UNIT 8 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS :

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Aquatic Ecosystems
t
I Classification of Aquatic Organisms
Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats
Classification of Freshwater Ecosystems
8.3 Lentic Ecosystems
Lakes, Impoundments and Wetlands
Characteristics of Lake Ecosystems
B ~ o t aof Lakes
Types of Lakes
i 8.4 Lotic Ecosystems - Rivers
Characteristics of Rivcr Systems
Biota of Rivers
8.5 Marine Ecosystems
Salient Features of Marine Ecosystems
L ~ f eZones of the Ocean
Biota of Oceans
8.6 Estuaries
Features of Estuaries
Biota of Estuaries
8.7 Summary
8.8 Terminal Questions
8.9 Answers
Glossary

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1 you have learnt that ecosystems are classified into terrestrial and aquatic.
In the previous unit you h v e studied in detail the characteristic features of the
various terresterial ecosystems. In this unit we will be discussing the aquatic
ecosystems.
You have studied in the previous units the general structure and functions common
to all ecosystems and how the ecosystems operate as self-sufficient interacting systems
in the biosphere. Ecosystems consisting of water as the main habitat are known as
aquatic ecosystems. There are three kinds of aquatic ecosystems : Fresh water, saline
and brackish water ecosystems. Freshwaters are again of two types, the static water
ecosystems are called lentic systems and flowing water ecosystems are called as lotic
I
systems. You will read about these in this unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
describe the general ecological features of the aquatic ecosystems and their
classification;
explain the process of spring and fall overturn;
compare oligotrophic, mesotrophic and eutrophic lakes and impoundments;
differentiate between lentic and lotic freshwater ecosystems;
define wetlands and differentiate between marine ecosystems and estuaries;
explain the difference between the biota of lakes, rivers estuaries and marine
ecosystems.

Global waters cover about three quarters of the earth's surface either as fresh water
where salt content is less than 0.5 per cent or as saline water where the salt content
Fzosystem :Functioning and TYW is more than 3.5 per cent o r as brackish water where salt content is intermediate
between fresh water and saline water. O n the basis of their salt content aquatic
ecosystems can be divided in saline water bodies and fresh water bodies. T h e salt
content of fresh bodies is very low, always less than 5 ppt (parts per thousand). A s
against this the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of
sea water (i.e., 35 ppt o r above) are called as saline water bodies o r marine water
bodies. Seas and oceans of the world come under this category. Estuaries and
brackish water bodies have salt content somewhere in between 5 t o 35 ppt. Because
of their salt content estuaries and oceans bear different kinds of organisms 'and will
be discussed separately undcr sections 8.5 and 8.6. It is on this basis, that aquatic
ecosystems are categorised into I) Fresh water ecosystems- lakes. ponds, swamps,
pools, springs, streams, and rivers 2) Marine ecosystems - shallow seas and open
ocean and 3) Brackish water ecosystems-estuaries, salt marshes, maagrove~swamps
and forests.

8.2.1 Classification of Aquatic Organisms

After discussing the common types of the aquatic ecosystem let us now study in brief
the ecological classification of aquatic organisms. In the present unit we will provide
you a sample of diversity of organisms that exists in various types of aquatic
ecosystems in which we focus o n their distinctive characteristics. The aquatic
organisms of ;ill thc thrcc typcs of c c o s y t c ~ i i \i .c.. . marine. I'rc\h wi~tcror brackish.
are classified on the basis of their zone of occurrence in the aquatic system and their
ability t o cross these zones.
he organisms in the aquatic ecosystem are unevenly distributed hut can be classified
on the basis of their life form o r location into fivc groups as .;ho\vn in Fig. 8.1. T h e
fivc groups are given as under :

larvae
Neuston (top layer dwellers)
w
Algae Protozoans

--.. - ___
4-\- /-----
1 --
---

Nekton (swimmers) Plankton

Insects ~ i s h/ ~ $
Nekton 8'

starfish

Fig. 8.1 : Life Styles of Aquatic Organisms

i) Neuston : These are unattached organisms which live at the air-water interface
such as floating plants and several types of animals (see Fig. 8.1). Some spend
most of their lives o n top of the air-water interface. such as water striders,
while other spend most 'of their time just beneath the air-water interface and
obtain most of their food within the water, -e.g., beetles and back-swimmers.
ii) Periphyton : These are organisms which remain attached or clinging to stems and
leaves of rooted plants o r substances emerging above the bottom mud. Usually
sessile algae and their associated group of animals fall in this group.
 Types qf Ecosystems :
iii) Plankton : This group includes both microscopic plants (phytoplankton) and 2 Aquatic Ecosystems
animals (zooplankton) found in all aquatic ecosystems, except certain swift
moving waters. The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that their
distribution is controlled, largely, by currents in the aquatic ecosystems.
Planktons are divisible into :
1) Plants (chiefly algae) known as phytoplankton ; and
2) Animals (primarily crustaceans and protozoans) known as zooplankton.
Most phytoplanktons and zooplanktons are capable, however, of at least some
movement. Certain zooplanktons are extremely active and move relatively large
distances, considering their small size, but they are so small that their range is
still largely controlled by currents.
iv) Nekton :This group contains animals which are swimmers. The nektons are
relatively large and powerful as they have to overcome the water currents (see
I
Fig. 8.1). The animals range in size from the swimming insects, which may be
only about 2 mm long, to the largest animals that have lived on earth namely the
i blue whale.

