Geospatial Technology

Geospatial technologies is a term used to describe the range of modern tools contributing to
the geographic mapping and analysis of the Earth and human societies. These technologies
have been evolving in some form since the first maps were drawn in prehistoric times. In the
19th century, the long important schools of cartography and mapmaking were joined by aerial
photography as early cameras were sent aloft on balloons and pigeons, and then on airplanes
during the 20th century. The science and art of photographic interpretation and map making
was accelerated during the Second World War and during the Cold War it took on new
dimensions with the advent of satellites and computers. Satellites allowed images of the
Earth’s surface and human activities therein with certain limitations. Computers allowed
storage and transfer of imagery together with the development of associated digital software,
maps, and data sets on socioeconomic and environmental phenomena, collectively called
geographic information systems (GIS). An important aspect of a GIS is its ability to assemble
the range of geospatial data into a layered set of maps which allow complex themes to be
analyzed and then communicated to wider audiences. This ‘layering’ is enabled by the fact
that all such data includes information on its precise location on the surface of the Earth,
hence the term ‘geospatial’.

Especially in the last decade, these technologies have evolved into a network of national
security, scientific, and commercially operated satellites complemented by powerful desktop
GIS. In addition, aerial remote sensing platforms, including unmanned aerial vehicles (e.g.
the GlobalHawk reconnaissance drone), are seeing increased non-military use as well. High
quality hardware and data is now available to new audiences such as universities,
corporations, and non-governmental organizations. The fields and sectors deploying these
technologies are currently growing at a rapid pace, informing decision makers on topics such
as industrial engineering, biodiversity conservation, forest fire suppression, agricultural
monitoring, humanitarian relief, and much more.

There are now a variety of types of geospatial technologies potentially applicable to human
rights, including the following:

Remote Sensing: imagery and data collected from space- or airborne camera and sensor
platforms. Some commercial satellite image providers now offer images showing details of
one-meter or smaller, making these images appropriate for monitoring humanitarian needs
and human rights abuses.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS): a suite of software tools for mapping and
analyzing data which is georeferenced (assigned a specific location on the surface of the
Earth, otherwise known as geospatial data). GIS can be used to detect geographic patterns in
other data, such as disease clusters resulting from toxins, sub-optimal water access, etc.

Global Positioning System (GPS): a network of U.S. Department of Defense satellites

which can give precise coordinate locations to civilian and military users with proper

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receiving equipment (note: a similar European system called Galileo will be operational
within the next several years while a Russian system is functioning but restricted).

Internet Mapping Technologies: software programs like Google Earth and web features like
Microsoft Virtual Earth are changing the way geospatial data is viewed and shared. The
developments in user interface are also making such technologies available to a wider
audience whereas traditional GIS has been reserved for specialists and those who invest time
in learning complex software programs.

A. Remote Sensing

1. Introduction

Remote sensing is the science of deriving information about an object or phenomena through analysis
of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object or phenomena under investigation.

The term Remote Sensing was coined by the lady Evelyn Pruitt, a geographer with the U.S. Office of
Naval Research in 1950. It was a need to define the emerging imaging capabilities of multispectral
cameras, infrared films, and non-photographic scanners that prompted Puritt to come up with a name
for this new field of study. While the origins of remote sensing can be traced to World War II’s use
of radar, sonar, and thermal detection technologies, the use of the term ‘remote sensing’ wasn’t coined
until the late 1950s.

Here the measurements are made in different spectral regions on interaction between the targets and
electromagnetic radiation. The observations are synoptic, provide repetitive coverage of large areas
and the data is quantifiable.

Every object reflects/ scatters a portion of electromagnetic energy incident on it depending on its
physical properties. In addition, objects emit radiation depending on their temperature and emissivity.
The reflectance/ emittance of any object at different wavelengths follow a pattern which is
characteristic of that object, known as spectral signature. Proper interpretation of the spectral
signature leads to identification of the object. If the observation is made based on the electromagnetic
radiation from the sun or the self emitted radiance, it is called passive remote sensing. It is also
possible to produce electromagnetic radiation of a specific wavelength or band of wavelengths to
illuminate the terrain. The interaction of this radiation can then be studied by sensing the scattered
radiance from the target. This is called active remote sensing.

Definition:

Remote Sensing is defined as the science of acquiring, processing and interpreting images and related
data obtained from aircraft and satellites that record the interaction between matter and
electromagnetic radiation.

 Acquiring images refers to the technology employed such as an electro optical

scanning system.
 Processing refers to the procedures that convert the raw data into images.
 Interpreting the images is the most important step because it converts an image into
information that is meaningful and valuable for a wide range of users.

2. Remote Sensing Process

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There are seven elements which comprise the remote sensing process from beginning to end.

 Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the first requirement for remote sensing is to have
an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of
interest. 2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source to the
target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This
interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.

 Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and
the radiation. 4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been
scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with
the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation. 5. Transmission, Reception,
and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in
electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an
image (hardcopy and/or digital). 6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image
is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the
target which was illuminated. 7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing
process is achieved when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the
imagery about the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or
assist in solving a particular problem.

3. Solar and Terrestrial Radiation

The sun is the important source of electromagnetic radiation used in conventional optical remote
sensing. The sun may be assumed to be a black body with surface temperature around 6000 0K. The
sun‘s radiation covers ultraviolet, visible, IR and radio frequency regions and the maximum occurs
around 0.55 micrometer which is the visible region.

The earth can be treated as a blackbody at ~ 300 K emitting electromagnetic radiation with peak
radiation around 9.7 micrometer.

