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Unit-1 PRCV

PR CV UNIT 1

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
44 views86 pages

Unit-1 PRCV

PR CV UNIT 1

Uploaded by

Nishant Kumar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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UNIT-I

Induction Algorithms
• Induction algorithms are methods used in machine learning and artificial
intelligence to derive general rules or patterns from specific examples or
observations. These algorithms are often used to build models that can
predict outcomes or classify data based on training data.
• In essence, induction involves moving from the specific to the general. The
learning process starts with a set of specific data points (examples), and
the algorithm infers a broader rule or hypothesis that can apply to new,
unseen data.

1 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Common Types of Induction
Algorithms:
• Decision Trees: These algorithms split the data into branches based on feature values
and outcomes. Decision trees are a popular inductive learning technique used for
classification and regression.
• Rule-Based Learning: This involves generating "if-then" rules from the data. The
algorithm generalizes these rules based on the examples provided to make predictions
on new instances.
• Instance-Based Learning (e.g., K-Nearest Neighbors): Though primarily a lazy
learning method, instance-based learning can also be considered inductive as it
generalizes based on similarities to the training instances.
• Support Vector Machines (SVMs): SVMs create a hyperplane that best separates the
data into classes. Though they rely on specific instances (support vectors), they
generalize by creating decision boundaries.
• Artificial Neural Networks: These models induce patterns through layers of
interconnected neurons, learning to generalize by adjusting weights based on the
training data.

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Rule induction
Rule induction is a process in machine learning where an algorithm extracts a set of "if-
then" rules from a dataset. These rules are used to predict the outcome or classify new data.
Rule induction is a type of supervised learning, typically used in classification tasks, and is
especially beneficial when the goal is to produce a human-understandable model.
Key Concepts in Rule Induction:
Rules: The output of rule induction algorithms consists of a series of conditional
statements in the form of "If condition, then result."
Example:
If temperature > 30°C and humidity < 50%, then the weather is dry.
Antecedent and Consequent:
Antecedent: The condition part of the rule (e.g., "temperature > 30°C and humidity <
50%").
Consequent: The outcome or decision resulting from the rule (e.g., "the weather is
dry").
Coverage:
The proportion of instances in the dataset that are correctly classified by a rule.
Accuracy:
The proportion of instances that satisfy both the antecedent and consequent of the
rule.
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Benefits of Rule Induction:

 Interpretability: The resulting rules are easy for humans to


understand and interpret, unlike complex models like deep
neural networks.
 Transparency: It provides insight into how the algorithm is
making decisions, which is useful in applications where
explainability is important (e.g., healthcare, legal decisions).
 Simplicity: The derived rules are often simple and
straightforward, making the models easy to deploy and use.

4 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Decision Trees:
A decision tree is a popular and intuitive machine learning
model used for both classification and regression tasks. It is
structured like a tree, where each internal node represents a
decision based on a feature, each branch represents an outcome
of that decision, and each leaf node represents a final prediction
or outcome.

5 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Concepts of Decision Trees:
•Root Node:
•The root node is the starting point of the decision tree.
•It represents the best feature or condition on which to split the data based on
some criterion (e.g., information gain or Gini impurity).
•Internal Nodes:
•Each internal node represents a test or decision on a feature.
•For example, if we are classifying customers based on income,
an internal node might test the condition "Is income > $50,000?"
•Branches:
•Each branch coming out of a node represents the possible outcomes of the
decision.
• For a binary feature, there will be two branches (True/False),
while for multi-class or continuous features, there may be multiple branches.
•Leaf Nodes:
•Leaf nodes represent the final prediction or class label after all decisions have
been made.
• In a regression task, the leaf nodes will contain continuous values, while in
classification, they will contain class labels.
6 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
How Decision Trees Work:
•Splitting:
•The decision tree algorithm recursively splits the dataset into smaller subsets
based on the value of a feature.
•The goal is to make each subset as homogeneous (pure) as possible concerning
the target variable (e.g., all instances in a subset belong to the same class).
•Criteria for Splitting:
•Decision trees use various criteria to decide the best way to split the data at
each node:
•Information Gain (used in ID3, C4.5): Measures the reduction in
entropy after a split. The higher the information gain, the better the split.
•Gini Impurity (used in CART): Measures how often a randomly chosen
element from the set would be incorrectly classified. A lower Gini
impurity indicates a better split.

7 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
How Decision Trees Work:
•Stopping Criteria:
•The tree-growing process continues until a stopping criterion is met, such as:
•All the data in a subset belong to the same class.
•A predefined depth of the tree is reached.
•The number of instances in a subset is below a threshold.
•Pruning:
•Pruning is a technique used to prevent overfitting by removing branches that
provide little additional value in terms of improving predictions.
•There are two main types:
•Pre-pruning: Stops the tree growth early, based on predefined criteria like
maximum depth.
•Post-pruning: Trims branches after the tree is fully grown by removing
branches that do not improve model performance on a validation set.

