly
similar to the procedure used in MMF method.

(Fr)2=( Ff1)2+(Far)2-2 Ff1 Far cos(F f1 ʌ Far)

Ff1 ʌ Far =90+Φ if Φ is lagging Ff1 ʌ Far =90-Φ if Φ is leading

14. Once the total excitation is known which is FR, the corresponding induced emf Eph can be obtained
from OCC.

Once Eph is known, the regulation of an alternator can be predicted as,

With the help of neat sketch, explain the two reaction theory of an synchronous machine.

BLONDEL TWO REACTION THEORY (THEORY OF SALIENT POLE MACHINE):

It is known that in case of nonsalient pole type alternators the air gap is uniform. Due to uniform
air gap, the field flux as well as armature flux very sinusoidally in the air gap. In nonsalient rotor
alternators, air gap length is constant and reactance is also constant. Due to this the m.m.f.s of
armature and field act upon the same magnetic circuit all the time hence can be added
vectorially. But in salient pole type alternators the length of the air gap varies and the reluctance
also varies. Hence the armature flux and field flux cannot vary sinusoidally in the air gap. The
reluctances of the magnetic circuits on which m.m.fs act are different in case of salient pole
alternators.
Hence the armature and field m.m.f.s cannot be treated in a simple way as they can be in a
nonsalient pole alternators.
The theory which gives the method of analysis of the distributing effects caused by salient
pole construction is called two reaction theory. Professor Andre Blondel has put forward the two
reaction theory.
Note : According to this theory the armature m.m.f. can be divided into two components as,
1.Components acting along the pole axis called direct axis
2.Component acting at right angles to the pole axis called quadrature axis.
The component acting along direct axis can be magnetising or demagnetising. The component
acting along quadrature axis is cross magnetising. These components produces the effects of
different kinds.
The Fig. 1 shows the stator m.m.f. wave and the flux distribution in the air gap along direct axis
and quadrature axis of the pole.
 Fig. 1 Flux distribution in air gap for salient pole machine

The reluctance offered to the m.m.f. wave is lowest when it is aligned with the field pole axis.
This axis is called direct axis of pole i.e. d-axis. The reluctance offered is highest when the
m.m.f. wave is oriented at 90 to the field pole axis which is called quadrature axis i.e. q-axis. The
air gap is least in the centre of the poles and progressively increases on moving away from the
centre. Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the field winding wound on salient poles produces
the m.m.f. wave which is nearly sinusoidal and it always acts along the pole axis which is direct
axis.
Let Ff be the m.m.f. wave produced by field winding, then it always acts along the direct
axis. This m.m.f. is responsible to produce an excitation e.m.f. Ef which lags Ff by an angle
90o .
When armature carries current, it produces its own m.m.f. wave FAR. This can be resolved
in two components, one acting along d-axis (cross-magnetising). Similarly armature
current Ia also can be divided into two components, one along direct axis and along quadrature
axis. These components are denoted as,
Fd = Component along direct axis
FAR : }
 Fq = Component along quadrature axis

Id = Component along direct axis

Ia : }
Iq = Component along quadrature axis

The positions of FAR, Fd and Fq in space are shown in the Fig. 2. The instant chosen to show
these positions is such that the current in phase R is maximum positive and is lagging Ef by
angle Ψ.

Fig. 2 M.M.F. wave positions in salient pole machine

The phasor diagram corresponding to the positions considered is shown in the Fig. 3.
The Ia lags Ef by angle Ψ.
It can be observed that Fd is produced by Id which is at 90o to Ef while Fq is produced
by Iq which is in phase with Ef .
The flux components of ΦAR which are Φd and Φq along the direct and quadrature axis
respectively are also shown in the Fig.3. It can be denoted that the reactance offered to flux along
direct axis is less than the reactance offered to flux along quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux
ΦAR is no longer along FAR or Ia. Depending upon the reluctances offered along the direct and
quadrature axis, the flux ΦAR lags behind Ia.
 Fig 3 Basic phasor diagram for salient pole machine
We know that, the armature reaction flux Φ AR has two components, Φd along direct axis and
Φq along quadrature axis. These fluxes are proportional to the respective m.m.f. magnitudes and
the permeance of the flux path oriented along the respective axes.
... Φd = Pd Fd
where Pd = permeance along the direct axis
Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance and indicates ease with which flux can travel along
the path.
But Fd = m.m.f. = Kar Id in phase with Id
The m.m.f. is always proportional to current. While Kar is the armature reaction coefficient.
... Φd = Pd Kar Id
Similarly Φq = Pq Kar Iq
As the reluctance along direct axis is less than that along quadrature axis, the permeance
Pd along direct axis is more than that along quadrature axis, (P d < Pq ).
Let Ed and Eq be the induced e.m.f.s due to the fluxes Φd and Φq respectively. Now Ed lags
Φd by 90o while Eq lags Φq by 90o .
 where Ke = e.m.f. constant of armature winding
The resultant e.m.f. is the phasor sum of E f, Ed and Eq.