Radiation Laws

All objects above 00K (-273 0C) emit electromagnetic radiation at all wavelength. The thermal
emission of radiation is due to conversion of heat energy (kinetic energy of the random motion the
molecules) into electromagnetic energy. Thermal emission of radiation depends upon two parameters
namely temperature (T) and emissivity (E) of the material. The emissivity is a characteristic of the
material and it is measure of its capability to emit radiation as compared to that of an ideal blackbody.
The emissivity of a substance is related to its absorbtance. Good absorbers are good radiators whereas
poor absorbers are poor radiators. For an ideal thermal emitter called a blackbody, the emissivity is
equal to 1.

a. Stefan Boltzmann Law: All objects above absolute zero (00k or –273 0C) continuously emit
electromagnetic radiation. The total energy radiated by an object of a particular temperature is given
by Stefan- Boltzmann law, which states that,

M= T4

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Where M is the total radiant exitance from the surface of the material (Watt/m2), = Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, 5.6697 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4 and T = absolute temperature (0K) of the emitting
material.

It is evident from the above equation that the total energy emitted from an object varies as T 4 and
therefore total energy increases very rapidly with increase in temperature.

b. Wien’s Displacement Law: The dominant wavelength, or wavelength at which a blackbody

radiation curve reaches a maximum, is related to its temperature by Wien‘s displacement law,

max=A/T,

Where, λmax is wavelength (μm) corresponding to maximum spectral radiant exitance; A is a constant
with value of 2898 μmK; and T is temperature of the blackbody in 0K.

Thus for a blackbody, the wavelength at which the maximum spectral radiant exitance occurs, varies
inversely with its absolute temperature T. In day today experience, we observe that when a metal
body such as a piece of iron is heated, it begins to glow and its colour changes successively to shorter
wavelengths from dull red, to yellow and eventually to white. The average temperature of earth
surface is around 300 0K and using Wien‘s law, the wavelength for peak emission is around 9.7 μm
which means that earth predominantly emits radiation in thermal infrared region of electromagnetic
spectrum.

4. Wavelength Regions and Bands

Electromagnetic spectrum is divided on the basis of wavelength into regions described in table 1. The
electromagnetic spectrum ranges from very short wavelength gamma rays (10-10m) to long radio
waves (106 m). The earth‘s atmosphere absorbs energy the gamma rays, X-ray, and most of the
ultraviolet regions; therefore, these regions are not used for remote sensing. In remote sensing, the
most useful regions are the visible (0.4 to 0.7 micrometer), the reflected IR (0.7 to 3 micrometer), the
thermal IR (3 to 5 micrometer and 8 to 14 micrometer) and the microwave regions (0.3 to 300 cm).

Wavelength regions with high transmission of electromagnetic energy are called atmospheric
windows and are used to acquire remote sensing images. These regions are further sub divided into
bands, such as the blue (0.4 to 0.5 micrometer), green (0.5 to 0.6 micrometer), and red (0.6 to 0.7
micrometer) of the visible regions; near IR (0.7 to 1.3 micrometer) and mid IR (1.3 to 3 micrometer)
of the reflected IR regions and thermal IR (beyond 3 micrometer).

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Atmospheric effect
In passing through atmosphere, electromagnetic radiation is scattered and absorbed by gases and
particulates. Besides the major atmospheric gaseous components of molecular nitrogen and oxygen,
other constituents like methane, helium, and nitrogen compounds play an important role in modifying
the incident radiation energy spectrum. The strongest absorption occurs at wavelength shorter than 0.3

passed through without much attenuation and these are called atmospheric window (Fig.). Remote
sensing of earth surface is generally confined to these wavelength regions. Atmospheric windows
used for remote sensing are 0.4- 1.3, 1.5- 1.8, 2.0- 2.26, 3.0- 3.6, 4.2- 5.0, 7.0- 15.0 μm, and 10mm to
10 cm wavelength regions of electromagnetic spectrum.
The atmosphere may affect remote sensing data in two ways, through scattering and absorption.

a. Scattering: It occurs when radiation is reflected or refracted by particles in the atmosphere, which
may range from molecules of constituent gases to dust particles and large water droplets. The usual
assumption is that scattered radiation, whether coming from the sun (downwelling) or reflected from
the earth’s surface (upwelling), is not attenuated but rather is redirected. Theoretically, scattering may
be divided into three categories depending upon the relationship between the wavelength of radiation
being scattered and size of the particle causing the scattering. They are Rayleigh scattering, Mie
scattering and non-selective scattering.

b. Rayleigh Scattering: It occurs when the radiation wavelength is much larger than the size of the
scattering particles. The effect of Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
wavelength. Hence, there is much stronger tendency for short wavelength to be scattered by this
scattering mechanism than longer wavelength. A ‗blue‘ sky is a manifestation of Rayleigh scatter. In
the absence of scattering, the sky would appear black.

c. Mie Scattering: It occurs when the radiation wavelength is comparable to the size of the scattering
particle. Water vapour and dust are the major causes of Mie scattering. This type of scattering tends to
influence longer wavelengths compared to Rayleigh scattering. Although Rayleigh scattering tends to
dominate under most atmospheric condition, Mie scattering is significant in slightly overcast
condition only.

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d. Non selective scattering: It occurs when the scattering particle size is much larger than the
radiation wavelength. Water droplets, for example, cause such scattering. They commonly have

equally. Consequently, this scattering is nonselective with respect to wavelengths, equal quantities of
blue, green and red light are scattered, hence fog and cloud appear white.