v) Benthos :The benthos o r the benthic organisms are those found living in or on
the bottom or benthic region of the water mass. They exhibit a variety of
adaptations to the environment. The reason for this is that the bottom is a more
heterogeneous habitat than either the open water or the surface and this diversity
is reflected in the organisms. Practically e k r y aquatic ecosystem contains well
developed benthos. The adaptations of the organisms in the benthic community
reflect the composition of the bottom, its stability or tendency to shift, and its
depth.
You should realise however, that each system has certain unique characteristics.
Despite there being a common factor - water in all aquatic ecosystems and similar
limiting factors and life forms - there are three types o f a s a typical aquatic ,
ecosystems, namely, the fresh water marine and brackish water system. All vary
is size, depth, gradieat df light penetration, temperature, amount of dissolved
oxygen, etc., which are responsible for a particular type of environment and
biota and hence a specific type of ecosystem.
8.2.2 Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats
Sunlight and oxygen are the two most important limiting factors of the aquatic
ecosystems. This distinguishes them from the terrestrial ecosystems where moisture
and temperature are the main limiting factors. We will now consider some of the
important limiting factors which exert controlling influence on productivity of aquatic
ecosystems, namely sunlight, transparency, temperature and oxygen.
i) Sunlight : Sunlight is a major limiting factor for water bodies, since light rapidly
diminishes as it passes down the column of water. The upper layers of the aquatic
ecosystems, up to which light penetrates and within which photosynthetic activity
is confined forms the photic zone. The depth of this zone depends on the
1 transparency of water.
I ii) Transparency : Transparency affects the extent of light penetration. It is
indirectly related to turbidity. Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt and
phytop:ankton make the water turbid. consequel~tlylimiting the extent of light
penetration and this photosynthetic activity in a significant way.
iii) Temperature :The water temperature changes less rapidly than the temperature
of air because water has a considerably higher specific heat than air, that is larger
amounts of heat energy must be added to or taken away from water to raise or
lower its temperature. Since water temperatures are less subject to change, it
follows that aquatic organisms have narrow temperature tolerance. As a result,
even small changes in water temperatures are a great threat to the survival of
aquatic organisms than comparable changes in air temperat'ures are in terrestrial
organisms.
iv) Dissolved oxygen :Oxygen in the terrestrial ecosystems occurs in the atmosphere
along with other gases in a certain fixed concentration however, in aquatic
ec'osystems it is dissolved in water, where its concentration varies constantly
depending on factors that influence the input and output of oxygen in water. In
Eeca*aca:-dT~ps fresh water the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 0.0010 per cent (also
expressed as 10 parts per million or 10 ppm) by weight, which is 150 times lower
than the concentration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of air.
Oxygen is found in waters in dissolved form. It enters the aquatic ecosystem through
the air water interface and by the photosynthetic activities of aquatic plants.
Therefore, the quantity of dissolved oxygen present in an ecosystem depends on the
rate at which these two processes occur. For example, the turbulence that occurs in
waterfalls as well as wave activity that occurs in open water, increase the rate of
oxygen transfer from air to water (unless the water is already saturated with oxygen).
The transfer of oxygen is also affected by the surface area of the waterway. A wide
shallow section of a .river has a larger surface area of oxygen transfer than a narrow
deep segment. Further, the quantity of oxygen that is produced per unit area due to
photosynthesis is related directly to the density of aquatic plants that are present in
water.
Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through air-water interface and through
respiration of organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplanktons, etc). The amount of
dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by temperature as oxygen is less
soluble in warm water. Warm water also enhances decomposer activity. Therefore,
increasing the temperature of a waterbody increases the rite at which oxygen is
depleted from water.
In certain instances, large populations of decomposers remove nearly all the dissolved
oxygen in surface waters (such as lakes, streams and rivers) through respiration. Such
situations are more likely to occur during late summer, when low stream flow and
high water temperatures reduce the level of dissolved oxygen even more. When the
iss solved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic organisms are likely to die.
The limiting factors discussed here'apply in general to all aquatic ecosystems -lakes,
ponds. rivers. streams. estuaries. oceans and sen.;.

8.2.3 Classification of Freshwater Ecosystems

Fresh water ecosystems depend on the terrestrial ecosystems for large quantities of
organic and inorganic matter which are constantly added into them by the
communities growing on nearby land.
I

1 The fresh water ecosystems can be conveni.ently divided into two main divisions Types of Ecosystems :
2 Aquatic Ecosystems
i) Lentic (from 'lenis', calm) or standing or basin series ecosystems. Examples of
this division are lakes, pools, ponds, swamps, marshes etc.
ii) Lotic (from 'lotus', washed),or running or channel series ecosystems. Examples
of this division are rivers, streams, springs etc.
These two fresh water ecosystem have been extensively treated in the following two
sections, i.e.,Scclion\ s ;.lllcl s J

8.3 LENTIC ECOSYSTEMS

Lakes are inland, depressions containing standing water. They vary considerably in
area and depth. The largest lake in the world, the lake Superior in North America
has a surface area of 83,000 km2 and a maximum depth of 307 metres (5,000 feet).
i
Whereas the deepest Cake, in the world, lake Baikal in Siberia is nearly half the area
of Lake Superior, i.e., 31,500 km2. It has, however, more than twice its depth (706
k metres).
Fresh water lakes of this earth hold 125 x 10%m3 of water and have inflow as well
as outflow. In addition they have various patterns of circulation within their
boundaries and so their waier is not totally static. However, they do lack the constant
linear or turbulent flow of the rivers.

8.3.1 Lakes, Impoundments and Wetlands

Lentic ecosystems include all those systems which have a static body of water. Lakes,
impoundments and wetlands are all lentic ecosystems. Let us see how do they differ
from each other.
Lakes : Most lakes occur in regions which have recently been subjected to geological
changes; say within the past 20,000 years. However, a few lakes, such as lake Baikal
in Russia and Lake Tanganyanitia in Africa are ancient and are estimated to have
originated twenty million years ago.
Lakes arise in several ways. Some, like the tectonic lakes, are formed in basins
created by geological activities such as wafping and faulting of the earth's crust. Most
of the Himalayan lakes are tectonic in origin. Some are formed in crater depressions
of extinct volcanoes and are called crater lakes, for example lake Kounsaranag in
Kashmir. Others may be a result of glacial activity. For example most lakes of North
America originated due to glacial erosions and deposition, whereby glacial abrasions
of slopes in high mountain engraved basin which later became filled with melting
snow and rain. Still others have been formed by deposition of silt, drift-wood and
other debris in beds of slow moving streams. Lakes may also arise by landslides
blocking off streams and valley.

Fig. 8.2 : A reservoir formed behind Shastri Lake showing two

possible means of releasing water from impoundments
. You should be aware that lakes are not evenly distributed on the earth but are
grouped in certain regions called 'lake districts'. However, in a given area all natural
lakes have the same geological origin and same characteristics, though they may
represent several stages of succession due to varying depths at the time of origin.
 and 'FP
~ccsystem: ~ d o n i w Impoundments : We have so far discussed natural lakes. In addition to these there
are a number of lakes both small and large artificially created by man called reservoirs
or impoundments (Fig.8.2a). These have been built to fulfil specific requirements -
hydroelectric power generation, fisheries, water supply, irrigation, industries,
recreation, control of floods, etc.
Impoundments may be called offstem or onstem depending on how they have been
created. Onstem reservoirs - these are located in upland areas and are formed by
damming a stretch of river or stream in a suitable river valley. In India only'these
types of impoundments are found. Offstem reservoirs are built in low land areas by
pumping water some distance from a river or from an underground source.
Wetlands : Wktlands are permanently or periodically water covered areas. They can
be defined as submerged or saturated lands either artificially or naturally, and either
periodically or permanently up to a depth of six metres by water which may be fresh
brackish or saline.
These wetlands may be classified into two categories
Inland wetlands which occur inland and contain fresh water e.g. bogs, swamps, etc.
Coastal wetlands which occur near the coast and contain saline or brackish waters,
e.g. mangrove swamps, mangrove forests. You will read about these in Section 8.6
in greater detail.