Substituting expressions for Φd and Φq

Now Xard = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the d-axis component of armature

reaction
= Ke Pd Kar
and Xarq = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the q-axis component of armature
reaction
= Ke Pq Kar

For a realistic alternator we know that the voltage equation is,

where Vt = terminal voltage

XL = leakage reactance
Substituting in expression for ĒR ,

where Xd = d-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xard .............(2)

and Xq = q-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xarq .........(3)
It can be seen from the above equation that the terminal voltage V t is nothing but the voltage left
after deducing ohmic drop Ia Ra, the reactive drop Id Xd in quadrature with Id and the reactive
drop Iq Xq in quadrature with Id, from the total e.m.f. Ef.
The phasor diagram corresponding to the equation (1) can be shown as in the Fig. 1. The current
Ia lags terminal voltage Vt by Φ. Then add Ia Ra in phase with Ia to Vt. The drop Id Xd leads Id by
90o as in case purely reactive circuit current lags voltage by 90 o i.e. voltage leads current by 90o .
Similarly the drop Iq Xq leads Xq by 90o . The total e.m.f. is E f.
In the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 4, the angles Ψ and δ are not known, through Vt, Ia and
Φ values are known. Hence the location of E f is also unknown. The components of Ia, Id and Iq
can not be determined which are required to sketch the phasor diagram.

Fig. 4
Let us find out some geometrical relationships between the various quantities which are involved
in the phasor diagram. For this, let us draw the phasor diagram including all the components in
detail.
We know from the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 4 that,
Id = Ia sin Ψ ............. (4)
 Iq = Ia cos Ψ ..............(5)
cosΨ = Iq/Ia ...............(6)
The drop Ia Ra has two components which are,
Id Rd = drop due to Ra in phase with Id
Iq Ra = drop due to Ra in phase with Iq
The Id Xd and Iq Rq can be drawn leading Id and Iq by 90o respectively. The detail phasor
diagram is shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Phasor diagram for lagging p.f.

In the phasor diagram,
OF = Ef
OG = Vt
GH = Id Ra and HA = Iq Ra
GA = Ia Ra
AE = Id Xd and EF = Iq Xa
Now DAC is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor I a and CB is drawn perpendicular to
AE.
The triangle ABC is right angle triangle,

But from equations (6), cosΨ = Iq/Ia

Thus point C can be located. Hence the direction of E f is also known.
Now triangle ODC is also right angle triangle,

Now OD = OI + ID = Vt cos Φ + Ia Ra
and CD = AC + AD = Ia Xq + Vt sinΦ

As Ia Xq is known, the angle Ψ can be calculated from equation (10). As Φ is known we can
write,
δ = Ψ - Φ for lagging p.f.

Hence magnitude of Ef can be obtained by using equation (11).

Note : In the above relations, Φ is taken positive for lagging p.f. For leading p.f., Φ must be
taken negative.
Infinite Bus: The bus whose voltage and frequency remains constant even after the variation in
the load is known as the infinite bus. The alternators operating in parallel in a power system is
the example of the infinite bus.
Characteristics of Infinite bus:
1. Infinite bus possess very large rotational inertia due to which it avoids any incoming
machine to alter the speed. Hence frequency remains constant.
2. Infinite bus maintains constant terminal voltage because the incoming machines are of
low ratings.
3. As the infinite bus system possess number of alternators connected in parallel, the
synchronous impedance is small
Operating Characteristics of an Alternator connected to Infinite bus:
4. Real power supplied by the alternator to the infinite bus is controlled by governer settings
5. The infinite bus system controls the frequency and terminal voltage of an alternator
6. The reactive power supplied by the alternator to the infinite bus is controlled by field
excitation of alternator.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATOR
Interconnection of the electric power systems is essential from the economical point of view
and also for reliable and Parallel Operation. Interconnection of AC power systems requires
synchronous generators to operate in parallel with each other. In generating stations, two or
more generators are connected in parallel. The alternators are located at different locations
forming a grid connected system.
They are connected parallel by means of transformer and transmission lines. Under normal
operating conditions all the generators and synchronous motors in an interconnected system
operate in synchronism with each other. A machine has to be adjusted for optimum operating
efficiency and greater reliability if the generators are connected in parallel.

As the load increases beyond the generated capacity of the connected units, additional generators
are parallel to carry the load. Similarly, if the load demand decreases, one or more machines are
taken off the line as per the requirement. It allows the units to operate at a higher efficiency.

