A7000 (Oct-2024), OpenStax Ch.

26: WS Solutions
Solutions
1. Describe the main distinguishing features of spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxies.
Spiral galaxies have a disk, spiral arms, and a central bulge. Elliptical galaxies appear as only a bulge—they
do not have any disk or spiral arm structure. Irregular galaxies do not fit into either of the other categories
and don’t have well-defined or clear structure.
2. Why did it take so long for the existence of other galaxies to be established?
Astronomers had no method of determining distance to objects so far away. Geometric methods work
only for the nearest stars and for a long time (until the cepheid period-luminosity relationship was
discovered) there were no reliable methods for finding distances farther away. In order to find individual
cepheids in other galaxies, however, we needed a larger telescope, and so distance measurement to other
galaxies had to await the building of the 100-in. telescope in the 1910s. Without distances, astronomers
were not sure if the fuzzy objects we now call galaxies were inside the Milky Way or not.
3. Explain what the mass-to-light ratio is and why it is smaller in spiral galaxies with regions of star formation
than in elliptical galaxies.
Mass-to-light ratio is a comparison of mass (usually in solar masses) to luminosity (usually in solar
luminosities). The Sun by definition would be a 1 in mass-to-light ratio. Regions of recent star formation
have many new massive stars in addition to the large number of low-mass stars that all galaxies have;
thus, their mass to light ratio tends to be lower (in the range of 1–10). Elliptical galaxies tend to be devoid
of gas and dust, and are not doing a lot of new star formation. Thus, many high-mass stars have consumed
all of their fuel and “burnt out.” The result is that the high mass stars no longer contribute to the overall
luminosity, so the mass-to-light ratio needs to increase to show this additional mass.
4. If we now realize dwarf ellipticals are the most common type of galaxy, why did they escape our notice for
so long?
They are extremely dim and small. This makes them difficult to observe and identify.
5. What are the two best ways to measure the distance to a nearby spiral galaxy, and how would it be
measured?
Method 1: Use the period-luminosity relationship for cepheid variable stars. First, look for a star that
varies at a rate consistent with cepheids, then use the period to determine the luminosity of the star.
Finally, compare the luminosity with the apparent brightness to determine the distance. Method 2: Type
Ia supernovae can be used as a standard bulb. First, look for a supernova explosion and determine what
kind of supernova it was. If it is a type Ia, it will reach the same peak luminosity as other type Ia’s.
Compare that peak luminosity with the apparent supernova brightness to determine the distance.
6. What are the two best ways to measure the distance to a distant, isolated spiral galaxy, and how would it be
measured?
Method 1: Type Ia supernovae can be used as a standard bulb. First, look for a supernova explosion, and
determine what kind of supernova it was. If it is a type Ia, it will reach the same peak luminosity as other
type Ia’s. Compare that peak luminosity with the apparent brightness of the supernova at maximum to
determine the distance. Method 2: The rotation rate of the spiral galaxy can be used to determine the
distance using the Tully-Fisher relation. Take a spectrum of the galaxy. The line widths of the 21-cm line
can then be used to determine the rotation rate of the galaxy.
7. Why is Hubble’s law considered one of the most important discoveries in the history of astronomy?
You could answer this several ways. Hubble’s law allows us to estimate the distance for galaxies that are
too far away to see individual cepheids. Hubble’s law describes the expansion of the universe. It validates
solutions to the equations of general relativity in which the universe is in motion (rather than static, as
Einstein had fudged it to be).
8. What does it mean to say that the universe is expanding? What is expanding? For example, is your
astronomy classroom expanding? Is the solar system? Why or why not?
It is space (or more properly space-time) that is expanding. The matter inside the universe is not
expanding—gravity holds things together at that local level. The empty space between groups and clusters
of galaxy is where expansion can be seen.
9. Was Hubble’s original estimate of the distance to the Andromeda galaxy correct? Explain.
No, although this was not known in the early 1920s, there are really two kinds of cepheid-like variable
stars, and Hubble was using the other kind to estimate the distance to Andromeda. The distance estimate
increased by more than a factor of two once it was corrected for this.