8.3.2 Characteristics of Lake Ecosystems

The environment of static waters of lakes and ponds sharply contrasts with those of
lotic ecosystems. Light penetration in lakes is usually up to a certain depth which as
you know is sffected by turbidity. Temperature and dissolved oxygen also vary with
depth. Dissolved oxygen in stagnant water is generally less compared to lotic systems
because only a relatively small surface of the water body is indirect contact with air.
Decomposition of organic matter usually takes place at the bottom of'the lake. The
oxygen content usually decreases with depth. The gradations of temperature, sunlight
and oxygen are directly responsible for vertical zonation or stratification. occurring
in lakes. They are also responsible indirectly for horizontal zonations of lakes as they
profoundly influence the distribution of lake organisms which contribute to the
characteristic horizontal zonations.
A) Thermal Stratification : Shallow lakes show no thermal stratification as their
waters are well mixed, resulting in uniform temperature throughout. However lakes
with depths of more than 15 metres exhibit fairly pronounced temperature
stratification.

a) Summer Stratification : Thermal stratification is fairly pronounced during the

summer seasons in most lakes of the temperate (cold) regions but is rare in lakes
of tropical (hot) and subtropical regions where it occurs only in very deep
lakes. This is so, because the rate of mixing of layers is very fast in case of tropical
lakes whereas, the temperate lakes retain well defined layers showing different
temperatur;~. These layers do not mix rapidly. Therefore the temperate lakes
exhibit clear stratification with respect to temperature.
\
Let us understand how thermal stratification develops in water bodies and why
i t is maximum during the summer seasons. In lakes the top one metre of the
water surface directly absorbs around 90 per cent of the total solar radiation
falling on it and is considerably more heated in the process. Consequently, the
lower sub-surface layers receive progressively less radiation and remain relatively
cool. Thus, the lake becomes thermally stratified, with its water forming
layers due to temperature differences or thermal gradients (see Fig. 8.3)

Thermal stratification is maximum during the summer season, primarily due to

two reasons. Firstly, due to the fact that solar intensity increases during this
period and it heats the surface layer greatly while the lower layers remain
comparatively cool. Secondly, the thermally stratified layers offer resistance to
mixing by wind. The fairly pronounced stratification of lakes developed in
summer is called summer stratification or stagnation. The various stratified layers
which are formed as a result (Fig8.3) can be delineated as follows (Fig.8.3.a,b).
 Epilimnion : This forms the uper layer of the lake and consists of freely- Types of Ecosystems :
i) 2 Aquatic Ermystems
circulating warm water which is well lighted though poor in nutrients. Most
of the phytoplanktons grow in the epilimnion which is well aerated both due
to photosynthetic oxygen production by plants and mixing by wind.
ii) Metalimnion : This zone lies below the epilimnion and above the
hypolimnion and thus forms the intermediate layer which is non-circulating.
j
The metalimnion is characterised by steep and rapid fall in water temperature
with increasing depth. Within the metalimnion is present the 'thermocline', /

the plane at which the temperature drops most rapidly - at least 1 celsius
for each metre of depth.
iii) Hypolimnion :This zone forms the bottom layer which is deep, cold and non-
circulating. The hypolimnion is generaklyrich in nutrients though its oxygen
content is low due to its utilisation by decomposition process which as you
know generally occurs here and uses up oxygen. Temperature fall here is
gentle.
Stratification of certain temperate lakes is not limited to the summer season
as they undergo stagnation o r stratification in winter. also which is called
winter stratification or stagnation and is described below (Fig.8.3 a,b).

Fig. 8.3 : Showing seasonal stratification of temperature.and oxygen as well as distribution of aquatic
life in a temperate lake. The distribution of temperature and oxygen in a lake affects the distriliution of
fish and other aquatic life. The narrow fish outline depicts the cold.water species (trout). The broader
outline represents the warm water species namely bass
a) Shows the three well defined layers due to summer stratification - epilimnion, thermocline in
metalimnion, and hypolim~~ion b) shows the seasonal stratification in winter c) and d) show the fall
and spring overturns, respectively, when stratification is destroyed and fishes occur at almost all depths.
Ecosystem : Functioning and Types
b) Winter Stratification : During extremes of winter the surface layer of the lake
freezes or attains a temperature close to Oo Celsius. Under these conditions an
inverse stratification develops. The water beneath the ice absorbs solar radiation
passing through the ice and so'remains relatively warm. When this w rm water
7 .
attains a temperature of 4°C it becomes dense and heavier. Consequently it slnks
to the bottom where it mixes with bottom water of the lake.which is warmidby
heat conducted from the bottom mud. The result is higher temperature at the
bottom, though the overall stability of water remains undisturbed. That is, the
less dense-surface water in the form of ice or at O°C floats on the top of the warm,
heavier water which is at an appropriate temperature of 4°C. Both of these layers
remain stratified and do not mix during the winter season so that the lake is said
to have undergone, winter stagnation or stratification.
c) Overturn :The summer or winter stratification is seasonal. Circulation of lake waer
occurs twice a year, in the spring and autumn (fall) seasons by a process called
overturn. This circulation is importatt for lakes which .undergo stratification as
it allows thorough mixing of oxygen, phytoplankton and nutrients within the
t h e lake. Let us now understand the process of overturn both in the spring an&
autumn seasons.
Spring overturn :In spring and early summer season the increased solar radiation
melts the ice cover, which, as it attains a temperature of 4" Celcius, becomes
dense and heavy and sinks to the bottom, displacing the lower water which moves
up. This circulation of water is further helped by.the prevailing summer winds
and is called spring overturn (Fig.8.3.c,d)
Autumn (fall) overturn : In autumn or early winter the ai; temperature falls,
resulting in the cooling of the surface waters. When the surface water cools to
4°C it becomes dense and heavy and sinks to the bottom displacing the bottom
warm water which rises to the surface. This mixing of the surface and bottom
layers is further facilitated by strong winter winds and is called 'fall overturh'
( F i g 8 . 3 ~and.3c,d).
B) ' ~ i ~ Stratification
ht
As you have alTeady read, the penetration of iight in water bodies is limited
depending on the transparency of water and its ability to absorb light. On the basis
of light penetration lakes become vertically stratified into t y o basic layers (1) ihe
upper trophogenic zone,'corresponding roughly to the photic zone about which you
have read in section 8.2.1 in which photosynthesis dominates and the lower, and
(2) tropholytic zone where' decomposition is most active and which corresponds
to the aphotic zone (Fig. 8.3).
Between these two zones is the compensation depth - the depth a t which light
intensity is such that the photosynthetic production is just enough to balance
respiratory losses and beyond which light penetration is so low that it is no longer
effective. Generally compensation depth occurs where light intensity is about 100 foot
candles or approximately one per cent of full noon sunlight incident to the surface.
C) Oxygen Stratification
In most lakes, oxygen stratification nearly parallels that of temperature during the
summer season (Fig.8.3a). The amount of oxygen is greatest on the surface, gradually
decreasing with depth. The surface layer has the maximum oxygen content due to
two main reasons. First, being well lighted, maximum photosynthetic oxygen is
produced here. Secondly, being in intimate contact with the atmosphere, i t permits
free diffusion of oxygen into it from the air. The oxygen content, beneath the. surface
water decreases, as both these oxygen sources disappear. At/the bottom the oxygen
content decreases further due to utilisation of oxygen by decomposers occurring here.
8.3.3 Biota of Lakes
Lakes exhibit life zones. So far you have been reading about the vertical zonation of
lakes. The lakes can be divided into horizontal zones as well. This division is on the
basis of life forms existing in lakes. The penetration of sunlight in the lake influences
the vertical gradient of sunlight, temperature and oxygen. The horizontal gradation
of lakes is affected by distribution of organisnis in the waters. This results in definite
zones which are shown in Fig.8.4 and are as follows :
i) Littoral zone : This is the shallow water zone, near the shore, where light
penetrates to the bottom. Rooted plants can grow only in this region.
 Types of Eeosystems :
2 Aquatic Eeosystems

. -. Sunlight

Fig. 8.4 : Four major life zones in a lake in summer showing the representative animals in each zone.

ii) Open Water Zone :This extends beyond the littoral zone and is too deep for light
to penetrate till the bottom and for rooted plants to grow. This zone is divided
on the basis of light penetration and distribution of organisms into :
a) limnetic region which is photic
b) profundal region which is aphotic
iii) Benthic Zone : This forms the floor of the lake and underlies the littoral and
limnetic zone.
Let us now see how the types of plants and animals occurring in the various horizontal
zones are classified.
LITTORAL ZONE
A) Plants of the littoral zone
Two types of planfs occur here:
i) Non-rooted phytoplanktons which include all kinds of algae occurring in the
limnetic as well as those found only here. Certain species of green algae, blue
green algae and diatoms remain attached to plant surfaces and are collectively
called periphyton (Fig.8.5 a)

ii) All rooted or benthic flowering plants, attached to the substratum which occu
in concentric zones within the littoral region. A general representative
arrangement of rooted plants proceeding from the shallow towards the deeper
lake area includes the following three sub-zones. (Fig.8.5b).
 Lone 01 emergent
~eosystem:Functioning and ~ y p g , .
vegetation

n I
, Zonevegxation
I
I
of submergent
of plants I
~atiingleaves I
I
I
shore

w a t e r lily'-

v
1

pondI weeds
--
Fig. 8.5 : Some plants oflittoral zone a) Floating vegetation of the littoral zone b) Rooted plants showing
zonation in the littoral region of the lake

a) Zone of emergent plants : consisting of plants whose roots and stems remain
submerged in water and whose upper leaves and stems protrude above the water
level e.g. cat's-tail, arrowheads, etc. This is followed by,
b) Zone of plants with floating leaves : containing plants ecologically similar to the
previous types of plants though the photosynthetic area of these plants is much
more wide. Water shields, and water lilies abound here.
c) Zone of submerged vegetation : includes plants which are completely or largely
submerged in water. Plants of chis zone have highly divided leaves ta overcome
the tearing of leaves by strong water currents for maximum absorption of
nutrients as their root system is poorly developed. Pond weeds are usually
prominent in this zone.
lierb~vorousFormr
I
I'ond nnailr
.
Predaion
\ I?
kilc P d a r o ~
adult bcctlc
~WVR

water mite , ~m~hi,&'.'

Mmquuo
Larva Mayfl! nymph
Fig. 8.6 : Some representative invertebrate animals of the littoral zone

B) Animals of the littoral zone

Animals of this zone may be herbivores, carnivores or detritus feeders and are as
diverse as plants (Fig.8.6).
Many of them such as rotifers, protozoans, insect larvae, hydras and bryozoa are
neuston as they spend their lives attached to the stem or leaves of rooted plants.
Others such as snails, flatworms, and many types of insect nymph and larvae spend
their lives moving about the plants. Zooplankton here include species also found in
the limnetic as well those that .are not. The latter include larger forms that rest on
the rooted vegetation, while they are not actively swimming. The nekton here is rich
in small swimming insects particularly such as diving beetles, back swimmers, water
boatman, etc., many of which occur also in streams. Many species of fishes like Types of Ecosystems :
2 Aquatic Ecosystems
mirrows, sunfish and northern pike are restricted to just this zone. while others move
freely between here and the open water zone. Vertebrates living on the lake shore
are found here and include amphibians, e.g., frogs; reptiles, e.g., turtles and snakes
and mammals like beavers and muskrat. Benthos found in or on the floor underlying
the littoral zone are diverse. Most of them are detritus feeders; though some are
carnivores.
OPEN WATER ZONE
A) Plants of the open water zone
In this zone plants arc restricted to the limnetic one and generally consist of
phytoplankton (Fig.8.7) such as dinoflagellates, blue green algae and grecn algae. Of
these the single celled planktonic algae are the main producers for thc lakc as a whole.
colonial green

h diatom

crustacean vorticella
Fig. 8.7: Plankton of the limnetic region of the open water z one of lakes: (a,b) colonial green algae, (c9d9e9f)
colonial diatoms; (g,h) solitary diatoms (i j)blue green algae (k,l,m) protozoa.

The profundal region of the open water zone has no green plants as it is dark and so
cannot support photosynthesis.

A crustaman

mldpc
I R ~a \

Fig. 8.8 :Representatives of benthic invertebrates found-inthe profundal region of lakes (a) Mysis, a mysid
crustacean; (b) Tubifex, the tubeworm of sludgeworm; (c) Valvata; (d) Bithynia; (e),Musculium, the
Pea-shell clam, (f) Chironomus, the bloodworm, a midge larva.

B) Animals of the open water zone

The limnetic region of this zone contains certain fishes as well as a rotifers,
zooplankton such as crustacean and protozoan (Fig.8.6). In the profundal zone occur
chemosynthetic autotrophs as well as heterotrophs. The latter may be carnivores or
detritus feeders. Further the larger fishes of the lakes are restricted to the profundal
zone which also has a well developed series of decomposer population present from
top to the bottom. The bottom which underlies the open water zone contains benthos
' whose diversity is low. Benthic animals found here are larvae of several insect species
such as midges .and burrowing flies as well as clams, snails, tube worms and
kcomposers (Fig.8.8).

8.3.4 Types of Lakes

Lakes of the world exhibit a great diversity of shape, size and combination of
properties. However, on the basis of nutrient status and primary productivity they
Ecosystem :'Functioning and Types can be divided into three categories (1) Oligotrophic (nutrient poor) lakes
(Fig.g.lOa), (2) Eutrophic (nutrient rich) lakes (Fig.8.lOb) and (3) Mesotrophic
(medium nutrient) lakes.

Little shore
vegetation Low concentration of
nutnents and plankton
---- ---------- ------
-- =-----=--- -=---------I
- -- -
Profundal zone

Much shore
vegetation
_ littoral
Wide
.--
.
Wne
High concentration of
nutrients and plankton

* O&* m e
Gentle sloping
shorelines
Eutrophic Lake

--
Fig. 8.9 : A summary of the Vita of lakes and their zones of oahrrence

-
Hooted
lDlants

t
Hiota of littoral Zone

l'lants of L ~ t t o r a l
Zone

(a) Zonc of Emcrgcnt Plants

BIOTA OF LAKES

Anrn~alsof Littoral
Zone

Non-Rooted
Plants
Plants:f Opdn
Water Zone

(Plants hire
arc rcstrictcd
Limnctic Zonc)
1
Biota of Open Water Zone
I

~nlma1:of Open
Wrtyr Zone

Zooplmktons
(Copcpods.
CladOcerans

t
Rotifen)
(b) Zonc of Planls . I
Profundal Nekt o n
with floating leaves
(No plants are found
in Profundal zone
L(c) Zonc of subrncrgcd
\'cgctation
Zooplankton - of thc open warcrs)
(Crus~aceans.
Cladocerans.
Rotifen)
Neuston - ~hcn~oautotro~hs
p d snail, Dragonfly nymph, or
otifers, Flat worm, Bryoto4 C~rnosynthcticautotrop&
Hydra and Midge Larvae) (Bacteria and Fungi),

I
Hcterotrophs
Benthos J I 1
(Diverse) Carnivorous Dctri~ivorous
zooplankton zooplankton

Fig. 8.10: Comparison of oligotrophic and eotrophic lakes. (a) The ollgotrophic lake is deep a d bas
relatively cool water in the epilimnion. The hypdimnioo well sopplied d t h oxygen. Organ& water that
ddb to the bottom falls through a relatively large vdume of water. The watershed surroundingtbe lake is
largely oligotrophic, dominated by coniferous forests on thin and acid soil. (b) The eutrophic lakt is shallo\
and warm, and oxygen in the deeper water is nearly depteted. The amount d organic de&@$ Ir large
relation to the volume of water. The watershed s~~rrounding the lake is eutropblc consistiro dnntiknt-ric
farmland and deciduous forest.

Eutrophication
The nutrient content of lakes thus acts as a limiting factor for organisms as the
quantity and diversity of organisms in a lake is dependent on the rate at which
 Types of Ecosystems :
nutrients are cycled within i t (see Unit 16, section 16.2.2 of the 4th block of FST
2 Aquatic Ecosystems
course). Some lakes are eutrophic from their formation but most lakes were originally
oligotrophic and have become eutrophic, naturally, over many thousands of years.
The process of aging of lakes through nutrient enrichment is called 'eutrophication'.
Many lakes today are undergoing eutrophication at a very rapid pace due to human
interventions. Activities such as industrialisation, intensive agriculture, etc. result in
the rapid addition of nutrients such a nitrogen, phosphates etc. from agricultural run
off, sewage drainage and industrial effluents. This eutrophication which is caused by
cultural activities is called 'cultural eutrophication'.
Fig. 8.9 : Comparison of oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes

Criteria Oligotrophic Eutrophic Mesotrophic

1 ) Depth surface Oligotrophic lakes are Eutrophic lakes are Mesotrophic lakes are
area ratios deep often with steep shallow and their surface intermediate between the
sides. Their surface to to volume ratio is high oligotrophic and eutrophic
volume ratio is low (5urf;lcc ;trea is large lakes. (surface area and
(surface area is m a l l relative to depth) depth are proport~onal).
compared to depth).
2 ) Nutrient status These lakes are poor in These lakes are rich in They are mildly eutrophic
nutrients particularly nutrient5 5uch as nitrogen, and have characteristic
nitrogen. ph(1sph(1rous phosphorous and organic features intermediate
and organlc matter. substances. between the Oligotrophic
and eutrophic lakes.
3) Primary Prirn;tr! produ~,\ivit! in Prinlitry pro,ductivity is They contain moderate
Production thcsc lakes 1s low. h ~ g hin these lakes d u e to qu;~ntitiesof nutrients and
prehencc of excess have moderate primary
~lutrients productivity.
T h c nurnhcr of ~)rg;ttli\m\ The nulnher of organisms,
occurring here arc low. that I \ . biomass is high,
though their species though species diversity
diversity i5 high. is low.
5 ) Oxygen content Oxygen content in 5uch Oxygen content here i\
Iitkes is high and extends low on the whole. I t i \
to the bottom. particularly low in the
bottom layers either se;i-
sonally or throughout
the yc;lr. In ,omc cast\
anaerobic condition5
develop in bottom layers
of the lake resulting in
the eliminat~ono f aerohic
organl5rn5 especi;~llv
fisheh.
6) Transparencv ot Waters of (~Iigotrc~phic Water5 of eutrophic lakes Medium turbidity
water body lakes are tr;tnsp;lrcnt. arc cloudy. due to excess
appearing hluc to green algal and plant growth.
in sunlighl. 111 thc sulnnlcr \e;lhon
the lake watcrs assume ;I
pea houp or green paint
colour d u e t o increased
8.4 LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS - RIVERS
T h e lotic or flowing water habitats include rivers. streams, brooks etc. T h e most
outstanding features of suc'h habitats is the continuously flowing water which moulds
the characteristics of the water bed and influences the distribution of organisms
within.
In order t o differentiate between the lotic and lentic habitats let us see how rivers
(lotic habitats), differ from lakes that represent the lentic habitat.
T h e rivers have a continuous - o n e directional flow with the entire volumc of
water flowing unidirectionally. In large rivers. the flow may be from one climatic
zone t o another.
T h e volume of river water keeps changing, causing variation in its velocity.
T h e water level of the rivers exhibit wide range of fluctuations.
Generally as a rule the depth of rivers is small as conipared to lakes.
River waters usually flow in a narrow channel, though occasionally their channels
may expand, t o form river lakes.
T h e physical, chemical and biological conditions of the river gradually change with
distance along the main channels in a definite direction.
T h e material transported o r eroded by the rivers at any point. i p n s p o r t e d by
them downstream with no supporting for return, thus causing thelr permanent
removal.
In rivers prolonged stagnation is absent. Rivers in comparison to lakes depend
more on the surrounding land for nutrients, manufacturing little basic food
materials themselves.
T h e two most important points are that :
1) Rivers are open o r heterotrophic systems whereas lakes are closed
o r self contained systems except for some gains o r losses from
inflowing o r outflowing streams; and
2) Nutrients in a lake may be used several times whereas in' rivers. at
any point, plants and animals must avail of temporarily available
nutrients.