Reasons of Parallel Operation

Alternators are operated in parallel for the following reasons:

  Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.
 One or more alternators may shut down during the period of light loads. Thus, the
remaining alternator operates at near or full load with greater efficiency.
 When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance and inspection,
the remaining machines maintain the continuity of the supply.
 If there is a breakdown of the generator, there is no interruption of the power supply.
 Number of machines can be added with disturbing the initial installation according to the
requirement to fulfill the increasing future demand of the load.
 Parallel operation of the alternator, reduces the operating cost and the cost of energy
generation.
 It ensures the greater security of supply and enables overall economic generation.

Condition for Parallel Operation of Alternator

There are some conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of the alternator. Before entering
into that, we should understand some terms which are as follows.

The process of connecting two alternators or an alternator and an infinite bus bar system in
parallel is known as synchronizing.

Running machine is the machine which carries the load.

Incoming machine is the alternator or machine which has to be connected in parallel with the
system.

The conditions to be satisfied are

 The phase sequence of the incoming machine voltage and the bus bar voltage should be
identical.
 The RMS line voltage (terminal voltage) of the bus bar or already running machine and
the incoming machine should be the same.
 The phase angle of the two systems should be equal.
  The frequency of the two terminal voltages (incoming machine and the bus bar) should
be nearly the same. Large power transients will occur when frequencies are not nearly
equal.
Departure from the above conditions will result in the formation of power surges and current. It
also results in unwanted electro-mechanical oscillation of rotor which leads to the damage of
equipment.

Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators

 When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out from service and
the other alternators can keep up for the continuity of supply.
 Load supply can be increased.
 During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the other will operate in
nearly full load.
 High efficiency.
 The operating cost is reduced.
 Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
 The generation cost is reduced.
 Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.
 Reliability of the whole power system increases.

SYNCHRONIZATION OF ALTERNATOR
The process of connecting two alternators or an alternator and an infinite bus bar system in
parallel is known as synchronizing. Running machine is the machine which carries the load.
Incoming machine is the alternator or machine which has to be connected in parallel with the
system.
Method of Synchronization of Alternator
1. Three Dark Lamps Method
2. Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method
3. Synchroscope Method

1. Three Dark Lamps Method

The figure above shows the circuit for bright lamp method used to synchronize the alternators.
Assume that alternator is connected to the load supplying rated voltage and frequency to it. Now
the alternator-2 is to be connected in parallel with alternator-1.

Three lamps (each of which is rated for alternator terminal voltage) are connected across the
switches of the alternator-2. From the figure it is clear that the moment when all the conditions of
parallel operation are satisfied, the lamps should be more or less dark.

1. To synchronize the alternator-2 with bus bar, the prime mover of the alternator-2 is driven at
speed close to the synchronous speed decided by the bus bar frequency and number of poles
of the alternator.
2. Now the field current of the generator-2 is increased till voltage across the machine terminals
is equal to the bus bar voltage (by observing the readings on voltmeters).
3. If lamps glow ON and OFF concurrently, indicating that the phase sequence of alternator-2
matches with bus bar. On the other hand, if they ON and OFF one after another, it resembles
the incorrect phase sequence.
4. If this is not the case, then this means phase sequences are not correct.In order to correct the
phase sequence, two leads of the line of the incoming machine should be interchange.
5. The frequency of the incoming machine is adjusted until the lamps flicker at a very slow rate,
less than one dark period per second. after the finally adjusting the incoming voltage , the
synchronizing switch is closed in the middle of their dark period.

Advantage of the dark lamp method

1. the method is cheap

2. the proper phase sequence is easily determined

Disadvantages of the dark lamp method

1. The lamps become dark at about half their rated voltage, it is possible that the synchronizing
switch might be closed where there is a considerable phases difference between machines.
This may result in high circuilating current to damage the machines.
2. The lamps filament might burn out.
3. The flicker of the lamps does not indicate which machine has the higher frequency.

Suppose, if the bus bar frequency is 50Hz, the rate of flickering of lamps is same when the
frequency of the alternator is either 51 or 49 Hz, as the difference in these two cases is 1Hz.

2. Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method

Consider an alternator B is to be synchronized. In this case lamp L1 is connected across R – R’,

lamp L2 is connected across Y – B’ and lamp L3 is connected across B – Y’ as shown in Figure.

Method of Synchronization of Alternator

Here I am describing the ‘two bright and one dark lamp method’ of synchronization of
alternators. This method is generally used in colleges to demonstrate this process to students.

Consider an alternator B is to be synchronized. In this case lamp L1 is connected across R – R’,

lamp L2 is connected across Y – B’ and lamp L3 is connected across B – Y’ as shown in Figure.
If the voltages are equal, the frequencies are identical, and the phase sequence is correct then the
voltage across L1 will be zero and across L2 and L3 will be line voltage.