8 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Advantages of Decision Trees:
•Interpretability: Decision trees are easy to understand and interpret. The
model is visually intuitive, and the reasoning behind each prediction is clear.
•No Need for Feature Scaling: Unlike algorithms like SVM or KNN, decision
trees do not require feature scaling or normalization.
•Handling Categorical and Continuous Data: Decision trees can handle both
categorical and numerical data, making them versatile.

9 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Disadvantages of Decision
Trees:

•Overfitting: Decision trees are prone to overfitting, especially when they


become too deep and fit noise in the training data.

•Instability: Small changes in the data can lead to a completely different tree
structure, making decision trees sensitive to data variations.

•Bias Toward Dominant Features: If one feature has a very strong influence, the
tree may give too much weight to it, ignoring other important features.

10 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Random Forest
Random Forest is an ensemble learning method used for
classification, regression, and other tasks. It builds multiple
decision trees during training and outputs the class that is the
majority vote of the trees (for classification) or the average
prediction (for regression). By combining the predictions of
many decision trees, random forest improves accuracy, reduces
overfitting, and increases robustness compared to a single
decision tree.

11 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Concepts in Random Forest:

•Ensemble Learning:
•Random Forest is based on ensemble learning, where multiple models (in this
case, decision trees) are combined to produce a more accurate and stable
prediction than any individual model.

•Bagging (Bootstrap Aggregating):


•Random Forest uses a technique called bagging, where each decision tree is
trained on a random subset of the training data (with replacement, known as
bootstrapping). This ensures that each tree is slightly different, reducing the
likelihood that all trees will overfit the data in the same way.

12 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Concepts in Random Forest:
•Random Feature Selection:
•At each node of every tree, a random subset of features is selected, and the
best feature from this subset is used to split the node. This further
decorrelates the trees and reduces the chance that any one feature dominates
the predictions.

•Majority Voting (for Classification):


•Once all trees in the forest have made their predictions, the Random Forest
algorithm aggregates these results. For classification tasks, the class label that
receives the majority of votes from the decision trees is chosen as the final
prediction.

•Averaging (for Regression):


•For regression tasks, the predictions of all the trees are averaged to produce
the final output.

13 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
How Random Forest Works:
•Training Process:
•A random subset of the training dataset is sampled with replacement
(bootstrapping) to train each tree.
•At each node in a decision tree, a random subset of features is selected. The
best feature from this subset is chosen for the split, based on criteria like Gini
impurity (for classification) or mean squared error (for regression).
•This process is repeated independently for each tree until all trees in the
forest are trained.

•Prediction Process:
•For classification, each tree independently predicts a class label. The final
prediction is made based on the majority vote of all trees.
•For regression, each tree outputs a numerical value, and the final prediction
is the average of all the tree outputs.

14 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Advantages of Random Forest:
•Reduces Overfitting:
•Random Forest significantly reduces overfitting that is common in single
decision trees because it averages multiple trees. Individual trees may
overfit the data, but the ensemble of trees generalizes better to unseen data.

•Robust to Noise:
•By training on random subsets of data and using random subsets of
features, Random Forest becomes less sensitive to noise in the dataset.

•Handles Missing Data:


•Random Forest can handle missing data well. For example, it can make
predictions even when some features are missing by relying on the
decisions from other trees.

15 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Advantages of Random Forest:

•Works Well with High Dimensional Data:


•Because it selects random subsets of features, Random Forest works
well in high-dimensional spaces (with many features) and avoids the
curse of dimensionality.

•Feature Importance:
•Random Forest provides a way to measure the importance of each
feature in predicting the target. This is useful for understanding the
underlying patterns in the data and for feature selection.

16 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Disadvantages of Random
Forest:
•Slower Prediction:
•Since Random Forest requires generating predictions from multiple trees,
it can be slower in prediction compared to a single decision tree. This can
be an issue when real-time predictions are required.

•Complexity:
•Random Forests are less interpretable than individual decision trees. While
decision trees are easy to visualize and explain, the ensemble of multiple
trees is more difficult to interpret.

•Memory Consumption:
•Because Random Forest trains many trees, it can consume more memory
and computational resources, especially with large datasets and a high
number of trees.

17 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Parameters:
1.Number of Trees (n_estimators):
•This parameter controls how many decision trees the Random Forest
algorithm builds. A higher number of trees generally improves performance
but increases computation time.
2.Max Depth (max_depth):
•This limits the depth of each tree in the forest. A shallower tree reduces the
risk of overfitting but might lead to underfitting.
3.Max Features (max_features):
•The number of features to consider when looking for the best split at each
node. Lower values help reduce overfitting by increasing randomness but
might also reduce accuracy.
4.Min Samples Split/Leaf (min_samples_split, min_samples_leaf):
•These parameters control the minimum number of samples required to split
a node or be present in a leaf. Setting these values helps prevent overfitting
by ensuring that nodes contain enough data to be meaningful.

18 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Applications of Random
Forest:
•Classification: Used in applications like disease diagnosis, customer churn
prediction, spam detection, etc.

•Regression: Used for tasks like predicting house prices, stock market
trends, etc.

•Feature Selection: Identifying important features in datasets, especially


when the dataset has many irrelevant features.

19 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Bayesian methods
Bayesian methods are a class of statistical techniques that use Bayes' theorem to
update the probability of a hypothesis as more evidence or data becomes available.
These methods are central to Bayesian statistics and machine learning, where prior
knowledge or beliefs are combined with new data to make predictions, update
models, and infer probabilities.
 Bayes' Theorem:

20 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Bayesian methods

21 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Concepts in Bayesian
Methods:
•Prior Probability:
•Represents the initial belief or knowledge about the hypothesis before
observing any data. It reflects any pre-existing understanding of the problem,
and it can be based on historical data, expert opinion, or purely subjective
belief.
•Likelihood:
•The likelihood measures how probable the observed data is under a specific
hypothesis. It indicates how well the hypothesis explains the evidence.
•Posterior Probability:
•This is the updated probability of the hypothesis after considering both the
prior and the likelihood of the observed data. It incorporates new information to
revise the prior belief.
•Marginal Likelihood (Evidence):
•The marginal likelihood is the total probability of observing the data, summed
over all possible hypotheses. It's essentially a normalizing factor that ensures
the posterior probabilities sum to 1.

22 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Bayesian Methods in Machine
Learning:
1. Naive Bayes Classifier:
 Naive Bayes is a simple probabilistic classifier based on Bayes'
theorem with the assumption that the features are conditionally
independent given the class label. Despite its simplicity and the
"naive" assumption, it performs surprisingly well in many
practical tasks like spam filtering, text classification, and sentiment
analysis.

23 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Bayesian Methods in Machine
Learning:
2. Bayesian Networks:
•A Bayesian network is a graphical model that represents a set of random
variables and their conditional dependencies using a directed acyclic graph
(DAG). Each node represents a random variable, and the edges represent
conditional dependencies.
•Bayesian networks are widely used for probabilistic inference, diagnosis,
and decision-making in fields like genetics, medicine, and AI.

3. Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC):


•MCMC methods are used to approximate the posterior distribution of
parameters when it is difficult to compute directly. MCMC generates
samples from the posterior distribution by constructing a Markov chain that
converges to the desired distribution.
•Common MCMC algorithms include the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm
and Gibbs sampling. These are crucial for Bayesian inference in high-
dimensional spaces where exact computation is infeasible.

24 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Bayesian Methods in Machine
Learning:
4. Bayesian Linear Regression: In Bayesian linear regression, rather than
estimating a single point estimate for the regression coefficients, the posterior
distribution of the coefficients is estimated. This allows us to quantify uncertainty in
the model's predictions and incorporate prior beliefs about the parameters.
•The model produces a distribution of outcomes rather than a fixed prediction,
providing a more robust and probabilistic framework.

5. Gaussian Processes: Gaussian Processes (GPs) are a non-parametric Bayesian


method used for regression and classification. In GPs, every point in the input space
is associated with a normally distributed random variable, and predictions are made
by considering the joint distribution of all points.
•GPs are powerful for modeling complex functions and can provide uncertainty
estimates for predictions.

6. Bayesian Optimization: Bayesian Optimization is a global optimization


technique used to optimize expensive or black-box functions. It builds a
probabilistic model (often a Gaussian Process) of the objective function and uses
Bayesian inference to choose the next point to evaluate. It is often applied in
25 hyperparameter tuning for machine learning models.
Advantages of Bayesian
Methods:
•Incorporating Prior Knowledge:
•Bayesian methods allow you to include prior knowledge or expert judgment in
the model, which can be especially valuable when data is scarce.

•Probabilistic Interpretation:
•The output of Bayesian models is a probability distribution rather than a single
point estimate, which gives a better understanding of uncertainty in
predictions.

•Adaptable to Small Data:


•Bayesian methods can work well even with small datasets by using
informative priors, which help guide the inference process.

•Flexible and Robust:


•Bayesian methods can handle complex models and are robust to overfitting, as
they incorporate prior distributions that regularize the model.

26 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Disadvantages of Bayesian
Methods:
•Computational Complexity:
•Bayesian methods can be computationally expensive, especially for high-
dimensional data, as computing the posterior distribution often requires
numerical approximations (e.g., MCMC).

•Choice of Priors:
•The choice of prior can significantly affect the results, and if the prior is chosen
poorly or subjectively, it may bias the outcome. However, in many cases, non-
informative or weak priors can be used to minimize this issue.

•Interpretability of Complex Models:


•For some Bayesian models, especially those that rely on MCMC or other
sampling techniques, the resulting posterior distribution can be challenging to
interpret.

27 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Applications of Bayesian
Methods:
•Natural Language Processing: Naive Bayes is widely used for text
classification, spam filtering, and sentiment analysis.

•Medical Diagnosis: Bayesian networks are used to model the probabilistic


relationships between diseases and symptoms for diagnostic purposes.

•Finance: Bayesian methods are used for portfolio optimization, risk


management, and time-series forecasting.