Absorption: Absorption occurs when the rays do not bounce off the surface and do not pass through it.
Instead the rays are converted to some other form of energy such as heat. The most efficient absorber
of solar radiation, in this regard, are water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone. These gases tend to
absorb electromagnetic energy in specific wavelength bands (Fig). The wavelength ranges in which
the atmosphere is particularly transmissive of energy are referred as atmospheric windows (Table 2).
Remote sensing data acquisition is limited to these atmospheric windows.

5. Spectral Response of Some Earth Surface Features

When electromagnetic energy is incident on any given earth surface features, fractions of the energy
are reflected, absorbed, and/or transmitted. Applying the principal of conservation of energy, we can
state the interrelationship between these three-energy interactions as

Where EI denotes the incident energy, ER denotes the reflected energy, EA denotes the absorbed
energy and ET denotes the transmitted energy, with all energy components being a function of
wavelength. It is important to note that the portion of energy reflected, absorbed and transmitted will
vary for different earth features depending on their material types and condition. These differences
permit us to distinguish different features on an image. Since this characteristics is wavelength
dependent, the proportion of reflected, absorbed, and transmitted energy will vary with wavelength.
Thus two features may be undistinguishable in one spectral range and be very different in another
wavelength band.

6. Concept of Signatures
Any set of observable characteristics which directly or indirectly lead to the identification of an
object and/or its condition is termed as signature. Spectral, spatial, and temporal variations are three
major characteristics of the targets which facilitate discrimination in optical remote sensing. Spectral
variations are the changes in the reflectance or emittance of objects as a function of wavelength.
Colour of an object is a manifestation of spectral variation in reflectance in the visible region.
Spatial arrangements of terrain features providing attributes, such as shape, size and texture of objects
that lead to their identification are termed as spatial variation.

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Temporal variations are the changes of reflectivity or emissivity with time. They can be diurnal or
seasonal, the variation in reflectivity during a growing cycle of a crop helps to distinguish crops which
may have similar spectral reflectance, but whose growing cycle may not be the same.

Kinds of Satellite

a. Geo-stationary:Satellite orbital plane is nearly equatorial and the height (approx. 36000 Km) is
such that satellite travels at the angular velocity at which the earth rotates. • These satellite remain
above the same point on earth at all times e.g. INSAT series of satellite. Geostationary satellites are
used in tele-communication and weather forecasting.

b. Sun-synchronous: Satellite orbit plane is nearly polar and altitude (800-900 Km) is such that
satellite passes over the same area being imaged at approx. the same local sun time. The time of
equatorial overpass of IRS-1C satellite is approximately 10:30 a.m. This is necessary to keep the
illumination geometry of the scenes imaged by the satellite as constant as possible. These satellites are
used in remote sensing. Other examples are: LandSat, IRS, SPOTT, etc.

7. Characteristics of Remote Sensors

a. Spatial Resolution: This is a measure of the area or size of the smallest dimension on the earth‘s
surface over which an independent measurement can be made by the sensor.

b. Spectral resolution: The spectral resolution of the remote sensor characterises the ability of the
sensor to resolve the energy received in a given spectral bandwidth to characterise different
constituent of earth surface.

c. Radiometric resolution: In remote sensing, the reflected radiation from different objects generate
electrical signal (say voltage) as output from detector which are converted into digital number. This is
analogous to grey shades scene in black and white photographs. The ability to distinguish the finer
variation of the reflected or emitted radiation from different objects is characterized by the
radiometric resolution.

d. Temporal Resolution: This is another aspect which is specific to space-borne remote sensors. The
polar orbiting satellite can be made to orbit in what is known as ‘sun synchronous orbits’. This means
that the satellite crosses over the equator at the same local solar time in each orbit. Such an orbit
offers similar sun illumination conditions for all observations taken over different geographical
locations along latitude (in the sun-lit area). By a suitable selection of spacecraft altitude and the
inclination angle of the orbit the spacecraft can be made to cover the same area on the earth at regular
intervals.

The IRS Mission

In India, development of satellite platform for acquisition of remotely sensed data began with the
Bhaskara mission of late seventies. The Bhaskara satellites had a two-band TV payload (spatial
resolution of 1 Km) for land applications and satellite microwave radiometer (SAMIR) (spatial
resolution of 125 Km) for oceanographic/ atmospheric applications. The successful launch of IRS-1A
(in 1988) and IRS-1B (in 1991) followed by IRS-P2 and IRS-P3 in 1994 and 1996 heralded the era of
operational remote sensing programme in the country. The second generation satellite IRS-1C (in
1995) and IRS-1D (in 1997) carried three unique sensors viz. PAN (spatial resolution 5.8 m), LISS-III
(spatial resolution 23.5 m in visible and 70.5 m in SWIR) and WiFs (spatial resolution 188 m). The
unique combination of data available from IRS 1C/1D, covering different regions of the

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electromagnetic spectrum has enhanced scope for meeting the needs of natural resource management.
The launch of third generation satellite IRS-P6 has further enhanced the utility of remotely sensed
data in detailed characterization (1: 10,000 scale) of natural resources. IRS-P6 has three sensors LISS-
IV (provides multispectral data with spatial resolution of 5.8 m), LISS-III (similar to IRS-1C/1D with
SWIR band, spatial resolution 23.5 m) and AWiFs (4 bands with spatial resolution of 56m). The
details of sensor and their characteristics, of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites, have been given in
table 3.

Radiometric Repeat
Spatial Cycle
Spectral Bands (µm) Resolution Resolution (days)
Sl.
Satellite Sensor (m)
No.
(grey levels)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
36.25 128 22
LISS- 0.45- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77-
1. IRS-1A - - -
II 0.52 0.59 0.68 0.86

0.50- 0.61- 0.79-

2. SPOT-1 HRV - - - - 20 26
0.59 0.68 0.89

LISS- 0.45- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77-

3. IRS-1B - - - 36.25 128 22
II 0.52 0.59 0.68 0.86

Landsat- 0.45- 0.52- 0.63- 0.76- 1.55- 10.4- 2.08-

4. TM 30(120*) 256 16
5 0.52 0.60 0.69 0.90 1.75 12.5* 2.35

LISS- 0.45- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77-

5. IRS-1B - - - 36.25 128 22
II 0.52 0.59 0.68 0.86

LISS- 0.45- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77-

6. IRS-1B - - - 36.25 128 22
II 0.52 0.59 0.68 0.86

LISS- 0.45- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77-

7. IRS-1B - - - 36.25 128 22
II 0.52 0.59 0.68 0.86

LISS- 0.45- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77-

8. IRS-1B - - - 36.25 128 22
II 0.52 0.59 0.68 0.86

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 LISS- 0.45- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77-
9. IRS-1B - - - 36.25 128 22
II 0.52 0.59 0.68 0.86

LISS- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77- 1.55-

10. - - - 23 128 24
III 0.59 0.68 0.86 1.70
IRS-1D
PAN 0.5-0.75 5.8 5

LISS- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77- 1.55-

11. IRS-1D - - - 23 128 24
III 0.59 0.68 0.86 1.70

LISS- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77- 1.55-

12. IRS-1D - - - 23 128 24
III 0.59 0.68 0.86 1.70

LISS- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77- 1.55-

13. IRS-1D - - - 23 128 24
III 0.59 0.68 0.86 1.70

LISS- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77- 1.55-

14. IRS-1D - - - 23 128 24
III 0.59 0.68 0.86 1.70

LISS- 0.52- 0.62- 0.77- 1.55-

15. IRS-1D - - - 23 128 24
III 0.59 0.68 0.86 1.70

8. Remote Sensing Applications

Today, the remote sensing technology has been operationalised to cover diverse themes/areas such as
forestry, agricultural crop acreage and yield estimation, drought monitoring and mitigation, flood
monitoring and damage assessment, land use/land cover studies, wasteland identification and
reclamation, water resources development and management, ground water targeting, marine resources
survey, urban planning, mineral prospecting, environmental impact assessment and so on
encompassing almost every facet of sustainable resource development and management.

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B. Principles and Concepts of GIS

1. Introduction

Research work on spatial sciences and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) began in late 1950s,
but first GIS software came only in late 1970s. Canada was the pioneer in the development of GIS as
a result of innovations dating back to early 1960s. Much of the credit for the early development of
GIS goes to Roger Tomilson and he also known as ‗father of GIS‘. Evolution of GIS has transformed
and revolutionized and open the new vistas in many disciplines in which scientists, surveyors,
planners, engineers, managers are extensively using this wonderful geographical tool for their
database generation, management and analysis. The disciplines like Geography, Geology, Pedology,
Agronomy, Soil and water conservation, Cartography, Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry, Surveying,
Geodesy, Statistics Operation Research, Computer Science, Mathematics, Civil Engineering are
closely associated with GIS. Advances in computer technology, remote sensing, Global Positioning
System (GPS), communication technology are the driving forces for the development of enhanced
functions of GIS software‘s.

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GIS is a tool to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and display all forms of
geographically referenced data. Many other definitions of a GIS have been evolved in different areas
and disciplines (Burrough, 1986 and 1998; Goodchild, 1992). According to Duecker (1979)
geographic information system is a special case of information systems where the database consists of
observations on spatially distributed features, activities or events, which are definable in space as
points, lines, or areas. A geographic information system manipulates data about these points, lines,
and areas to retrieve data for ad hoc queries and analyses.

GIS stores both spatial and aspatial data. The geocoded spatial data defines an object that has an
orientation and relationship with other objects in two or three-dimensional space, also known as
topological data and stores in topological database. On the other hand, attribute data stored in a
relational database describes the objects in detail. GIS links these two databases by manipulating a
one-to-one relationship between records of object of location in the topological database and records
of the object attribute in relational databases by using enduser defined common identification index or
code. There are many definitions of GIS, which are essentially explain the capabilities of GIS.

2. Definition of GIS
Some well accepted definitions of GIS are given below.
Jackson (1992) defined GIS as a ―Computer based system for the efficient input, storage,
manipulation, analysis, representation and retrieval of all forms of spatially indexed and related
descriptive data

The Association of Geographical Information (AGI) defines GIS as a ―computerized data base
management system for capturing, storing, validating maintaining, analyzing, displaying and
managing spatially referenced data with a primary function to integrate data from a variety of sources.

ESRI defines GIS as a ―technology integrates common database operations such as query and
statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps.
These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to a wide range
of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies.

Burrough (1987) defined GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming
and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes". All definitions of
GIS recognize that spatial data are unique because they are linked to maps. A GIS at least consists of
a database, map information, and a computer-based link between them. It stores data about the world
as a collection of thematic layers, a pictorial representation of which is given in to be linked together
in spatial domain using geographical reference system. It lets the users to see, explore, and analyze
data by location, revealing hidden patterns, relationships, and trends that are not readily apparent in
spreadsheets or statistical packages. This simple but extremely powerful and versatile concept has
proven invaluable in solving many real world problems from tracking delivery vehicles, to recording
details of planning applications and managing natural resources.

3. Philosophy and Components of GIS

The proliferation of GIS is explained by its unique ability to assimilate data from widely divergent
sources, to analyze trends over time, and to spatially evaluate impacts caused by development. There
are five types of questions that a sophisticated GIS can answer, which are related to Location,
Condition, Trends, Patterns and Modeling. GIS constitutes of five components: Hardware, Software,
Data, People and Method.

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a. Hardware It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The computer
forms the backbone of the GIS hardware. Scanner and digitizer are the main input and printers and
plotters are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup.

b. Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. Many application specific GIS software‘s are available depending upon the user needs.

c. Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial
data provider. The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map
objects can also be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data
resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organization to maintain their data and to manage
spatial data.

d. People
GIS users ranges from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to
help them perform their everyday work. The people who use GIS can be broadly classified into two
classes. The CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to vectorise the map objects. The use of this
vectorised data to perform query, analysis or any other work is the responsibility of a GIS
engineer/user.

e. Method
Above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are
the models and operating practices unique to each organization. There are various techniques used for
map creation and further usage for any project. The map creation can either be automated raster to
vector creator or it can be manually vectorised using the scanned images.

4. Geographic Coordinate Systems

A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations
on the earth. A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS. A
GCS includes an angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum. A point is referenced by its
longitude and latitude values. Longitude and latitude are angles measured from the earth's center to a
point on the earth's surface. The angles often are measured in degrees.
Selection of suitable map projection

Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are curved. Transforming, three-dimensional space onto
a two dimensional map is called "projection". Therefore for different types of maps different
projections have been evolved in accordance with the scale and purpose of the map. This process
inevitably distorts at least one of the following properties: Shape, Area, Distance, Direction, and often
more. There is no ideal map projection, but representation for a given purpose can be achieved. The
selection of projection is made on the basis of the following:

 The location and the extension of the feature of the globe.

 The shape of the boundary to be projected.
 The deformations or distortions of a map to be minimized.
 The mathematical model to be applied to preserve some identity of graphical features.
Based on these characteristics the utility of the projection is ascertained.

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Projection: Projection is the translation of spherical coordinates onto a planar surface, while a datum
is the ellipsoid, or ―figure of the earth‖ that approximates the actual shape of the earth, and is used in
the transformation equation. Each of the wide variety of projections (&datum) have specific
characteristics that make them useful for specific mapping purposes. For data at the regional and state
level, the most common projections are Universal Transverse Mercator and State Plane (which
comprises several projections, varying by state).

Datum: A datum is the geometric, 3-D ―figure of the earth‖ which is used as the basis for projecting
onto a planar surface. The World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84) is the common datum used by
the GPS configuration, and is essentially identical to the NAD83. Coordinate system: Coordinate
system must be defined to specify locations on the earth surface. The familiar XY coordinate pair of a
typical graph is an example of a coordinate system. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), State
Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), and Longitude and Latitude are commonly used coordinate systems
in GIS.

Geo-referencing and Projection transformation

Geo-referencing assigns coordinates from a known reference system, such as latitude/longitude,
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), or State Plane, to the page coordinates of a raster (image) or a
planar map. Geo-referencing raster data allows it to be viewed, queried, and analyzed with other
geographic data. Converts the coordinates of a map/image from one system to another, typically
involves shifting, rotating, scaling, skewing, or projecting them. Also known as rectification, the
conversion process requires resampling of values.

5. Geographic Data Representation in GIS

Any geographical data can be represented by points, lines, areas and continues surfaces in GIS.
 Points are the simplest type of spatial data.
 They are-zero dimensional objects with only a position in space but no length.
 Lines (also termed segments or arcs) are one-dimensional spatial objects.
 Besides having a position in space, they also have a length.
 Areas (also termed polygons) are two-dimensional spatial objects with not only a
position in space and a length but also a width (in other words they have an area).
Continuous surfaces are three-dimensional spatial objects with not only a position in
space, a length and a width, but also a depth or height (in other words they have a
volume).
These spatial objects have not been discussed further because most GIS do not include real volumetric
spatial data.

6. Data Types
Any geographical data comes in three basic forms:
a. Map data: Map data contains the location and shape of geographic features. Maps use three basic
shapes to present real-
Attribute (tabular) data is the descriptive data that GIS links to map features. Attribute data is
collected and compiled for specific areas like states, census tracts, cities, and so on and often comes
packaged with map data. When implementing a GIS, the most common sources of attribute data are
your own organization's databases combined with data sets you buy or acquire from other sources to
fill in gaps.

b. Image data: Image data ranges from satellite images and aerial photographs to scanned maps
(maps that have been converted from printed to digital format).

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7. Three Views of a GIS
A GIS is most often associated with maps. A map, however, is only one way you can work with
geographic data in a GIS, and only one type of product generated by a GIS. This is important, because
it means that a GIS can provide a great deal more problem-solving capabilities than using a simple
mapping tool. A GIS can be viewed in three ways:
 The Database View: A GIS is a unique kind of database of the world—a geographic
database (geodatabase). Fundamentally, a GIS is based on a structured database that
describes the world in geographic terms.
 The Map View: A GIS is a set of intelligent maps and other views that show features
and feature relationships on the earth's surface.
 The Model View: A GIS is a set of information transformation tools that derive new
geographic datasets from existing datasets. These geo-processing functions take
information from existing datasets, apply analytic functions, and write results into
new derived datasets.

8. Principal Functions of GIS

a. Data Capture: Data sources are mainly obtained from manual digitization and scanning of aerial
photographs, paper maps, and existing digital data sets.
b. Database Update and Management: After data are collected and integrated, the GIS must
provide facilities, which can store and maintain data.
c. Geographic Analysis: Data integration and conversion are only a part of the input phase of GIS.
What is required next is the ability to interpret and to analyze the collected information quantitatively
and qualitatively.
d. Presenting Results: One of the most exciting aspects of GIS technology is the variety of different
ways in which the information can be presented once it processed by GIS.

9. Data Models in GIS

There are three basic data models that GIS uses are vector, raster and TIN

9.1 Vector
Vector data models represent geographic phenomena with points, lines, and polygons. Points are pairs
of x,y coordinates, lines are sets of coordinate pairs that define a shape, and polygons are sets of
coordinate pairs defining boundaries that enclose areas. Coordinates are usually pairs (x,y) or triplets
(x,y,z, where z represents a value such as elevation). The coordinate values depend on the geographic
coordinate system in which the data is stored. Discrete features, such as customer locations and data
summarized by area, are usually represented using the vector model.

Vector Data Types: Points, Lines, Polygons

ArcInfo Coverage – An older technology in ArcGIS which uses a system of tables to establish
relationships between spatial information and attributes Shapefile – The most common native data
format of ArcGIS Geodatabase – The ―next generation‖ of ArcGIS data, provides the relational
power of the coverage with the ease of use of the shapefile. DLG (Digital Line Graph‖) USGS file
format for vector data, replaced by SDTS SDTS: Spatial Data Transfer Standard‖ -- See DLG TIGER
(Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing") files -contain geographic features:
roads, railroads, rivers, lakes, political boundaries, census statistical boundaries, etc. covering the
entire United States, produced by the US Census Bureau DFAD: a military vector format, originally
developed for radar applications

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9.2 Raster
A raster model otherwise known as a raster dataset (image), is, in its simplest form, a matrix (grid) of
cells. Each cell has a width and height and is a portion of the entire area represented by the raster. The
dimension of the cells can be as large or as small as necessary to represent the area and the features
within the area, such as a square kilometer, square meter, or even square centimeter. The cell size
determines how coarse or fine the patterns or features in your extent will appear. The smaller the cell
size, the more detail the area will have. However, the greater the number of cells, the longer it will
take to process, and it will require more storage space. Raster files are most often used for digital
representations of aerial photographs, satellite images, scanned paper maps, and other applications
with very detailed images. In both models there are advantages and disadvantages.

Raster Data Types: Images, Grids, DEMs

Satellite imagery/Aerial photography – Often color infra-red for vegetation/water mapping. Many
sources. Ortho-photographs are geometrically corrected aerials. ArcInfo GRID format – Like an
images, but can have related attribute data associated with each cell, or pixel DEM – USGS format for
elevation data. Generically, refers to a Digital Elevation Model. DRG – Digital Raster Graph, USGS
designation for its scanned, registered topographic map series.

Advantages and disadvantages in Vectors & Raster Data Models Advantages

RASTER MODEL VECTOR MODEL

Advantages
Simple data structure
Good for statistical and spatial analysis
Easy and efficient overlaying
Compatible with RS imagery
High spatial variability is efficiently represented
Simple for own programming
Same grid cells for several attributes Advantages
Compact data structure
Efficient for network analysis
Efficient projection transformation
Accurate map output
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Inefficient use of computer storage Complex data structure
Errors in perimeter, and shape Difficult overlay operations
Difficult network analysis High spatial variability is inefficiently
represented
Inefficient projection transformations Not compatible with RS imagery
Loss of information when using large cells
Datasets are very large

10. Database Generation in GIS

GIS is being widely used as spatial analysis tool for effective and efficient means of data generation
and management, analysis and display. The true value of GIS can only be realized if the proper tools
to collect spatial data and integrate them with attribute data are available. Data used in GIS often
come from many types, and are stored in different ways. A GIS provides tools and a method for the
integration of different data into a format to be compared and analyzed. Data sources are mainly

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obtained from manual digitization and scanning of aerial photographs, paper maps, and existing
digital data sets. Remote-sensing satellite imagery and GPS are promising sources for data input in
GIS. Before generation of any spatial data one has to understand the available data types, data
analysis procedures and their capabilities in GIS to get realistic out puts.

10.1 Data Capture

The true value of GIS can only be realized if the proper tools to collect spatial data and integrate them
with attribute data are available. Data used in GIS often come from many types, and are stored in
different ways. A GIS provides tools and a method for the integration of different data into a format to
be compared and analyzed. Data sources are mainly obtained from manual digitization and scanning
of aerial photographs, paper maps, and existing digital data sets. Remote-sensing satellite imagery and
GPS are promising data input sources for GIS. Fig.1 shows the steps involved in data generation in
GIS.

GIS. The map to be digitized is affixed to a digitizing table, and a pointing device (called the
digitizing cursor or mouse) is used to trace the features of the map. These features can be boundary
lines between mapping units, other linear features (rivers, roads, etc.) or point features (sampling
points, rainfall stations, etc.) The digitizing table electronically encodes the position of the cursor with
the precision of a fraction of a millimeter. The most common digitizing table uses a fine grid of wires,
embedded in the table. The vertical wires will record the Y-coordinates, and the horizontal ones, the
X-coordinates.

Scanning System: The second method of obtaining vector data is with the use of scanners. Scanning
(or scan digitizing) provides a quicker means of data entry than manual digitizing. In scanning, a
digital image of the map is produced by moving an electronic detector across the map surface. The
output of a scanner is a digital raster image, consisting of a large number of individual cells ordered in
rows and columns.

Types of Information in a Digital Map

Any digital map is capable of storing much more information than a paper map of the same area, but
it's generally not clear at first glance just what sort of information the map includes. Three general
types of information can be included in digital maps:

Geographic Information
Geographic information, which provides the position and shapes of specific geographic features. The
geographic information in a digital map provides the position and shape of each map feature. For
example, a road map's geographic information is the location of each road on the map. In a vector
map, a feature's position is normally expressed as sets of X, Y pairs or X, Y, Z triples, using the
coordinate system defined for the map (see the discussion of coordinate systems, below). Most vector
geographic information systems support three fundamental geometric objects:

a. Topology building

b. Data collection

c. Attribute data Spatial data

d. Registration

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e. Rectification

f. Digitization

g. Editing

h. Errors corrections

i. Link Spatial Attribute Data Add Identifiers

j. Input to GIS file

k. Spatial database

Attribute Information
Attribute information, which provides additional non-graphic information about each feature.
Attribute data describes specific map features but is not inherently graphic. For example, an attribute
associated with a road might be its name or the date it was last paved. Attributes are often stored in
database files kept separately from the graphic portion of the map. Attributes pertain only to vector
maps; they are seldom associated with raster images.

Display Information
Display information, which describes how the features will appear on the screen. The display
information in a digital-map data set describes how the map is to be displayed or plotted. Common
display information includes feature colours, line widths and line types (solid, dashed, dotted, single,
or double); how the names of roads and other features are shown on the map; and whether or not
lakes, parks, or other area features are colour coded.

Spatial Database Structures

Geo-relational data model

The geo relational approach involves abstracting geographic information into a series of independent
layers or coverages, each representing a selected set of closely associated geographic features (e.g.,
roads, land use, river, settlement, etc). Each layer has the theme of a geographic feature and the
database is organized in the thematic layers. With this approach users can combine simple feature sets
representing complex relationships in the real world.

Topological Data Structure

Topology is the spatial relationship between connecting and adjacent coverage features. Topological
relationships are built from simple elements into complex elements: points, arcs and areas.
Topological data structure, in fact, adds intelligence to the GIS database.

Attribute Data Management

All data within a GIS are stored within databases. A database is a collection of information about
things and their relationships to each other. The principle characteristics of a DBMS are: - Centralized
control over the database is possible, allowing for better quality management and operator-defined
access to parts of the database; Data can be shared effectively by different applications; The access to
the data is much easier, due to the use of a user-interface and the user-views. Data redundancy can be
avoided as much as possible.

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Relational Database
The relational data model is conceived as a series of tables, with no hierarchy nor any predefined
relations. The relation between the various tables should be made by the user. This is done by
identifying a common field in two tables, which is assigned as the flexibility than in the other two data
models. However, accessing the database is slower than with the other two models. Due to its greater
flexibility, the relational data model is used by nearly all GIS systems.

Metadata: Metadata is frequently described as "data about data." Metadata is additional information
(besides the spatial and tabular data) that is required to make the data useful. It is information you
need to know in order to use the data. Metadata represents a set of characteristics about the data that
are normally not contained within the data itself. Metadata could include:

recording of the steps used on the data for analysis

Spatial metadata is important because it not only describes what the data is, but it can reduce the size
of spatial data sets.

Cartographic Principles in Map Composition in GIS

Traditionally, maps have been created to serve two main functions. The first function has been to
store information. Creating a map has been a way to record information for future reference. The
second function has been to provide a picture to relay spatial information to a user. There are many
types of maps, each with general and possibly specific requirements. However, in GIS user is having
the flexibility in map composition using various map composition tools in GIS. These guidelines have
been organized into seven areas that one can use as a checklist for creating or improving maps.
Purpose: Typically, a map does not have more than one purpose. Trying to communicate too much
in one map—having more than one purpose for the map—tends to blur the message and confuse the
map reader. Using two or more maps, each focused on a single message, is always a better strategy.

millions of people? It's better to target your map to the person least prepared to understand your map's
Size and scale: The physical size of a map relative to the geographic extent shown on the
map will dictate the scale of the map and determine how you will represent the actual size and number
of features shown on the map. Data is often collected at a particular scale. However, if you're not
Media: Media also plays an important
role, because a map printed on newspaper will not show fine details clearly, whereas one printed on
highquality paper will. In addition, the details on a digital map could vary depending on the viewing
Focus: Refers to where the designer wants the map reader to first focus. Typically, cool
colors (blues, greens, and light gray) are used for background information and warm colors (red,
yellow, black) are used to capture the reader's attention.

: You may want to cross-validate some of your information, such as the names or spelling
of some features. If the data was produced by another organization, it is customary to give that
Balance: How does map look on the page or screen? Are the parts
of the map properly aligned? The body of the map should be the dominant element. Try to avoid large

Completeness: A map generally should contain some basic elements, such as a title, legend, scalebar,
and North arrow; however, there are exceptions. For example, if a graticule exists, it is not necessary

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to place a North arrow. Basically, place all the information you think your readers need to fully
understand the map.

Map Elements

Map body: The primary mapped area. One can display more than one image in primary mapped
area within the document. For example, to portray change by showing several images with differing
but related information, such as population maps of various years. Map may also contain a locator
map, an inset map or an index map. All are used to assist in communicating your information to
Title: Used to tell the reader what the map represents. This is often placed on a map layout
Legend: Lists the sy Scale:
Provides readers with the information they need to determine distance. A map scale is a ratio, where
Projection: A
mathematical formula that transforms feature locations from the earth's curved surface to a map's flat
surface. Projections can cause distortions in distance, area, shape, and direction; all projections have
some distortion. Therefore, the projection type is often placed on the map to help readers determine
Direction: Is shown using a
North arrow. A map may show true north and magnetic north. This element is inserted in the map
layout v Data source: The bibliographic information for the data used to develop the map.

C. Global Positioning System

GPS, or the Global Positioning System, is a satellite navigation system that provides
positioning and clock time to the terrestrial user. The system consists of more than just
satellites. While the satellites make up the space segment, the system also includes a control
segment that monitors and maintains the satellites, as well as the user segment that gets to
have all the fun.

Types of GPS systems

(i) GLONASS: GLONASS is operated by the Russian Space Forces. The system uses radio
time signals to locate people and vehicles on and above the surface of Earth. In 1982, the
former USSR matched America's NAVSTARs with a new generation of high-flying
navigation satellites when it launched the test satellites Cosmos-1413, Cosmos-1414 and
Cosmos-1415 on one rocket to start GLONASS. The first operational satellites went into
service in December 1983. Russia continued building the GLONASS system after the old
Soviet Union dissolved in the early 1990s.

(ii) Galileo system recently approved for funding by the European Union

(iii) NAVSTAR (Navigational System Time and Ranging): It was the brainchild of the
U.S.Department of Defence. The U.S.Department of Defense created NAVSTAR to work
optimally with a constellation of 24 satellites at an altitude of 1100miles or 20200km at an
inclination of 55 degree. NAVSTAR was declared fully functional on April 27, 1995 with a
constellation of 24 Block II and Block IIA satellites. Unofficially, NAVSTAR became fully
operational December 8, 1993 with a mix of Block II, IIA and the original concept validation
Block I satellites; 28 Block II, IIA and IIR satellites are currently in orbit and operational.

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How GPS works?
Here's how GPS works in five logical steps:

The basis of GPS is "triangulation" from satellites.

We're using the word "triangulation" very loosely here because it's a word most people can
understand, but purists would not call what GPS does "triangulation" because no angles are
involved. It's really "trilateration."
Trilateration is a method of determining the relative positions of objects using the geometry
of triangles.
• To "triangulate," a GPS receiver measures distance using the travel time of radio signals.
• To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate timing which it achieves with some tricks.
• Along with distance, you need to know exactly where the satellites are in space. High orbits
and careful monitoring are the secret.
• Finally you must correct for any delays the signal experiences as it travels through the
atmosphere.
Segments of GPS:
(i) Space Segment
(ii) Control Segment
(iii) User Segment

I. SPACE SEGMENT
The Big Idea Geometrically:
Step One:
Suppose we measure our distance from a satellite and find it to be 11,000 miles.

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Knowing that we're 11,000 miles from a particular satellite narrows down all the possible
locations we could be in the whole universe to the surface of a sphere that is centered on this
satellite and has a radius of 11,000 miles.
Step Two:
Next, say we measure our distance to a second satellite and find out that it's 12,000 miles
away.
That tells us that we're not only on the first sphere but we're also on a sphere that's 12,000
miles from the second satellite. Or in other words, we're somewhere on the circle where these
two spheres intersect.
Step Three:
If we then make a measurement from a third satellite and find that we're 13,000 miles from
that one, that narrows our position down even further, to the two points where the 13,000
mile sphere cuts through the circle that's the intersection of the first two spheres.
So by ranging from three satellites we can narrow our position to just two points in space.
To decide which one is our true location we could make a fourth measurement. But usually
one of the two points is a ridiculous answer (either too far from Earth or moving at an
impossible velocity) and can be rejected without a measurement.
A fourth measurement does come in very handy for another reason however, but we'll tell
you about that later.
Next we'll see how the system measures distances to satellites.

II. CONTROL SEGMENT

Satellite Positions
But how do we know exactly where they are? After all they're floating around 11,000
miles up in space.
A high satellite gathers no moss
That 11,000 mile altitude is actually a benefit in this case, because something that high is well
clear of the atmosphere. And that means it will orbit according to very simple mathematics.
The Air Force has injected each GPS satellite into a very precise orbit, according to the GPS
master plan.

III. USER SEGMENT

Examples of some applications (users):
• navigation (very important for ocean travel)
• zero-visibility landing for aircraft
• collision avoidance
• surveying
• precision agriculture
• delivery vehicles
• emergency vehicles

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• electronic maps
• Earth sciences (volcano monitoring; seismic hazard)
• tropospheric water vapour

DGPS (Differential GPS)

When we talk about differential or DGPS, we use the known position of one receiver to
correct for the position of the unknown rover. Since we know the position of the satellite and
the position of the known receiver, we can take the difference between the real range and the
pseudorange to create a correction. We can then apply the pseudorange correction for each
satellite to the unknown or rover receiver to calculate a better position.
Why we need Differential GPS
o Differential GPS or "DGPS" can yield measurements good to a couple of meters in moving
applications and even better in stationary situations.
How Differential GPS works
o Differential GPS involves the cooperation of two receivers, one that's stationary and
another that's roving around making position measurements.
Where to get Differential Corrections

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