8.4.1 Characteristics of River Systems

T h e basic function of the rivers is to convey surplus rain water from land to sea.
Annually the rivers carry l'resh water, equivalent t o 25 cm of rain, evenly distributed '
over the whole land surface.
T h e point of origin of the river is the 'source'; the path it takes, is the 'course'; the
streams which pin it along the course are the 'tributaries'; and the channel within
which it flows is the 'bed'. Its point of entry into the sea or lake o r estuary is called
its mouth (Fig.8.11).
Classification of the riier zones
T h e course of a river can be classified in two ways (A) firstly by its physical
characteristics and (B) secondly by the presence o r absence of fish species which
indicate differing physical, chemical and biological features of the river.
 Types of Eeasystcms :
2 Aquatic Ecmystem

Fig. 8.11 : Three phases in the flow of water downhill from mountain headwater stream to wider
lower elevation streams to rivers which empty into oceans. A. The upper course, B. The middle course
and C. The lower course.

A) Classification of the river course on basis of physical characteristics

The river is divided into three parts (Fig.8.11)
i) The upper or mountain course : Here the water is fast flowing and runs through
a 'V' shaped valley with unstable banks. The fast flowing water has great erosive
powers, particularly after rains, being ablc to move large stones and roll them
along. Angular stones washed into the river are rubbed against one another, to
form rounded pebbles.
ii) The middle course : The middle course of the river occurs over the foothill belt
w l l e r e Lne velocity or water is comparatively less wnlcn moves a little slowly.
However, the waters are still fast enough to transport sand, silt and mud in
suspension, and to roll pebbles along its bed. In this part of the river course, the
valleyis broad with stable sides, so that the'river cannot erode'the land, as much
as it does'in ihe mountain course. Most of the transportation of silt is achieved
by this part of the river.
iii) The lower course :The lower course of the river occurs in the plains, across which
it meanders or zigzags slowly. The river here loses much of its velocity and thus
much of its ability to carry heavier sand and silt in suspension. It, therefore,
deposits part of its silt load as sand banks or shingle beaches and builds up large
flat plains by spreading alluvium over a wide flood plain or delta.

Fig. 8.12 : The lotic ecosystem classified on the basis of fish species found in different zones.

B) Classification of the river zones on the basis of presence of certain fish species
4 river is classified by this method into four zones (Fig.8.12).
i) Head stream of Highland brook zone : This is formed by a number of small
streams, which originate from a marsh, a spring or a glacier. This is a small
shallow zone with an irregular course. It is formed after torrential rain with no
 Ecosystem : Functioning and Types pools and has a low water temperature. The only plant life forms are mosses or
liverworts. Fish are absent in this zone.
ii) Trout beck zone : This is larger and more constant than the head stream. The
greater volume of torrential water carves channels into exposed rock floor (bed
rock). Compared to the head stream the water is deeper and current more rapid
and is capable of carrying matter in suspension. A typical trout beck.has a steep
slope gradient and its sides are lined with coarse pebbles and rough boulders.
It deposits grit in the sheltered part of the course where flow is less. Tbere is
little plant growth in the trout beck'zone due to the presence of strong current
and rocky conditions here. The water in this zone is oxygen-saturated and cold.
Areas of fast water alternate with irregular pools. The fish occurring here are the
powerful swimming brown trout, the miller's thumb and the stone loach.
iii) The mirrow reach or grayling zone :This zone has a less steep gradient, than the
trout beck. The river here still flows swiftly, though the current is not fast and
conditions are not torrential. Erosion is thus comparatively less. Some silt may
be deposited in the quieter-flowing areas. In areas with moderate currents
filamentous algae may grow in summers. Other plants can gain a foothold where
silt is deposited with further silt accumulating among their roots. The presence
of these quiet areas with water plants is characteristic of this stretch. The water
is still well oxygenated though its temperature is more variable. Areas of fast
flowing water or riffles now alternate more regularly with long pools. Fish
characteristic of this zone are mirrow and in some regions grayling. The fish
of the troufbeck zoneare also found here and so is the eel and in some rivers
young offspring of salmon.
, iv) Coarse fish reacti or lowland course zone : This zone corresponds to the lower
course of the river. Here the river is deep and slow moving. Its sluggish flow
results in the deposition of silt forming muddy bottom on which. many
hydrophytes can-grow. In this zone compared to other zones, the oxygen content
fresh water
limpet is less and the temperature is morevariable. Although some of the fish,
characteristic of the upper reaches of the river may be present in this zone, but
conditions here are not suitable for them to complete their life cycle successfully.
water /- -'.:!:.Tb For example, salmon and trout require silt-free gravel in which to lay their eggs
penny !-)Q and cold, well oxygenated water for their young offspring. Conditions are now
'6.
more suitable for other fish species such as cyprinids, the roach, the chub and
top bdzom

&
the bream. These fishes can tolerate low concentration of dissolved oxygen and
higher water temperature and need water plants on which they can lay their eggs.
caddisfly In the lowest reaches of a river running into an estuary the sea occurs to flow
larvae under, during the summer months.
The courses described above do not occur in all rivers. The first zone depends
obviously on the existence of fairly high hills, not permeable to water such as the
chalk hills or the later zones may be absent in some cases, while in others a
torrential zone may run into the sea with"no slackening of current.

8.4.2 Biota of Rivers

The biota of both the rapidly flowing and the slowly flowing sections of the river are
very distinct and so studied separately. Let us study the biota characteristic of each

i) RAPIDLY FLOWING WATERS

Some organisms occuring In rapidly In the rapidly flowing section of the river, the water current is the dominant feature.
flowing water. Everything that is not attached or weighed is swept away, including organisms and
sediments alike. The substratum tends to be either gravel or rock whose fragments
are smoothed and rounded by the water. The habitat itself is diverse, as different
Fig. 8.13 : Some organisms. microhabitats occur here - a) on the surface of rock fragments b) between rock
occurring in rapidly waters fragments and c) beneath rock fragments.