•Hyperparameter Tuning: Bayesian optimization is used to optimize the


hyperparameters of machine learning models, particularly in deep learning and
support vector machines.

28 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
The Naive Bayes classifier
 The Naive Bayes classifier is a simple yet powerful
probabilistic classifier based on Bayes' theorem. It is called
"naive" because it assumes that all features in the dataset are
conditionally independent given the class label, which is
often an unrealistic assumption in practice. However, despite
this "naive" assumption, Naive Bayes performs well in many
real-world applications, especially in text classification tasks
such as spam filtering, sentiment analysis, and document
categorization.

29 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Bayes' Theorem:
The Naive Bayes classifier is built upon Bayes' theorem,
which describes how to calculate the probability of a hypothesis
(class label) based on prior knowledge and observed data. The
formula is:

30 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
The Naive Bayes classifier computes the posterior probability
for each possible class and selects the class with the highest
probability as the predicted label.
Naive Bayes Assumption:

31 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
How Naive Bayes Works:

32 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Advantages of Naive Bayes:
 Simplicity:
 Naive Bayes is simple to implement and computationally efficient,
making it suitable for large datasets.
 Fast Training and Prediction:
 Training and prediction are fast due to the independence assumption,
which reduces the complexity of the model.
 Handles High-Dimensional Data:
 Naive Bayes works well with high-dimensional data, such as text data,
where the feature space can be large (e.g., thousands of words in a
document).
 Performs Well with Small Data:
 Despite the strong independence assumption, Naive Bayes performs
well even with relatively small datasets and noisy data.
 Handles Missing Data:
 The model can easily handle missing data by ignoring the missing
feature when calculating the likelihood.

33 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Disadvantages of Naive Bayes:
•Independence Assumption:
•The main limitation is the assumption that features are conditionally
independent, which is often not true in practice. This can lead to poor
performance when there are strong dependencies between features.

•Zero Probability Problem:


•If a feature value never occurs in the training data for a certain class, the
likelihood will be zero, and the posterior probability will also become zero.
This problem is typically solved using techniques like Laplace smoothing,
which adds a small value (e.g., 1) to all counts to avoid zero probabilities.

•Limited Expressiveness:
•Naive Bayes can struggle with more complex decision boundaries because it
assumes linear separability in log-space, which limits its expressiveness for
certain datasets.

34 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Applications of Naive Bayes:
•Spam Filtering:
•One of the most common applications, where the model classifies emails
as spam or not spam based on the words in the email.

•Text Classification:
•Widely used in tasks like sentiment analysis, document categorization, and
language detection.

•Medical Diagnosis:
•Naive Bayes is used in medical diagnosis to predict diseases based on
symptoms.

•Recommendation Systems:
•Used in some recommendation systems to predict whether a user will like
an item based on past behavior.

35 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Correction to probability
estimation
 Correction to probability estimation refers to
techniques that adjust the raw probability estimates produced
by a model to avoid certain issues, such as zero probabilities
or overly confident predictions. These corrections are often
necessary in probabilistic models, especially those like Naive
Bayes, where the likelihood of a feature can sometimes be
zero if it has not appeared in the training data.

36 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Why Corrections Are Needed:

37 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Common Corrections to
Probability Estimation:

38 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Common Corrections to
Probability Estimation:

39 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Common Corrections to
Probability Estimation:

40 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Common Corrections to
Probability Estimation:

41 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Common Corrections to
Probability Estimation:

42 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Common Corrections to
Probability Estimation:

43 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
No Match
 The term "no match" typically refers to a situation where the observed data or feature
does not correspond to any of the expected values in a model, leading to a zero probability
in some probabilistic models, such as Naive Bayes.
 In the context of Naive Bayes or similar models, "no match" would occur when:
 A specific feature (e.g., a word in text classification) has never appeared in the training
data for a particular class.
 As a result, the likelihood P(feature∣class) for that feature is zero, causing the entire
probability P(class∣features) to be zero if the product includes this feature.
 This is problematic because even though the feature might not have been observed, it
doesn't necessarily mean that the class is impossible. To deal with "no match" situations,
smoothing techniques like Laplace smoothing are applied, as they ensure non-zero
probabilities even when no exact match is found in the training data.
 In essence, "no match" refers to the zero probability problem addressed by corrections
like smoothing. These methods allow the model to estimate a small but non-zero
probability for unseen features or combinations.

44 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Neural networks
Neural networks are computational models inspired by the human brain's
structure and function, designed to recognize patterns and learn from data. They
form the backbone of deep learning and are widely used in tasks like image
classification, speech recognition, and natural language processing.

45 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Components of Neural
Networks:
•Neurons (Nodes):
•Each neuron in a neural network represents a basic computational unit that
processes input data. Like a biological neuron, it receives input, processes it,
and sends output to other neurons.
•Mathematically, each neuron performs a weighted sum of the inputs, adds a
bias, and applies an activation function to introduce non-linearity.
•Layers:
•Input Layer: The first layer in a neural network that receives the raw input
data (e.g., pixel values for an image, words for text).
•Hidden Layers: Layers between the input and output layers where the
network learns internal representations of the data. Deep neural networks have
multiple hidden layers, enabling them to capture complex patterns.
•Output Layer: The final layer that produces the network’s prediction or
classification (e.g., whether an image contains a cat or a dog).

46 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Components of Neural
Networks:
•Weights and Biases:
•Weights represent the strength of connections between neurons. Each
connection between two neurons has an associated weight, which the network
adjusts during training.
•Bias is an additional parameter added to the weighted sum in each neuron. It
allows the model to fit data better by shifting the activation function.
•Activation Function:
•After the weighted sum of inputs and the bias is computed, an activation
function is applied to introduce non-linearity to the model. Without non-
linearity, the network would behave like a simple linear model, limiting its
ability to solve complex problems.
•Common activation functions include:

47 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Components of Neural
Networks:
•Forward Propagation:
•During forward propagation, the input data is passed through the network
from the input layer, through the hidden layers, and finally to the output layer.
Each neuron processes its inputs, applies the activation function, and passes the
output to the next layer.
•The final output represents the network’s prediction (e.g., the probabilities of
different classes).
•Loss Function:
•The loss function measures the difference between the predicted output and
the actual target values (labels). The goal of the network is to minimize this
loss during training. Some common loss functions are:
•Mean Squared Error (MSE): Used in regression tasks.
•Cross-Entropy Loss: Used in classification tasks to measure the
difference between the predicted and actual probability distributions.

48 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Components of Neural
Networks:
•Backpropagation:
•Backpropagation is the process used to train neural networks. After forward
propagation, the network calculates the error (loss), and this error is propagated
backward through the network.
•During backpropagation, the network adjusts the weights and biases using the
gradient of the loss function with respect to each weight. This is done using an
optimization algorithm like gradient descent.
•The gradients are calculated using the chain rule from calculus, which allows
the network to compute how much each weight contributed to the error.
•Optimization (Gradient Descent):
•Gradient Descent is an optimization algorithm used to minimize the loss
function. It iteratively updates the weights by moving them in the direction that
reduces the loss.
•The amount by which the weights are updated is controlled by the learning
rate. A smaller learning rate ensures smaller updates, making convergence more
stable but slower.
•Variants of gradient descent include Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD),
Momentum, and Adam.

49 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Types of Neural Networks:
•Feedforward Neural Networks (FNNs):
•The simplest type of neural network where the information moves in only one
direction: from the input layer, through hidden layers, to the output layer.
•There are no cycles or loops in the network.
•These networks are used for tasks like image classification or regression.
•Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs):
•CNNs are designed specifically for processing structured grid-like data, such
as images.
•They use convolutional layers to automatically detect patterns (e.g., edges,
textures) in the input. These layers apply filters (kernels) to the input to extract
features.
•CNNs are widely used in image classification, object detection, and computer
vision tasks.

50 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs):
•RNNs are designed to handle sequential data, like time series or natural
language.
•They have loops that allow them to maintain an internal state, making them
suitable for tasks where context from previous data points is important (e.g.,
language modeling, speech recognition).
•Variants of RNNs include Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Gated
Recurrent Units (GRUs), which help with learning long-term dependencies in
the data.
•Deep Neural Networks (DNNs):
•DNNs have multiple hidden layers, allowing them to learn more abstract and
complex representations of the data.
•Deep learning models like DNNs can capture hierarchical patterns in the data,
making them powerful for tasks like image recognition, language translation,
and speech synthesis.

51 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs):
•GANs consist of two networks: a generator and a discriminator. The
generator creates fake data, while the discriminator tries to distinguish between
real and fake data.
•The two networks are trained together in an adversarial setting, with the
generator improving its ability to create realistic data and the discriminator
improving its ability to detect fake data.
•GANs are used for generating images, videos, and other types of data.
•Autoencoders:
•Autoencoders are a type of unsupervised neural network used for
dimensionality reduction, data compression, and feature learning.
•They consist of an encoder that compresses the input data into a smaller
representation and a decoder that reconstructs the data from the compressed
representation.
•Autoencoders are used in anomaly detection and data denoising.

52 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Training a Neural Network:
•Initialization:
•Weights and biases are initialized randomly, and the network begins with no
prior knowledge.
•Feedforward:
•Input data is fed through the network, and predictions are made by the output
layer.
•Loss Calculation:
•The loss function calculates the error between the predicted and actual values.
•Backpropagation:
•The network computes the gradient of the loss with respect to the weights using
backpropagation, which moves backward from the output layer to the input
layer.
•Weight Update:
•The weights and biases are updated using gradient descent or an alternative
optimization algorithm.
•Iteration:
•This process is repeated for multiple iterations (epochs) until the model reaches
a satisfactory level of accuracy.
53 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Applications of Neural
Networks:
 Image Classification (e.g., identifying objects in images).
 Natural Language Processing (e.g., machine translation,
sentiment analysis).
 Speech Recognition (e.g., voice-controlled assistants).
 Autonomous Vehicles (e.g., object detection, decision
making).
 Medical Diagnosis (e.g., analyzing medical images for
diseases).
 Recommendation Systems (e.g., personalized content
recommendation).

54 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Advantages of Neural Networks:

•Ability to learn complex functions: Neural networks can model non-linear


and complex patterns in data, making them highly versatile for different tasks.

•Feature learning: They can automatically discover features from raw data,
especially in domains like image and audio processing.

•Scalability: Deep neural networks, with many layers, can learn hierarchical
representations, leading to improved performance on tasks involving large and
complex datasets.

55 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Disadvantages of Neural Networks:

•Large Data Requirement: Neural networks often require large amounts of


data to generalize well and avoid overfitting.

•Computationally Expensive: Training deep neural networks can be slow


and requires significant computational power, especially for large datasets.

•Black-box Nature: Neural networks are often difficult to interpret, making it


challenging to understand how they make specific decisions.

56 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Genetic Algorithms (GAs)
Genetic Algorithms (GAs) are a type of optimization
algorithm inspired by the process of natural selection and
biological evolution. They are used to solve complex problems
by iteratively evolving a population of candidate solutions
toward an optimal or near-optimal solution.

57 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Concepts in Genetic
Algorithms:

•Population:
•A population consists of a set of potential solutions (called individuals or
chromosomes) to a given problem. Each individual represents a point in
the solution space.
•The population evolves over generations to explore the solution space and
find better solutions.
•Chromosomes (Individuals):
•Each individual or solution is encoded as a chromosome. The encoding is
often done using binary strings (though real numbers or other encodings
can be used).
•For example, in a binary encoding, a chromosome might look like
11010101, where each bit represents a specific attribute or decision.

58 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Genes:
•A gene is a part of a chromosome and represents a specific variable or decision
in the problem.
•In the binary string 11010101, each 0 or 1 is a gene, which could correspond to
a specific decision, such as turning a feature on or off.
•Fitness Function:
•The fitness function evaluates how well each individual in the population solves
the problem. It assigns a fitness score to each individual based on how close it is
to the optimal solution.
•The goal of the algorithm is to maximize (or minimize) this fitness function
over successive generations.
•In an optimization problem, the fitness function could be an objective like
maximizing profit, minimizing cost, or achieving the best classification
accuracy.

59 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Selection:
•Individuals with higher fitness scores are more likely to be selected for
reproduction (i.e., they have a higher chance of passing their genes to the next
generation).
•Common selection methods include:
•Roulette Wheel Selection: Individuals are selected probabilistically based
on their fitness scores. Higher fitness increases the likelihood of selection.
•Tournament Selection: A subset of the population is randomly chosen, and
the individual with the highest fitness in that subset is selected.
•Rank Selection: Individuals are ranked by fitness, and the probability of
selection is based on rank rather than raw fitness.
•Crossover (Recombination):
•During reproduction, crossover combines two parent chromosomes to produce
offspring. This process simulates biological reproduction by mixing genes from
both parents.

60 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Common crossover methods include:
•Single-point crossover: A random crossover point is selected, and the
offspring are created by swapping the genetic material from the parents after
that point.
•Two-point crossover: Two crossover points are selected, and the offspring
inherit genetic material between these two points from one parent and the rest
from the other.
•Uniform crossover: Each gene in the offspring is randomly chosen from one
of the parents.
Example of single-point crossover:
Parent 1: 110|0101
Parent 2: 001|1010
Offspring: 1101010 and 0010101
•Mutation:
•Mutation introduces random changes to the offspring's genes to maintain genetic
diversity and prevent premature convergence to suboptimal solutions.
•For example, in binary encoding, mutation might flip a bit from 0 to 1 or vice
versa.
•The mutation rate determines how often mutation occurs in the population. It is
61 typically set to a small value to avoid excessive randomness.
•Example of mutation:
Chromosome before mutation: 11010101
Chromosome after mutation (with a flip at position 3): 11110101
•Replacement:
•After generating offspring through crossover and mutation, some individuals in
the population are replaced by the new offspring.
•In some strategies, only the least fit individuals are replaced, while in others, the
entire population might be replaced by the offspring.
•Termination:
•The algorithm continues for a predefined number of generations or until a
stopping criterion is met, such as finding an individual with a high enough
fitness score or reaching a certain level of convergence.
•Once terminated, the best individual (or set of individuals) is returned as the
optimal or near-optimal solution.