10. Does an elliptical galaxy rotate like a spiral galaxy? Explain.
No, in an elliptical, the stellar motions are randomized and do not travel systemically or in any
predominant direction. We can only measure the variations of the motion of the stars within an elliptical
galaxy.
11. Why does the disk of a spiral galaxy appear dark when viewed edge on?
In a spiral galaxy, dust is concentrated in the plane of the disk. When seen edge on, light from the stars
must reach us by traveling through the disk, and the dust in the plane of the galaxy absorbs the starlight
within the galaxy, making it appear darker.
12. What causes the largest mass-to-light ratio: gas and dust, dark matter, or stars that have burnt out?
Dark matter can create the largest mass-to-light ratios, since it dominates the mass of large galaxies and
galaxy clusters without adding to the total luminosity.
13. What is the most useful standard bulb method for determining distances to galaxies?
Type Ia supernovae; cepheid variable stars are limited by distance (since individual stars are hard to make
out once a galaxy gets too far away). Type Ia supernovae, on the other hand, are very luminous, and can
be seen at much greater distances.
14. When comparing two isolated spiral galaxies that have the same apparent brightness, but rotate at
different rates, what can you say about their relative luminosity?
Applying the Tully-Fisher method, the faster spinning galaxy should be more massive and thus more
luminous.
15. If all distant galaxies are expanding away from us, does this mean we’re at the center of the universe?
No, you can show that if the expansion follows a simple proportional relationship (Hubble’s law), then all
points in space within the expanding universe could make the same observation and claim to be the
center.
16. Is the Hubble constant actually constant?
No, astronomers understand that if the universe is decelerating (because of gravity) or accelerating, then
the Hubble “constant” actually changes with time. Observations suggest that Hubble’s constant has
increased over time, meaning that the universe’s expansion is accelerating.
17. Why can we not determine distances to galaxies by the same method used to measure the parallaxes of
stars?
Parallaxes can be measured accurately out to distances of 100 light-years or so (300 light-years from the
Hipparcos data). The nearest galaxies are about 50,000–80,000 light-years from the Sun. Therefore, there
is no perceptible change in the apparent position of any galaxy as we view it from opposite sides of Earth’s
orbit.
18. Which is redder—a spiral galaxy or an elliptical galaxy?
Hot blue stars are more massive and go through their lives more quickly. Therefore, as time goes on, blue
stars tend to die first and galaxies become redder as the blue stars die out. The less “raw material” a
galaxy has available, the fewer new stars (young stars) can be seen in it. An elliptical galaxy is redder than
a spiral in integrated light because an elliptical galaxy contains only old stars, while a spiral contains both
old and young stars. The nuclear bulge of a spiral (that is, excluding the light from the spiral arms) is
redder than its spiral arms because the central regions of spirals contain mostly old stars.
19. Suppose the stars in an elliptical galaxy all formed within a few million years shortly after the universe
began. Suppose these stars have a range of masses, just as the stars in our own galaxy do. How would the
color of the elliptical change over the next several billion years? How would its luminosity change? Why?
The color of the elliptical galaxy will grow redder with time as stars of progressively lower mass exhaust
their hydrogen and move away from the main sequence. The magnitude of the galaxy will also fade as
stars exhaust their energy supply, become black holes, neutron stars, or white dwarfs, and cease to emit
the large amounts of energy that they produced when they were younger. Also, the intrinsically most
luminous stars are the first to die, again causing the galaxy to grow fainter.
20. A cluster of galaxies is observed to have a recessional velocity of 60,000 km/s. Find the distance to the
cluster. (Assume a Hubble constant of 22 km/s per million light-years.)
If H = 22 km/s per 106 light-years, then a radial velocity of 60,000 km/s corresponds to (60,000/22) = 2700
 106 light-years = 2.7  109 light-years.