Under this condition, the lamp L1 will be completely dark, and the lamp L2 and L3 will be
equally bright. This is the ideal condition for closing the synchronizing switch.

When the frequency of the incoming alternator is different from that of bus bar frequency and the
remaining conditions are fulfilled, then the three lamps will flicker alternatively (i.e. one after the
other in sequence).

The flickering of the lamps will indicate the difference in speed of the incoming alternator.
Accordingly, the speed is adjusted to minimize the flickering of the lamps.

However, if the phase sequence is not correct, all the three lamps will flicker in unison. Then the
phase sequence should be corrected by interchanging any two leads of the incoming alternator at
the synchronizing switch.

If the voltage of the incoming alternator is not equal to that of bus bar voltages and the other
conditions are satisfied, all the lamps will glow with different brightness and will continue to
attain the same brightness. The ideal condition can be achieved by adjusting the excitation of the
incoming alternator.

Thus when the flickering frequency is minimized, lamp L1 is dark, and L2 and L3 are equally
bright, the synchronizing switch should be closed.

This method is only suitable for small low voltage alternators. For large capacity, high voltage
alternators, a synchroscope is almost invariably used for synchronizing.

The disadvantage of this method is that the correctness of phase sequence cannot be checked.
However, this requirement is unnecessary for permanently connected alternators where checking
of phase sequence is enough to be carried out for the first time of operation alone.

3. Synchroscope Method

Synchroscope is an instrument used for synchronization of alternators. It indicates whether the

incoming machine is running fast or slow. To do the synchronization of alternators by this
device,
1. Connect the alternator, synchroscope and other devices as shown in the above Figure.
2. Check the phase sequence of the incoming machine with the help of a sequence indicator or
small induction motor.

To determine the phase sequence with the help of induction motor, connect a small induction
motor with bus bars and incoming alternator one by one. If the induction motor is running in the
same direction in both cases, then the phase sequence is the same.
2. Interchange any two phases of the incoming alternator at the synchronizingswitch if it is not
correct.

3. By adjusting the speed of the incoming machine, make the pointer of synchroscope stationery
in the vertical position.

4. Measure the voltage of incoming alternator, make it equal to that of the bus bars by adjusting
the excitation of the incoming alternator.

5. After satisfying all these conditions, the voltmeter will show zero reading. Now close the
synchronization switch.

SYNCHRONIZING POWER AND TORQUE WHEN TWO ALTERNATORS ARE

OPERATING IN PARALLEL
Consider an alternator connected to the infinite bus bar. Let V be the bus bar voltage and E be
the EMF induced in the alternator.The excitation of the alternator is adjusted in such a way that E
and V are equal in magnitude.In the local circuit, the two voltages E and V are in phase
opposition while in the external circuit they are in the same phase.This is represented in the
below figure.
When two alternators are operating in parallel, each machine has an inherent tendency to remain
synchronized.

Consider two similar single-phase alternators 1 and 2 operating in parallel at no-load Suppose,
due to any reason, the speed of machine 2 decreases. This will cause E2 to fall back by a phase
angle of ‘ ’ electrical degrees as shown in Fig. (though still E1 =E2).
Within the local circuit formed by two alternators, the resultant e.m.f. Er is the phasor difference
E1 - E2. This resultant e.m.f. results in the production of synchronizing current Isy which sets up
synchronizing torque. The synchronizing torque retards machine 1 and accelerates machine 2 so
that synchronism is reestablished.
The power associated with synchronizing torque is called synchronizing power.
In Fig, machine 1 is generating and machine 2 is motoring. The power supplied by machine 1 is
called synchronizing power. Referring to Fig.
we have,
Synchronizing power, Psy = E1Isy cos Φ1
= E1Isy cos (90° - θ)
= E1Isy sin θ
= E1Isy (θ ≈90° so that sin θ= 1)
The synchronizing power goes to supply power input to machine 2 and the Cu

losses in the local circuit of the two machines.

Note that in this expression, ‘ ’ is in electrical radians.

Note that this is the value of synchronizing power when two alternators, operate in parallel at no-
load.
Alternators Connected to Infinite Busbars
When an alternator is connected to an infinite busbars, the impedance (or synchronous reactance)
of only that alternator is considered.
Synchronizing Torque Tsy
Let Tsy be the synchronizing torque in newton-metre (N-m).
1. When there are two alternators is parallel

2. When alternator is connected to infinite Busbars

LOAD SHARING BETWEEN TWO ALTERNATORS:

Consider two machines with identical speed-load characteristics running in parallel with a
common terminal voltage of V volts and load impedance Z.
Let the generated emfs of the two machines 1 and 2 operating in parallel be E1 and E2
respectively and synchronous impedances per phase be Z1 and Z2 respectively.
Terminal voltage of machine 1 and terminal voltage of machine 2: