Subject: Analog Communication

UNIT 1: AM Transmission
By
Prof.S.S.Ayane
Departmentof E&TC
PCCOE, NIgdi

CO1: To compute & compare the bandwidth and transmission

power requirements by analyzing time and frequency domain
spectra of signal required for modulation schemes under study.
 Contents
 Baseband & Carrier communication
 Generation of AM (DSBFC) and its spectrum
 Power relations applied to sinusoidal signals
 DSBSC – multiplier modulator
 Nonlinear generation, switching modulator,Ring modulator & its
spectrum
 Modulation Index.
 SSBSC, ISB & VSB, their generation methods & Comparison
 Block Diagram of AM Transmitter and Broadcast technical
standards
Significance of
Human Communication
Methods of communication:
1.Face to face
2.Signals
3.Written word (letters)
4.Electrical innovations:
Telegraph
Telephone
Radio
Television
Internet (computer)
Introduction to Communication System

Elements of Communication System

Basic components:
Transmitter
Channel or medium
Receiver
Noise degrades or interferes with transmitted information.
 • Information Source : The information source
originates the message. The source of information can
be analog or digital,
• Analog: audio or video signal,
• Digital: like teletype signal.
• Input transducer: It converts the non electrical message
in to electric waveform by using transducers such as
microphone, computer keyboard etc. This waveform is
called baseband signal or message signal.
• Transmitter: The transmitter converts the baseband
signal in to a form suitable for transmission. It performs
various operations like amplification, encoding,
modulation etc
 • Channel: The communication channel is the physical
medium that is used for transmitting signals from
transmitter to receiver
• Wireless channels: Wireless Systems
• Wired Channels: Telephony
The channel partially acts as a filter that attenuates
the signal and distorts the waveform.
• Receiver: The receiver performs the process reverse to
that of transmitter. It performs the task like
demodulation, decoding etc.
• Output transducer: It converts the electrical message to
original form and deliver to the destination.
 Classification of Electronic
Communication Systems:

Electronic
Communication
System

Technique of
Uni / Bidirectional Nature of info signal
transmission
Unidirectional/Bidirectional Communication

Uni/Bidirectional
Communication

Simplex systems Half Duplex Full Duplex

Simplex
The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as
simplex.
This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
Radio
TV broadcasting
Beeper (personal receiver)
Half Duplex
The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits
at a time is known as half duplex. Examples are:
Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
Citizen band (CB)
Family radio
Amateur radio
Walky-Talky

Full Duplex
Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as
duplex.
When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full
duplex. The telephone is an example of this type of communication.
Nature of information signal

Nature of info.signal

Analog Digital
Analog Signals
An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying
voltage or current. Examples are:
Sine wave
Voice
Video (TV)

Figure : Analog signals (a) Sine wave “tone.” (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV) signal.
 Digital Signals
Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments.
Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes. Examples
are: Telegraph (Morse code)
Continuous wave (CW) code
Serial binary code (used in computers)

Figure :Digital signals (a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW) code. (c)
Serial binary code.
Technique of transmission

Technique of
transmission

Baseband Modulation
Baseband Transmission
Baseband information can be sent directly and unmodified over
the medium.
In telephone or intercom systems, the voice is placed on the
wires and transmitted. In some computer networks, the digital
signals are applied directly to coaxial or twisted-pair cables for
transmission.
Base band signal can be digital or analog
Digital msg are constructed with finite no of symbols:
text, numbers, ‘M’ symbols : M-ary msg
Analog message has data whose values vary over
continuous range: can have infinite possible values
Eg: Speech
 What is baseband signal ?

Term ‘base band’ is used to designate band of frequencies of the

signal delivered by source or input transducer:

Speech Signals:0 to 5 kHz

Audio signals:0 to 20 KHz
Video signals:0 to 5 MHz
In telephony: baseband is audio band(0-3.5 kHz)
In television: baseband is video band(0-4.3 MHz)
Bandwidth requirement
BW of a channel is range of frequencies over which an
information signal is transmitted.
Specifically, it is the difference between the upper and lower
frequency limits of the signal
Speech Signals:0 to 5 kHz: BW- 5 kHz
Audio signals:0 to 20 KHz : BW- 20 KHz
Video signals:0 to 5 MHz : BW- 5 MHz
Telephony: baseband is audio band(0-3.5 kHz): BW-3.5 kHz
Limitations of Baseband Systems
It cannot be used for the radio transmission where the medium
is free space.
They cannot travel long distance (Voice signal)
It gets suppressed after a short distance.
Carrier Communication
Communication that uses modulation to shift frequency
spectrum of a signal
One of the basic parameters of sinusoidal carrier of high
frequency is varied in proportion to the base band signal m(t),
resulting in AM,FM,PM

Used to transmit analog as well as digital baseband signals

Radio Frequency Spectrum:
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Bandwidth: It is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied
by a signal
Or
It is the range of frequency over which the information signal is
getting transmitted.
It is a difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the
signal. i:e Bw= f2-f1 = 20000-20=19980Hz

Bandwidth of music signal

Bandwidth Requirement for different signals
Sr.No Type of Signal Freq. Range Bw in Hz
(Hz)
01 Voice Signal (Speech) for telephony 300-3400 3100
02 Music Signal 20-20000 19980
03 TV Signal(Picture) 0-5Mhz 5Mhz
04 Digital Data 300-3400 3100

Channel Bandwidth: The range of frequencies that contains the

information is called bandwidth. But the term channel bandwidth
is used to describe the range of frequencies required to transmit the
desired information.
Ex: To transmit 5Khz information signal, DSB-FC requires 10Khz
Bandwidth.
To transmit 5Khz information signal, SSB-SC requires 5Khz
Bandwidth.
All the efforts should be made to reduce the channel Bw required.
Concept of baseband and band pass signals :-
Baseband Signal: The information signal or the input signal to a
communication system can be analog or can be digital. The electrical
equivalent signal of this original information signal is called
baseband signal. Example: all voice, speech , picture etc
In some systems this baseband signals are directly transmitted called
baseband communication systems.
The frequency spectrum of baseband signal generally starts from 0
As shown.

Spectrum of Baseband signal

Band pass Signal: The signal which has non zero lowest
frequency in its spectrum i:e the frequency spectrum of band pass
Signal extends from f1 to f2Hz.
The modulated signal is called band pass signal. It is obtained by
shifting baseband signal in frequency domain. The spectrum is as
shown. Here lowest frequency is f1 and highest is f2.

Spectrum of pass band signal

Modulation

Modulation is the process of superimposing low frequency

signal over high frequency signal. A carrier is a high
frequency signal. A Modulating/Information signal is low
frequency signal like audio, video, or data.
Figure : Modulation at the transmitter.
Need of Modulation
1) It reduces the height of antenna
2) It avoids mixing of signals
3) Increases range of communication
4) Allows multiplexing
5) Allows adjustment in Bandwidth
6) Improves quality of reception
Types of Modulation
Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave/Pulse Modulation

Amplitude Angle Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(AM)

PAM PWM PPM PCM

Frequency Phase
Modulation Modulation DPCM
(FM) (PM)
DM

ADM
DSBSC SSBSC VSB ISB
Amplitude Modulation
Definition:- It is the process of varying the amplitude of high
Frequency carrier signal in accordance with the instantaneous value
of modulating signal by keeping the frequency and phase of the carrier
constant.
Time domain representation of AM wave:
Mathematical representation of AM wave:
Let the carrier & modulating signal voltages are given as
Spectrum of AM wave:
 Bandwidth of AM wave:

Modulation Index (m):

Definition: Modulation index of AM wave is defined as the ratio of
modulating signal voltage to the carrier signal voltage

In general the value of modulation index of AM wave lies between

0 & 1. it can be express in % to find percentage modulation.
When Em=Ec then m=1 called 100% modulation.
When Em<Ec then m will have value between 0 & 1 (no Distortion)
When Em>Ec then m>1 called over modulation (Results in Distortion)
Calculation of Modulation Index:
1) Envelope Method:
2) Trapezoidal Method:
i;e It is possible to measure MI by measuring the lengths A &B.
6) Spectrum of AM signal:
Power relations in AM wave:
Modulation index in terms of PT & Pc :
Transmission efficiency :
 Modulation index for more than one modulating signals:
If the single carrier frequency is modulated by multiple
modulating signals then it is called multitone modulation.
The effective modulation index in such case can be calculated
as
Voltage & Current relations in AM Wave
Modulation Index in terms of current
AM Generation: AM generation techniques are classified as
1) Low level modulation : In this technique the generation of AM
wave takes place in the initial stage of amplification i:e at low
power level. The generates AM signal is then amplified.
2) High level modulation : In this technique the generation of AM
wave takes place in the final stage of amplification i:e at high
power level.

Low level modulator :

It consist of Op-Amp and FET. Here FET acts as a variable resistor
and Op-Amp is used as a non inverting amplifier for carrier signal.
RF acts as a feedback resistor and resistance of a FET acts as a i/p
resistance R1. The gain of Op-Amp is given as

In absence of modulating signal FET provides fixed resistance hence

gain remains constant giving steady o/p carrier.
When i/p is increasing in positive direction, the resistance R1
decreases and gain increases.
When i/p is decreasing in negative direction, the resistance R1
increases and gain decreases.
Due to variation in the gain the amplitude of carrier changes in the
O/p. which results in the AM wave.
High level modulator :In this Generation of AM wave takes place in
two parts. First part generates the series of current pulses which are
proportional to the modulating signal and second part converts each
pulse in to a complete sine wave proportional in amplitude to the size
of pulse.

Class C Amplifier: It is possible to make the output of Class-C

amplifier proportional to the modulating voltage by applying
modulating voltage in series with dc bias voltage.
Tuned Circuit : These current pulses are applied to the tuned circuit
which will generate the damped oscillations in it. Amplitude of each
oscillation will be proportional to the size of the current pulse &
decay rate will be proportional to the time constant of the circuit.
Each pulse will generate complete sine wave. This effect of making
The amplitude of current pulse equal to modulating signal is called
Flywheel effect of tuned circuit.
Collector modulated Class-C amplifier :
It is a high power class C amplifier. The modulator is a linear power
amplifier that takes the low level modulating signal and amplifies it
to high power level. The modulating signal is coupled through T1 to
Class-C amplifier. The secondary of T1 is connected in series with
the collector supply voltage Vcc i:e modulating signal is applied in
series with collector power supply hence called collector modulated.

In absence of modulating signal the, voltage across secondary of T1

is zero. Therefore Vcc will be directly applied to Class-C amplifier
generating current pulses of equal amplitude & o/p will be constant
sine wave.
When modulating signal occurs ,the voltage across secondary of T1
gets added & subtracted from Vcc. This is then applied to Class-C
amplifier resulting in variation amplitude of carrier in accordance
with modulating signal. Generating current pulses of variable
amplitude & o/p of tank will AM wave.
AM Transmitter: Depending on the type of modulator used and the
Point at which the modulation takes the AM transmitters are classified
in two types as
1) Low level AM transmitter
2) High level AM transmitter
1) Low level AM transmitter
In the low level AM transmitter the modulation takes place at low
power level i:e before final o/p amplifier. The stable RF crystal
oscillator provides carrier frequency. The buffer amplifiers are usually
Class-A amplifiers and power amplifiers are class-C amplifiers.
The modulating signal is first preprocessed, filtered, amplified and then
applied to modulator. Another input to modulator is carrier frequency.
The modulated output is then amplified by PA and then transmitted
In the low level modulation system amplifier efficiency and bandwidth
are important factors since audio signal is having low power.
It is used for laboratory purpose.
 2) High level AM transmitter

In the high level AM transmitter the modulation takes place at high

power level i:e in the final stages. The stable RF crystal
oscillator, buffer amplifiers, RF powers amplifiers, AF amplifiers are
common in both AM transmitters only the difference is in the point at
which the modulation takes place. Here first power is boosted and then
modulation is carried out. In the high level modulation system
amplifier efficiency and bandwidth and power handling capabilty are
important factors.
Comparison between LLM & HLM
Sr. Parameter High level modulation Low level modulation
No

01 Modulation takes place at High power level Low power level

02 Types of amplifiers High efficiency Class C Linear amplifiers (A,AB or B) are

amplifiers are used used

03 Efficiency Very High Lower than HLM

04 Devices used Vacuum tubes or transistors Transistors,JFET,Op-Amps

05 Design of AF power Complex due to very high power Easy due to low power involved
amplifier involved

06 Power handling capacity High Low

07 Applications Broadcast transmitters Laboratory purpose

Advantages of AM:
1. AM transmitters are less complex.
2. AM receives are simple and detection is easy
3. AM signal can travel over a long distance
4. Low bandwidth requirement compare to FM
5. Low cost

Disadvantages of AM:
1. Wastage of power takes place in AM.
2. DSB-FC AM needs larger bandwidth.
3. AM wave gets affected by noise hence low SNR.

Applications:
1. Radio broadcasting
2. Picture transmission in TV system
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier AM (DSBSC)
The disadvantages of DSB-FC AM system are overcome by using
DSB-SC system. The amount of power required for transmission is
reduced by suppressing the carrier. The time domain display of
DSB-SC signal is same as that of DSB-FC for m=1. only difference
is that the carrier under goes 180 degree phase shift.
Time domain description of DSB-SC signal:
Spectrum of DSB-SC

Bandwidth of DSB-SC
Power saving in DSB-SC system
Due to suppression of the carrier, lot of power saving takes place in
DSB-SC. About 66.66% power is saved at 100% modulation.
Example: Calculate the percentage power saving for DSB-SC signal
for the percentage modulation of a) 100% and 2) 50%
DSB-SC Generation
To generate the DSB-SC signal we need to use the product
Modulator. There are four types of modulator as
1) Multiplier modulator 2) Linear modulator
3) Non linear modulator (BM) 4) Switching modulator
Multiplier modulator: Here modulation is done by simply multiplying
two signals.
Linear modulator : The gain of these type of system is varied with
Time by applying the time varying signal at certain point so that
gain is proportional to the signal.
Non linear modulator (Balanced Modulator)

Balanced modulator is the device used to suppress the unwanted

carrier in AM wave.
It operates on the principle that if two signals at different frequencies
are passed through non-linear resistance then at the output it produces
AM signal with suppressed carrier.
The devices such as diode, BJT or JFET have non linear resistance
hence can be used for designing of BM.
Types of Balanced modulator
1) Balanced modulator using diodes
2) Balanced modulator using FET
3) Balanced modulator using amplitude modulators
1) Balanced modulator using diodes
The modulating signal is applied at the primary of center tapped AF
transformer will appear with 180 degree phase shift at secondary.
Hence two diodes will receive the modulating signal of same
magnitude but opposite in phase. The carrier is applied to center
Tap of secondary as shown. Hence
2) Balanced modulator using FET

The carrier signal is applied in phase to the two gates of FET via
transformers T1 & T2.
And the modulating signal is applied 180 degree out of phase to the
two gates of FET via center tapped secondary of transformer T1.
Mode I: In absence of modulating signal
In absence of modulating signal, both the FETs conduct simultaneously
due to the same carrier voltage applied to the gates.
Assuming both FETs are identical, their drain currents are equal in
magnitudes but opposite in direction through primary of T3.
Due to this their magnetic fields cancel each other, inducing zero
secondary voltage. Hence carrier is suppressed.
Mode II: In presence of modulating signal and carrier
When modulating signal is applied along with the carrier, the drain
currents of the two FETs are due to combined effect of these voltages.
The current due to carrier gets canceled but currents due to modulating
signal are equal in magnitude but not opposite so they do not cancel
out because modulating signal is applied with 180 phase shift to the
FETs. Hence in the output DSB-SC signal is generated.
3) Balanced modulator using amplitude modulators
Switching Modulator
Diode Ring Modulator
Diode ring modulator is also called lattice modulator
In both these circuits an AF transformer T1 and RF transformer T2
are used and four diodes are connected in bridge or lattice
configuration. The RF carrier is connected at center taps of T1 & T2.
The AF Modulating signal is applied to primary of T1. The output is
obtained across secondary of T2. Here assuming diode are perfectly
identical and acts as a switches driven by the RF signal.
Mode I : During Positive half cycle of carrier
Let us assume that modulating signal is absent. The diode D1 & D2
are Forward biased & D3, D4 are reverse biased. The direction of
current are as shown. They are equal and opposite to each other
hence magnetic field induced across primary gets canceled and
produces zero voltage across secondary of T2. Thus the carrier is
suppressed during positive half cycle.
During Negative half cycle of carrier
The diode D3 & D4 are Forward biased & D1, D2 are reverse biased.
The direction of current are as shown. They are equal and opposite to
each other hence magnetic field induced across primary gets canceled
and produces zero voltage across secondary of T2. Thus the carrier is
suppressed during negative half cycle also.
It means the carrier is completely suppressed in mode I.
Mode II : When both RF carrier & modulating signal is present
As the low frequency modulating signal is applied through T1, there
are many cycles of carrier signal during positive half of the
modulating signal . In the positive half of the carrier diode D1 & D2
are Forward biased and secondary of T1 is applied as it is across the
primary of T2. hence output is positive.
In the negative half of the carrier diode D3 & D4 are forward
biased and secondary of T1 is applied in a reverse manner across
the primary of T2. hence output is Negative.

During the negative half of the modulating signal the operation of

the circuit is same as that during positive half. Only the difference
is now the diode D3 & D4 will produce a positive output and D1&
D2 will produce negative output voltage as shown in waveforms.
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier AM (SSBSC)
DSB-SC contains both sidebands, which are identical to each other
i:e they contain the same information hence we can transmit only one
sideband either USB or LSB without loss of information.
With suppression of redundant sideband more power will be saved
compared to DSBSC as well as bandwidth will also reduced to half
as that of DSBFC & DSBSC.
Time domain display of SSB-SC signal
Spectrum of SSB-SC

Bandwidth of SSB-SC

OR
Advantages:
1. Bandwidth requirement is less i:e fm hence it allows more number
of signals to be transmitted in the same frequency range.
2. Lots of power saving due to transmission of only one sideband.
3. More immune to noise due to reduced bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
1. Generation & Reception of SSB signal is complex.
2. Transmission & receiver need to have excellent stability.
Application:
1. Military communication
2. Radio communication
3. Point to point communication.
Power saving in SSB-SC system

Example: Calculate the percentage power saving for SSB-SC signal

for the percentage modulation of a) 100% and 2) 50%
Solution:
Generation of SSB-SC
1. Filter method/ Selective filtering method
2. The phase shift method
3. The third method
Filter method/ Selective filtering method
The modulating signal is applied as a one input to BM through audio
Amplifier. Other input is the carrier signal generated by crystal
Oscillator 1. This frequency is much less than actual transmission
frequency. The BM generates DSBSC signal in its output. out of these
two sidebands the unwanted sideband is heavily attenuated by the
sideband suppression filter and other sideband is passed without
attenuation. As the frequency of carrier is less, the frequency of these
sideband is also very low hence frequency is boosted to the level of
actual transmission frequency by using the combination of balanced
mixer and second crystal oscillator. It is called frequency up conversion.
This signal is then amplified and transmitted. The SB suppression filters
used are mechanical filters. The filters used should be ideal filter
i:e zero attenuation in pass band and full attenuation in stop band.
This switching between pass band to stop band should takes place at
600Hz frequency range. To fulfill this at high frequency the value of
Q of tank circuit required is very high. Which is practically impossible
hence modulation is done at low frequency and then unconverted.
Advantages:
1. Simple compare to other methods.
2. Provides adequate sideband suppression.
3. Sideband filter also helps to attenuate the carrier.
Disadvantages:
1. Frequency up conversion is needed.
2. Two expensive filters are to be used, one for each sideband.
3. Low audio frequency can not be used as the filter become bulky.
The phase shift method
Mathematical analysis

LSB are out of phase hence cancelled & only USB is present in
the output.
Advantages:
1. Bulky filters are replaced by small filters.
2. Low audio frequencies can be used for modulation.
3. It can generate SSB at any frequency.
4. Easy switching from one sideband to other.
5. Frequency up conversion is not necessary.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires complex AF phase shift networks
2. Phase shift networks should provide exact phase shift else the
sideband will not be completely removed.
3. The output of two BM’s must be exactly same otherwise
cancellation will be incomplete.
The Third method
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation
The stringent frequency response requirements on the sideband filter
in SSB-SC system can be relaxed by allowing a part of the unwanted
sideband called vestige to appear in the output of modulator along
with wanted sideband.
Due to this the filter design is simplified to great extent compromising
the bandwidth slightly.
Spectrum of VSB signal
Here USB is Fully transmitted and part of LSB is used for transmission
as a vestige for transmission along with USB.

Bandwidth: The transmission bandwidth of VSB modulation is

Given by

Where W is bandwidth and fr is width of vestigial sideband

Advantages:
1. Practical filters can be used for partial suppression of unwanted
sideband.
2. It is almost efficient as SSB-SC.
3. Design of filter is easy.
Application:
1. Used for picture transmission in TV.
Comparison between DSBFC,DSBSC,SSBSC & VSB:
Sr. Parameter DSBFC DSBSC SSBSC VSB
No
01 Carrier NA Fully Fully Fully
Suppression
02 Sideband NA NA One SB One SB
Suppression completely Partially
03 Bandwidth 2fm 2fm fm Fm<Bw<2fm

04 No. of Modulating 1 1 1 1
inputs
05 Transmission Minimum Moderate Maximum Moderate
efficiency
06 Power High Medium Very small Moderate
requirement
07 Complexity Simple Simple Complex Simple than
SSBSC
08 Application Radio Radio Point to Point TV
Broadcasting Broadcasting communication
Independent Sideband Transmitter:
FDM transmitter
FDM receiver
Example : Five message signals each band limited to 5KHz, 5KHz,
5KHz, 10KHz, 10KHz are transmitted through a channel
Simultaneously using FDM. The guard band used is 2KHz.
Determine the bandwidth of the multiplexed signal if
a) The modulators used are AM
b) The modulators used are SSB
c) The modulators used are AM,AM,DSB,SSB & SSB