62 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Steps in a Genetic Algorithm:
•Initialize Population:
•Generate an initial population of random solutions.
•Evaluate Fitness:
•Compute the fitness score for each individual in the population based on the fitness
function.
•Selection:
•Select individuals from the current population to act as parents for the next
generation, favoring individuals with higher fitness scores.
•Crossover and Mutation:
•Apply crossover and mutation to the selected individuals to produce new offspring.
•Replacement:
•Replace some or all individuals in the population with the new offspring.
•Repeat:
•Repeat the process (selection, crossover, mutation, replacement) for a certain
number of generations or until the stopping condition is met.
•Return Best Solution:
•Once the algorithm terminates, the individual with the highest fitness score is
returned as the best solution.
63 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
64 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
65 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
66 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Applications of Genetic
Algorithms:
•Optimization Problems:
•GAs are widely used in engineering, economics, and logistics for solving
optimization problems (e.g., minimizing costs, maximizing profits).
•Machine Learning:
•GAs can be used for feature selection, hyperparameter tuning, and evolving neural
network architectures.
•Scheduling:
•GAs are applied in job scheduling, resource allocation, and timetabling problems to
find efficient schedules.
•Game AI:
•In game development, GAs are used to evolve strategies for non-player characters
(NPCs) and to solve complex puzzles or mazes.
•Design Optimization:
•GAs are used in fields like aerospace, automotive design, and architecture to
optimize structures and components for performance and efficiency.

67 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Advantages of Genetic Algorithms:
•Global Search: GAs perform a global search over the solution space, which
helps them avoid getting stuck in local optima.

•Flexible: They can be applied to a wide range of optimization problems, both


continuous and discrete.

•Parallelism: GAs can be parallelized, making them efficient for large-scale


problems.

68 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Disadvantages of Genetic Algorithms:
•Slow Convergence: GAs can take a long time to converge to the optimal solution,
especially for complex problems.

•Parameter Sensitivity: The performance of a GA depends heavily on its


parameters (e.g., population size, crossover rate, mutation rate).

•No Guarantee of Optimality: GAs do not guarantee finding the exact optimal
solution; they often return an approximation.

69 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Instance-Based Learning (IBL)
Instance-Based Learning (IBL) is a type of machine
learning approach where learning is done by storing instances
(examples) of training data and using them directly to make
predictions or decisions. Unlike model-based approaches,
which learn a global model of the data, instance-based methods
rely on the specific instances from the training data for making
predictions.

70 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Concepts of Instance-Based
Learning:
•Instance Storage:
•In instance-based learning, the system stores a database of instances or examples
from the training data. These instances are kept as they are, without transforming
them into a model.
•Lazy Learning:
•Instance-based learning is often referred to as lazy learning because it does not
build a general model during the training phase. Instead, it defers the learning
process until a query or test instance needs to be classified or predicted.
•Similarity Measures:
•To make predictions, instance-based learning algorithms use similarity measures
to compare new instances with stored instances. Common similarity measures
include:
•Euclidean Distance: Measures the straight-line distance between two points
in feature space.
•Manhattan Distance: Measures the distance between two points by
summing the absolute differences of their coordinates.
•Cosine Similarity: Measures the angle between two vectors, often used in
text classification and clustering.
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
71
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Classification and Prediction:
•Classification: To classify a new instance, the algorithm finds the most similar
instances in the stored database and determines the class based on these neighbors.
This can involve methods like:
•k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN): A common instance-based learning algorithm
where k is the number of nearest neighbors considered. The class of a new
instance is determined by the majority class among its k nearest neighbors.
•Weighted k-NN: An extension of k-NN where neighbors are weighted based
on their distance from the query instance, with closer neighbors having a
higher influence on the classification.
•Prediction: For regression tasks, instance-based methods predict the output value
for a new instance based on the output values of similar instances.
•No Explicit Model:
•Instance-based learning does not construct an explicit model or function during
training. Instead, the decision-making process relies on comparing new instances to
stored instances. This can be advantageous for handling complex or highly variable
data.
72 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi
Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Adaptability:
•Instance-based learning methods can adapt to new data without retraining, as they
simply add new instances to the stored database. This can be beneficial in dynamic
environments where data evolves over time.

•Computational Complexity:
•Instance-based methods can be computationally expensive, especially when the
number of instances is large, because they involve calculating similarities between
the query instance and all stored instances. This often requires efficient data
structures and algorithms to speed up the search.

73 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Example of Instance-Based
Learning:

Consider a scenario where we want to classify new animal images into categories
like "cat" or "dog". We use a k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) algorithm:
1.Training Phase:
•Collect and store labeled images of cats and dogs. Each image is represented
as a feature vector (e.g., pixel values, texture features).
2.Prediction Phase:
•For a new image, compute its feature vector.
•Find the k most similar images from the stored database using a similarity
measure like Euclidean distance.
•Classify the new image based on the majority class among its k nearest
neighbors.

74 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Advantages of Instance-Based
Learning:
 Simplicity:
 The concept and implementation of instance-based methods are
straightforward, requiring no complex model building.
 Flexibility:
 These methods can handle different types of data and do not
assume a specific form for the underlying data distribution.
 Adaptability:
 New data can be easily incorporated into the system by adding
instances, and the system can adapt to changes in the data
without retraining.

