Unit-1 PRCV
Unit-1 PRCV
Induction Algorithms
• Induction algorithms are methods used in machine learning and artificial
intelligence to derive general rules or patterns from specific examples or
observations. These algorithms are often used to build models that can
predict outcomes or classify data based on training data.
• In essence, induction involves moving from the specific to the general. The
learning process starts with a set of specific data points (examples), and
the algorithm infers a broader rule or hypothesis that can apply to new,
unseen data.
•Instability: Small changes in the data can lead to a completely different tree
structure, making decision trees sensitive to data variations.
•Bias Toward Dominant Features: If one feature has a very strong influence, the
tree may give too much weight to it, ignoring other important features.
•Ensemble Learning:
•Random Forest is based on ensemble learning, where multiple models (in this
case, decision trees) are combined to produce a more accurate and stable
prediction than any individual model.
•Prediction Process:
•For classification, each tree independently predicts a class label. The final
prediction is made based on the majority vote of all trees.
•For regression, each tree outputs a numerical value, and the final prediction
is the average of all the tree outputs.
•Robust to Noise:
•By training on random subsets of data and using random subsets of
features, Random Forest becomes less sensitive to noise in the dataset.
•Feature Importance:
•Random Forest provides a way to measure the importance of each
feature in predicting the target. This is useful for understanding the
underlying patterns in the data and for feature selection.
•Complexity:
•Random Forests are less interpretable than individual decision trees. While
decision trees are easy to visualize and explain, the ensemble of multiple
trees is more difficult to interpret.
•Memory Consumption:
•Because Random Forest trains many trees, it can consume more memory
and computational resources, especially with large datasets and a high
number of trees.
•Regression: Used for tasks like predicting house prices, stock market
trends, etc.
•Probabilistic Interpretation:
•The output of Bayesian models is a probability distribution rather than a single
point estimate, which gives a better understanding of uncertainty in
predictions.
•Choice of Priors:
•The choice of prior can significantly affect the results, and if the prior is chosen
poorly or subjectively, it may bias the outcome. However, in many cases, non-
informative or weak priors can be used to minimize this issue.
•Limited Expressiveness:
•Naive Bayes can struggle with more complex decision boundaries because it
assumes linear separability in log-space, which limits its expressiveness for
certain datasets.
•Text Classification:
•Widely used in tasks like sentiment analysis, document categorization, and
language detection.
•Medical Diagnosis:
•Naive Bayes is used in medical diagnosis to predict diseases based on
symptoms.
•Recommendation Systems:
•Used in some recommendation systems to predict whether a user will like
an item based on past behavior.
•Feature learning: They can automatically discover features from raw data,
especially in domains like image and audio processing.
•Scalability: Deep neural networks, with many layers, can learn hierarchical
representations, leading to improved performance on tasks involving large and
complex datasets.
•Population:
•A population consists of a set of potential solutions (called individuals or
chromosomes) to a given problem. Each individual represents a point in
the solution space.
•The population evolves over generations to explore the solution space and
find better solutions.
•Chromosomes (Individuals):
•Each individual or solution is encoded as a chromosome. The encoding is
often done using binary strings (though real numbers or other encodings
can be used).
•For example, in a binary encoding, a chromosome might look like
11010101, where each bit represents a specific attribute or decision.
•No Guarantee of Optimality: GAs do not guarantee finding the exact optimal
solution; they often return an approximation.
•Computational Complexity:
•Instance-based methods can be computationally expensive, especially when the
number of instances is large, because they involve calculating similarities between
the query instance and all stored instances. This often requires efficient data
structures and algorithms to speed up the search.
Consider a scenario where we want to classify new animal images into categories
like "cat" or "dog". We use a k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) algorithm:
1.Training Phase:
•Collect and store labeled images of cats and dogs. Each image is represented
as a feature vector (e.g., pixel values, texture features).
2.Prediction Phase:
•For a new image, compute its feature vector.
•Find the k most similar images from the stored database using a similarity
measure like Euclidean distance.
•Classify the new image based on the majority class among its k nearest
neighbors.
•Computationally Intensive:
•Predicting the class or value for a new instance can be computationally expensive,
particularly for large datasets, as it requires comparing the new instance with all
stored instances.
•Memory Usage:
•Storing all instances can be memory-intensive, especially if the dataset is large.
•Lack of Generalization:
•Instance-based methods do not explicitly learn a general model of the data, which
can be a limitation if the number of instances is insufficient or if the data has a high
degree of noise.
•Pattern Recognition:
•Used in image recognition, speech recognition, and handwriting recognition where
it is useful to compare new patterns with stored examples.
•Recommender Systems:
•Employed to recommend products or content based on user preferences similar to
those of other users with similar preferences.
•Medical Diagnosis:
•Applied to classify medical conditions or predict outcomes based on patient data
and historical cases.
•Anomaly Detection:
•Used to detect unusual or outlier instances by comparing them to the norm within
the stored instances.
•Robust to Overfitting:
•Especially with the use of kernels and proper regularization, SVMs can be robust
to overfitting, particularly in high-dimensional spaces.
•Versatile:
•By using different kernel functions, SVMs can model complex decision
boundaries.
•Parameter Tuning:
•SVMs require careful tuning of parameters like C and kernel parameters, which
can be challenging and computationally expensive.
•Less Interpretable:
•The decision boundary learned by an SVM may be difficult to interpret, especially
in high-dimensional spaces.
•Image Classification:
•Applied in object recognition and facial recognition.
•Bioinformatics:
•Used in gene classification and protein structure prediction.
•Financial Analysis:
•Applied in credit scoring and fraud detection.