UNIT 8: ELECTRONICS AND SEMICONDUCTOR

Notes prepared by

Priyanka Talukdar

Lecturer, Kamrup Polytechnic

Energy Bands in Solids
In the band theory of solids, there are many energy bands but the following are the three most
important energy bands in solids:

Valence Band

Conduction Band

Forbidden Band

Valence band

The energy band that consists of valence electrons energy levels, is known as the valence
band. The valence band is present below the conduction band and the electrons of this band
are loosely bound to the nucleus of the atom.

Conduction band

The energy band that consists of free electrons energy levels, is known as the conduction
band. For electrons to be free, external energy must be applied such that the valence electrons
get pushed to the conduction band and become free.

Forbidden band

The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is known as the forbidden
band which is also known as the forbidden gap. The electrical conductivity of a solid is
determined by the forbidden gap and also the classification of the materials as conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators.
Conductors: Gold, Aluminum, Silver, Copper, all these metals allow an electric current to
flow through them. There is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band
which results in the overlapping of both the bands. The number of free electrons available at
room temperature is large.

Insulators: Glass and wood are examples of the insulator. These substances do not allow
electricity to pass through them. They have high resistivity and very low conductivity. The
energy gap in the insulator is very high up to 7eV. The material cannot conduct because the
movement of the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band is not possible.

Semiconductors: Germanium and Silicon are the most preferable material whose electrical
properties lie in between semiconductors and insulators. The energy band diagram of
semiconductors is shown where the conduction band is empty and the valence band is
completely filled but the forbidden gap between the two bands is very small that is about
1eV. For Germanium, the forbidden gap is 0.72eV and for Silicon, it is 1.1eV. Thus,
semiconductor requires small conductivity.

A semiconductor substance has an electrical property that sits between an insulator and a
conductor. Si and Ge are the greatest examples of semiconductors. There are two types of
semiconductors: intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors (p-type and n-type).
The intrinsic kind of semiconductor is pure, but the extensive type contains impurities to
make it conductive. At ambient temperature, intrinsic conductivity will be nil, but extrinsic
conductivity will be minimal. With doping and energy band diagrams, this article provides
an overview of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic Semiconductor

The definition of an intrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that is exceedingly pure.

According to the energy band theory, the conductivity of this semiconductor will be zero at
ambient temperature. Si and Ge are two examples of intrinsic semiconductors.

 The conduction band is empty in the below energy band diagram, but the valence band is
completely filled. Some heat energy can be provided to it once the temperature has been
raised. As a result of exiting the valence band, electrons from the valence band are
provided to the conduction band.

 The flow of electrons will be random as they go from the valence to the conduction
band. The crystal’s holes can also flow freely in any direction.
 As a result, the TCR of this semiconductor will be negative (temperature coefficient of
resistance). The TCR indicates that when the temperature rises, the material’s resistance
decreases and its conductivity rises.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that have had an impurity introduced to them
at a regulated rate to make them conductive.

 While insulating materials may be doped to make them into semiconductors, intrinsic
semiconductors can also be doped to make an extrinsic semiconductor.
 Extrinsic semiconductors are divided into two categories as a result of doping: atoms
with an additional electron (n-type for negative, from group V) and atoms with one
fewer electron (p-type for positive, from group III).
 Doping is the purposeful introduction of impurities into a very pure, or intrinsic,
semiconductor in order to change its electrical characteristics. The kind of
semiconductor determines the impurities. Extrinsic semiconductors are those that are
light to moderately doped.
.
What is Doping?
Doping is the process of introducing an impurity into a semiconductor. During the
production of extrinsic semiconductors, the amount and kind of impurity to be introduced
to the material must be carefully monitored. In most cases, one impurity atom is introduced
to every 108 semiconductor atoms.

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor

material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.

In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side or the
positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side
has an excess of electrons. The process of doping is explained in further detail in the next
section.

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a P-N junction, there will
be a grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other
by scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of doping. We will
understand the process of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type
silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part
of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will now contain both the p-
type region and the n-type region and a junction between these two regions. The processes
that follow after forming a P-N junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. There is a
difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes
from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side.
These give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

Fig: Unbiased P-N Junction

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionised donor is left behind
on the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is
developed on the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-
side, an ionized acceptor is left behind on the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of
negative charges in the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative
charge on either side of the junction is termed as the depletion region. Due to this positive
space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field with the direction from a
positive charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an
electron on the p-side of the junction moves to the n-side of the junction. This motion is
termed the drift. Here, we see that the direction of the drift current is opposite to that of the
diffusion current.

Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:

 P-type
 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the voltage
applied:
  Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the P-N junction diode.
 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
and the positive is connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the n-type to the negative
terminal, then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. When the P-N junction is
forward biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the applied electric field are
in opposite directions. When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a
magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner
depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied
voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region
becomes completely negligible, and the current flows across it unimpeded.
Reverse Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal and the n-type is connected to
the positive side, the P-N junction is reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and
the applied electric field are in the same direction. When the two fields are added, the
resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field, creating a more
resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if
the applied voltage becomes larger.

Light-emitting diode (LED) Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light-emitting diode (LED) is a widely used standard source of light in electrical equipment.
It has a wide range of applications ranging from your mobile phone to large advertising
billboards. They mostly find applications in devices that show the time and display different
types of data. A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when
an electric current flows through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons
recombine with holes emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the
forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction. The LED symbol is
the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small arrows denoting the emission
of light.
The figure below shows a simple LED circuit.

Uses of LED

LEDs find applications in various fields, including optical communication, alarm and security
systems, remote-controlled operations, robotics, etc. It finds usage in many areas because of
its long-lasting capability, low power requirements, swift response time, and fast switching
capabilities. Below are a few standards LED uses:

 Used for TV back-lighting

 Used in displays
 Used in Automotives
 LEDs used in the dimming of lights

Types of LED

Below is the list of different types of LED that are designed using semiconductors:

 Miniature LEDs
 High-Power LEDs
 Flash LED
 Bi and Tri-Colour
  Red Green Blue LEDs
 Alphanumeric LED
 Lighting LED

What is Half Wave Rectifier?

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified. When the p-n junction
diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversed biased it provides
high resistance. During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is
applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During alternate half-cycles, the
optimum result can be obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the positive half of the
input, the current will flow from positive to negative which will generate only a positive half
cycle of the a.c supply. When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be
decreasing at the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the a.c supply will
reduce, and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to the load resistor.

In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive and the diode will be
reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no current generated, and we cannot get
power at the load resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse bias
due to minority carriers.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Affordable
  Simple connections
 Easy to use as the connections are simple
 Number of components used are less

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Ripple production is more

 Harmonics are generated
 Utilization of the transformer is very low
 The efficiency of rectification is low

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:

 Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for power
rectification as powering equipment.
 Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM
signals.
 Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the
incoming waveform.

What is Full Wave Rectifier?

Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output current which
is purely DC. The main advantage of a full-wave rectifier over half-wave rectifier is that such
as the average output voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier, there is less ripple produced in
full-wave rectifier when compared to the half-wave rectifier.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the p-n junction is
forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and when it is reverse biased it gives high
resistance. The circuit is designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is
forward biased then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so on.
Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers, and they are:

 Two diodes full-wave rectifier circuit (requires a center-tapped transformer and is

used in vacuum tubes)
 Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require a centre-tapped transformer and is used
along with transformers for efficient usage)

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high

 The power loss is very low
 Number of ripples generated are less

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 Very expensive

Applications of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:

 Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding and for this
bridge rectifiers are used.
 Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated radio signals.
Construction of a Bridge Rectifier

The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge rectifier circuit
is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are connected in
a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct
Current (DC). The main advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive
centre-tapped transformer. Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.

The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is obtained
across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are
arranged in such a way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. D1 and
D3 are pairs that conduct electric current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes
D2 and D4 conduct electric current during a negative half cycle.

Working

When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive during
the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D 1 and
D3 becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.

The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:
During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes
negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to be
reverse biased.

The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:

From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor RL is the
same during the positive and negative half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be
either completely positive or negative. In our case, it is completely positive. If the diodes’
direction is reversed, we get a complete negative DC voltage.

Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half cycles of
the input AC signal.
The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.

What is a Transistor?
A transistor is a semiconductor device that transfers a weak signal from a low
resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. In simple words, what it means is that it
regulates and amplifies electrical signals such as voltage or current.

Transistors are special because they allow you to control how much current flows
through a circuit. This can be achieved by controlling the voltage across two of the
transistor leads. Each transistor has three leads.