The differences in these microhabitats are due to the differences in the force of water
currents occurringin each of them. As a result each microhabitat houses different
types of organisms.
a) Animals : In the exposed rock surface habitats only those organisms are found
which have an efficient mechanisms for staying in one place. In fact despite
adaptations for staying puc, many individuals of species do get swept away
 Types of Ecosystem's :
Animals found here (Fig.8.13) include fresh water limpet, larvae or water penny 2 Aquatic Ecosystems
(riffle beetles), fr,esh water sponges and caddis flies, all specially adapted to this
environment.
The microhabitat formed in the spaces between rock fragments is slightly
sheltered. Here occur the stone fly and dragonfly both of which are flattened and
have behavioural adaptations to hold them in place (i.e. clinging by instinct to
hard surface and orienting themselves along the current). In addition to these,
the larvae of insect hellgramite is found here, which avoid being swept away by
being large and covered with spines.
In the Microhabitat beneath rocks, where current is weak, occur animals which
though they have basic adaptations for staying in the rapidly flowing water, are
not as highly adapted as members of the two other microhabitats. Animals found
here are annelids, flatworms, clams,'some snail species and other insect larvae
In the rapidly flowing habitat, nekton occur only in areas where current is not
too strong and include cold water fish species such as trout or salmon. In areas
where the current is very strong nekton are absent and in such cases, the benthos
may be many and varied and may form the entire community.
b) Plants : Among the plants only small, well attached forms, such as sessile algae
can survive here. Thus, due to the presence of only a few plants, the nutrient
base for animals here is organic detritus washed into the river from the drainage
area.
ii) SLOW MOVING WATERS
The habitat of a slowly moving part of the river is very different from the one just
described. Here the water flow is comparatively slow and so current is less. As a
result the erosive power of the water is greatly reduced, resulting in the deposition mayfly naiad
of smaller sediments on the bottom, instead of being carried away by the stream. The
organisms due to changed habitats are also different (Fig.8.14) and are as follows:
a) Animals : Zooplankton are common here and include an assemblage of protozoa
and smaller crustacean, such as water flies, and copepods. Neuston occurring burrowing dragon fly
here are several insects such as water striders, water boatman, backswimmers and naiad
predaceous diving beetles, all of which spend most of their time at the surface of
the stream. The nekton are numerous and include large crustaceans like the fresh
water shrimp and many types of insects and fishes such as earp and catfish all of
which are different species from those of the fast water regions. The benthos here
include the snowbugs, mayfly naiads and dragonfly naiads which occur on the
plankton
diatum pat‘xhed
diatom

surface of the benthic region and the tubeworms, naiads of burrowing mayflies
and rotifers which bury into it.
GD@
a+
snad
--'clam
b) Plants :Plant life is abundant in this habitat and includes rooted vascular plants
such as pond weeds and grasses, firmly attached aquatic mosses and multicellular
filamentous algae. Minute floating plants such as duck weeds may cover most of
the surface of the slow moving streams especially in the slowest backwaters. attached p e e n copepods
algae
Motile algae, such as diatoms and flagaellates may abound in the open water.
Organum found In ,low tlowlng water. of r t r c n
As plants are more in this habitat the productivity is comparatively higher hilny of t h x arc ALO found 10 lake, ood ponds

than that of the rapid waters and so the community here is relatively less dependent
on nutrients from outside.
- 8.14 : Some organisms found
Fig.
in slow flowing river. Many ~f
While in the fast-water streams the main contrblling factor is the'current, in the them are also found in lakes
slow-water streams the maindimiting factor is the concenf ration Of dissolved oxygen. and ponds
In fhis ecosystem a large quantity of oxygen can be withdrawn by the high level of
animal activity coupled with active detritus food chain. In addition, the low level of
turbulence means that less oxygen is incorporated into the water at the surface. Thus,
the concentration of dissolved oxygen in a slow moving stream can be substantially
less than saturation and so the community must be much more tolerant of low oxygen
conditions as a result. For example the salmon and trout occurring in fast watef need '

high oxygen levels while the most common fishes of slow water are often low oxygen
wmemtraEion tolerant species such as. carp and catfish.

and cross mar

Ecosystem : Functioning and Types

8.5 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

Marine ecosystems cover 70 per cent of the earth's surface and have an average depth
of 3.750 m (the greatest known depth being 10,750 metres in the Marianas Trench).
Marine ecosystem as you know is one of the largest reservoirs of water, living things
and essentiil nutrients needed by both the marine and land organisms. The total
biomass in the marine ecosystems far exceeds that of all fresh water ecosystems put
together.

8.5.1 Salient Features of Marine Ecosystems

Marine ecosystems are of great ecological significance and bave certain salient
features which we have briefly elaborated below :
Physico-chemical factors
I ) Salinity : The sea is salty and its salinity is fairly constant, averaging about 3.5
per cent us~~allywritten as 35 (parts per thousand). Sodium chloride is the main
salt being 27 per cent while the rest are calcium, potassium and magnesium salts.
Odum (1971j gives the followingpercentage of thousandslkg. as shown in Table T.
Table 8.1 : Chemistry of the Sea Water
Positive ionr Negative ions
(cations) (anions)
Sodium 10.7 Chloride 19.3
Magnesium 1.3 Sulphur 2.7
Calcium 0.1 Bicarbonate 0.1
Potassium Carbonate 0.007
Bromide 0.07

2) Light is a limiting factor in the ocean as it contri'butes significantly to organic

production and dis!ribution of marine life. The ocean is divisible as shown in
(Fig. 8.16) on the basis of the light penetration into two horizontal zones :
11 The lighted photic or euphotic zone extending from the sea surface up to a
depth of 200 metres, where sufficient light reaches to support photosynthesis.
T h ~ sphotic zone, also called the epipelagic one, is characterised by sharp
gradients or light, temperature and salinity. The amount of light reaching the
lower level of this zone rarely exceeds 0.0001% of what is received at the
surface. Below this is the
ii) aphotic or lightless zone whirh .iistinguisliable into three further sub-zones
(a) mesopelagic which extenas from 200 metres to 1.0(10 metres. This zone is
In semi-darkness as very little light penetrates it. Here temperatkr.2 ~ r o d i e n t
is more even and gradual, without much seasonal variation. Further this zone
 Types of Erosystems :
contains a minimum of oxygen and a maxlmum of nitrates and phosphates.
2 Aquatic Ecosystems
Next is the (b) bathypelagic zone which extends from 1,000 metres to 2,000
metres and where darknesb IS virtually complete, tor humans though some
fishes and crustacean do respond to dim light.
The third and the lower most zone is the (c) abyssopelagic zone where
permanent darkness prevails and where temperature is uniform at 3°C and
hydrostatic pressure is enormous.
3) Temperature like salinity remains almost constant in the oceans in contrast to the
land or terrestrial ecosystems ranging from about 2°C in the polar seas to 32°C
or more in the tropics. The annual variation in any part of the sea is usually not
more than 6°C.
4) Concentration of Nutrients :The marine environment is low in concentrations of
dissolved nutrients, which since they occur in very little amount are measured in
parts per billiofis (ppb) in contrast to salts, such as sodium chloride which is
measured in parts per thousand (ppt). This low quantity of nutrients acts as a
major limiting factor in determining the size of marine populations (see ~ a b l e 8 . 1 )
5) Dissolved Gases : The marine environment serves as a glgantic reservoir of
dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, which respectively help regulate the
composition of the air we breathe and the temperature of the atmosphere.
6) Alkalinity : The sea is alkaline, as the electrical dissociation force of cations
exceeds that of anions. Further it is buffered and has a pH of 8.2 normally, and
so resists changes in pH.
7) Pressure : Water pressure increases with depth which varies in the ocean from 1
atmoswh~:re at the surface to 1000 atmosphere at the greatest depth. Pressure
changes in the sea are 'several times greater than those on land and so have a
pronounced effect on the distribution of life. Since organisms are limited to
surface waters, where p;essure is not so great, others are adapted to life at greater
depths.
8) ~ o n t h u i t y: The sea 1s a continuous body of water. All the dceans : Pacific,.
Indian, Arctic and Antarctic are confiected together. However, temperature,
salinity and depth seem to act as barrier to free movement of marine organisms.
9) Depth :The sea is very deep varying in different regions. Generally life extends
to all depths but is confined more to the continental shelf and islands.
10) Currents :The sea is in continuous circulation by means of currents. These may
be either, wind drivkn surface currents of deeper currents, resulting from
variations in temperature and salinity.
11) Waves and tides :The sea is dom~natedby several kinds of waves and tides, which
are produced by the pull of moon and sun.
12) Circulation of nutrients in the coastal zone :Circulation of nutrients from the sea
bottom to the upper surface, occurs in the coastal regions by two processes
(i) upwellings -where the winds cause the surface waters to be blown Gffshore,
which are replaced then by the cold nutrients rich waters from the deep (Fig.8.15)
(ii) outwellings - wherk the sea is e n r i ~ h e dby nutrient rich estuarine waters
entering it.
wind
north /

