Bulk Deformation Forming –

Forging

Chapter 6
 Forging procedure
• Prepare raw material including cleaning
• Heat workpiece (for hot forging)
• Descale if necessary
• Preheat dies (for hot forging) and lubricate them
• Forge in appropriate dies and in the correct sequence
• Remove excess material (flashing) -> hot forging
• Clean
• Check dimensions
• Machine to final dimensions
• Heat treat if necessary
• Inspect
 Characteristics

• Tolerances of 0.5% to 1% can be achieved

• Material properties can be tailored by appropriate die design
– Directed material flow

Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes showing grain flow.
(a) Casting, (b) machining, and (c) forging.
• Advantages
– Metal flow and grain structure can be controlled
– Results in good strength and toughness
– Net-shape or near-net-shape (low buy-to-fly ratio)
– Parts of reasonable complexity can be created
• Landing gears
• Connecting rods
• Complex shafts

• Disadvantages
– Dies are expensive, particularly for hot forging
– Highly skilled labor required
 Open die forging

• Also called upsetting or flat-die forging

• Advantages
– Cheap
– Can form a wide variety of simple shapes
• Parallelepipeds, cylinders
– Useful for preparing material for other forging processes
or machining
– Can handle large items (35 tons)
• Disadvantages
– Barreling of shape due to high friction
Open die forging
Plane strain open die forging

æ ma ö
pav @ Y f ' ç1+ ÷
è h ø
F = (pav )(2a )(width )
 Axi-symmetric open die forging

æ 2m ( r - x ) ö æ 2m r ö
p = Yf exp ç ÷ pav @ Yf ç1+ ÷
è h ø è 3h ø
( )
F = (pav ) r 2
 Impression die forging

• Use of dies with the appropriate shape

• It usually requires more than one die to complete the process
• Flash developed to ensure a good filling of the dies (hot
conditions)

• Advantages
– Net- or near-net-shape parts
– Material properties tailored to
the application
• Disadvantages
– High die costs
– Highly skilled labor required
Connecting rod forging
Forging load
 Forging load

F = k Yf A
where Yf is the flow stress
A is the area and
k is a factor given below

Shapes k
Simple, no flashing 3-5
simple, with flashing 5-8
Complex, with flashing 8-12
Microstructure of the forged part
Die characteristics
 Dies design
• It requires knowledge of:
– Material strength
– Material sensitivity to strain rate and temperature
– Tribological characteristics
– Shape and complexity of workpiece
– How the metal will flow to fill the die cavity
 Forgeability

• Defined as the capability of a metal to undergo deformation

without cracking
• A common test is the upset test
– Upset a cylindrical specimen to fixed, large deformation
– Examine the barrel surfaces for cracks
• Another is the hot torsion test
– Twist a long cylindrical specimen around its axis
– The number of twists to failure is an index of forgeability
Hot forging temperatures
 Defects

• Surface cracks (forgeability limits)

• Buckling
• Laps
• Internal cracks
 Defects

Laps formed by
buckling of the web
during forging.

Internal defects developing during forging because of an oversized billet. The die cavities are filled
prematurely, and the material at the center of the part flows past the filled regions as deformation continues.
 Defects

Effect of fillet radius on defect formation in forging. Small fillets (right side of drawings) cause the defects.
 Further processes

• Coining
– Similar to precision forging
– Die cavity is completely closed
– Very high pressures involved
– Used in coin-making

• Heading
– Used mostly for bolts
 Further processes

• Piercing
– It makes holes or cavities

• Rolling
– It uses rolls to shape parts
(ball bearings)
– Similar to shape rolling but
for making discrete parts
 Further processes

• Orbital forging
– It forms the part
incrementally
– Reduced forging forces
because the die contact is
concentrated on a small part
of the workpiece at any time
– Mostly applicable to
cylindrical shapes

• Incremental forging
– Blank formed in several
small steps like orbital
 Further processes

• Isothermal forging

– Dies are at the same temperature as the workpiece

– No workpiece cooling
– Low flow stresses
– Better material flow
– Close tolerances and finer details can be achieved compared to
conventional hot forging

• Cogging

– Cylindrical parts subjected to radial impact forces by reciprocating dies

 Presses

– Mechanical
– Hydraulic
– Screw
– Hammers
 Mechanical presses

• Crank or eccentric types

• Stroke-limited
• Energy-dependent on that stored
in the flywheel
• Very large forces can be
generated at the bottom dead
center -> particular attention must
be paid to the die design and
placement to avoid premature die
fracture
 Hydraulic presses

• Constant speed
• Load-limited
• Compared to mechanical presses
– Typically slower
– Higher initial capital costs
– Less maintenance
 Screw presses

• Derive energy from the

flywheel
• Flywheel drives a screw, not
a ram
• Energy-limited
• The process stops when the
flywheel energy is exhausted
 Hammers
• The ram is raised by some mechanism and fall onto the workpiece
• The potential energy of the ram is converted into kinematic energy
when the upper die comes in contact with the workpiece
• Energy-limited
• High speeds
• Minimal cooling
• Different types:
– Gravity drop
– Power drop
– Counterblow
– High energy rate machines
Forging costs
 Application – Hot impression die forging of a
cylindrical billet /1
Data:
Tforging=1120°C
=7850 kg/m3
Component diameter at the parting line = 66 mm
Weight of the component after forging and flash
trimming = 1.124 kg
Yf=120 MPa

-> Calculate the dimensions of the initial

billet and the needed forging force

1) Weight of the initial billet: M = (ma + mb )A

Flash weight = 5-15% forged component weight
Weight loss due to thermal oxidation = 3-5% initial billet weight
Application – Hot impression die forging of a
cylindrical billet /2

2) Volume of the initial billet

V =M

3) Dimensions of the initial billet
 - Upsetting design
V= Db2H b
4 - Extrusion design
 Application – Hot impression die forging of a
cylindrical billet /3
4) Dimensions of the flash land
1 s = height of the flash land
b 62.5
s = 0.017D + = b = length of the flash land
D+5 s D D = component diameter at the parting line

p ( D + 2b)
2
5) Forging force
F = K Yf A = K Yf
4