75 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Disadvantages of Instance-
Based Learning:

•Computationally Intensive:
•Predicting the class or value for a new instance can be computationally expensive,
particularly for large datasets, as it requires comparing the new instance with all
stored instances.
•Memory Usage:
•Storing all instances can be memory-intensive, especially if the dataset is large.
•Lack of Generalization:
•Instance-based methods do not explicitly learn a general model of the data, which
can be a limitation if the number of instances is insufficient or if the data has a high
degree of noise.

76 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Applications of Instance-
Based Learning:

•Pattern Recognition:
•Used in image recognition, speech recognition, and handwriting recognition where
it is useful to compare new patterns with stored examples.
•Recommender Systems:
•Employed to recommend products or content based on user preferences similar to
those of other users with similar preferences.
•Medical Diagnosis:
•Applied to classify medical conditions or predict outcomes based on patient data
and historical cases.
•Anomaly Detection:
•Used to detect unusual or outlier instances by comparing them to the norm within
the stored instances.

77 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Support Vector Machines
Support Vector Machines (SVMs) are a class of supervised
learning algorithms used for classification and regression tasks.
SVMs are particularly well-regarded for their effectiveness in
high-dimensional spaces and for their ability to model non-
linear decision boundaries using kernel functions.

78 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Key Concepts of Support
Vector Machines:
•Hyperplane:
•In an n-dimensional space, a hyperplane is a flat affine subspace of one dimension
less than the space. For example, in a 2D space, a hyperplane is a line, and in a 3D
space, it is a plane.
•The goal of an SVM is to find the hyperplane that best separates the classes in the
training data.
•Margin:
•The margin is the distance between the hyperplane and the nearest data points
from each class. SVM aims to maximize this margin.
•A larger margin implies a more confident separation of classes and generally leads
to better generalization.
•Support Vectors:
•Support vectors are the data points that are closest to the hyperplane and are
critical in defining the position and orientation of the hyperplane.
•These points lie on the edges of the margin and have the greatest influence on the
hyperplane’s placement.

79 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Linearly Separable Data:
•In cases where the data is linearly separable, SVM finds the optimal hyperplane
that separates the data points of different classes with the maximum margin.

80 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
•Soft Margin:
•In real-world scenarios, data is often noisy or overlapping. To handle such cases,
SVMs use a soft margin approach that allows some misclassification.
•The soft margin is controlled by a parameter C:
•A high C value results in a smaller margin with fewer misclassifications.
•A low C value results in a larger margin with more misclassifications
tolerated.
•Objective Function:
•The SVM optimization problem is to maximize the margin while minimizing
classification errors.
•This can be formulated as a convex optimization problem, which can be solved
using methods like quadratic programming.

81 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Steps in SVM:
•Data Preparation:
•Prepare the dataset with labeled examples. Features are used to describe each
instance, and labels indicate the class.
•Choosing the Kernel:
•Select an appropriate kernel function depending on the nature of the data and the
problem.
•Training:
•Solve the optimization problem to find the hyperplane that maximizes the margin
while considering any constraints imposed by the soft margin parameter C.
•Prediction:
•For new data points, use the trained SVM model to predict the class by evaluating
which side of the hyperplane the point falls on.
•Evaluation:
•Assess the performance of the SVM model using metrics such as accuracy,
precision, recall, F1 score, and others, depending on the task.

82 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Example:

 Consider a binary classification problem where we want to


separate data points into two classes (e.g., spam and not spam
emails).
 Linearly Separable Case:
 If the data is linearly separable, an SVM will find the optimal line (in
2D) or hyperplane (in higher dimensions) that separates the two
classes with the maximum margin.
 Non-Linearly Separable Case:
 If the data is not linearly separable, we can use a kernel function to
map the data into a higher-dimensional space where the classes
become separable. For example, using an RBF kernel can help find a
non-linear decision boundary.
 Soft Margin Case:
 If there is some overlap or noise, we adjust the parameter C to
balance between maximizing the margin and minimizing
misclassification.

83 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Advantages of SVMs:
•Effective in High Dimensions:
•SVMs perform well with high-dimensional data and can handle cases where the
number of features exceeds the number of samples.

•Robust to Overfitting:
•Especially with the use of kernels and proper regularization, SVMs can be robust
to overfitting, particularly in high-dimensional spaces.

•Versatile:
•By using different kernel functions, SVMs can model complex decision
boundaries.

84 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Disadvantages of SVMs:
•Computationally Intensive:
•Training SVMs can be computationally expensive, especially for large datasets or
when using complex kernels.

•Parameter Tuning:
•SVMs require careful tuning of parameters like C and kernel parameters, which
can be challenging and computationally expensive.

•Less Interpretable:
•The decision boundary learned by an SVM may be difficult to interpret, especially
in high-dimensional spaces.

85 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision
Applications of SVMs:
•Text Classification:
•Used in spam detection, sentiment analysis, and document classification.

•Image Classification:
•Applied in object recognition and facial recognition.

•Bioinformatics:
•Used in gene classification and protein structure prediction.

•Financial Analysis:
•Applied in credit scoring and fraud detection.

86 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BVCOE, New Delhi


Subject: Pattern Recognition Computer Vision

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