shore

surface water

nutrient poor
water. 1

Fig. 8.15 : Coastal upwellings in Northern Hemisphere. During upweUiqg4he sea water rich in nutrients
moves above the nutrient poor upper surface waters. The circulation of nutrients along the coast favours
dramatically the number of producers and men consumers. Thus, the regiom of upwellings are fun of
marine organisms.
Ecosystem : Functioning and Types Organisation of the Marine ECOSy&!UW

You have read in Unit 15 of Block 4 of the Foundation Course in cience and
Technology that oceans like lakes, kxihibit zonations. We will first describe the
various zones or regions of the oceans and then later deal with the biota occurring in
them.
The marine habitat is distinguishable into two different zones (1) Benthic zone -
which forms the basin or floor of the ocean, regardless of depth (2) Pelagic zone -
which represents the free water zone, filling the basin see (Fig.8.16).
i) Benthic Zone : The benthic zone is divisible into sub zones horizontally. These
are depicted in a crosssection portion of the marine habitat, adjacent to a continent

-
in Fig.8.16.

Pelagic
(Lit.)
- -- -- -.
I I Ligb t

1 1
Inter tidal I

neritic Open Oceanic zone

Euphotic
- - -t - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -
Epipelagic
200 m
Mesopelagic
2000
Bathypelagic Aphotic
4000

Fig. 8.16 : Organisation o f the Marine

The shape of the benthic zone is roughly the form of an inverted hat. The upper
most portion is called the,(i) supra littoral zone, comprising the beach down to
the edge of the ocean. Beyond this is the (ii) littoral zone which represents the
area between the upper and lower tide levels and is, therefore, also known as
intertidal zone. Littoral zone is the shore of the ocean. Next to this is the . '
(iii) sublittoral or continental shelf which extends from the littoral zone to the
beginning of the continental slope. The continental shelf is the underwater
extension of the continent and extends to a depth of 125 to 200 metres. After the
continental shelf, a rapid descent occurs and this is called the (iv) continental
slope. The continental slope after some distance forming the (v) continental rise
which may be geologically active. This region has canyons and trenches which
are subject to underwater eruptions and avalanches. The region of the
continental slope and rise together comprise the bathyal zone. The bathyal zone
which is 200 metres deep descends rapidly to a depth of 3,000 or 4,000 m. From.
this the bottom drops for further several thousand metres and levels,off around
6,000 m to form the broad flat (vi) abyssal plains where temperature is never
above 4°C.
 Pelagic Zone : The watkrs contained in the sea basin, constitute the pelagic zone Types of Ecosystems :
2 Aquatic Ecosystems
(Fig.8.16) which is divided into (i) the neritic zone situated above the sublittoral
zone or thebcontinental shelf starting from the edge of the littoral sea and
extending up to the edge of the continental shelf, to a depth of 200 m. Beyond
this is the (ii) deep, bpen sea of the oceanic zone which is divided on the basis
of light penetration as discussed in earlier sections the physico-chemical property
of light of the oceans.

E The upper illuminated zone of the open ocean is also called epipelagic zone. So
the euphotic pelagic ocean is named a epipelagic one. The aphotic pelagic
I province .has been divided into the following three horizontal zones :
!
mesopelagic, bathypelagic and the abyssopelagic zone. There is no light in the
i bathyplagic and abyssopelagic zones. The mesopelagic zone is comparatively
less dark but light is not sufficient to carry out photosynthesis.

8.5.3 Biota of Oceans

Life in the sea is not particularly abundant, though the diversity of organisms is very
high (Fig.8.17). Almost every major group of animals and every major group of algae
occur-somewhere in the oceans, with the exception of vascular plants and insects.
These two have a few marine representatives though they are abundant in estuaries.
O n thebasis of depth-wise differences in life forms, the expanse of marine ecosystems
has been divided into littoral, neritic, pelagic and benthic zones. Let us now read
about biota of each one of these.

hatchet fish

-----

Fig. 8.17 : Representatives biota of marine ecosystem occurring in each zone or region
(organisms not drawn to scale)
:*
-
F and TYP-
i) Biota of Littoral Zone : This zone is the shore region of the marine ecosystems
and is subject to violence of waves and tides, fluctuation of water level and
variability of temperature, light, salinity and moisture. In common language
supra littoral zone is termed as a bkach. Considerable light penetrates the bottom.
of this zone which is exposed and submerged twice a day except for tide pools.
Thus, 'animals living here exist in a difficult environment and so must be either
resistant to periodic drying or able to burrow to water level. This zone is thus
also called intertidal zone.
This intertidal zone or the littoral Bone is a region of high productivity with a
simple community, many of whose members may be exceedingly abundant:
There is no typical littoral zone, there are two types of beaches ;a rocky intertidal
beach (Fig.8.18a) is different from a sandy beach or a mud flats (Fig.8.18b).
However, all have certain things in common. The wave action is stronger here
than anywhere else in the sea. The tu-rbidity is high and the substrate erodes
rapidly. There are few species of plants. Those that occur are attached securely
to the substrate and may be present in large numbers. The energy requirements
of the animal community here depends on the l q g e amount of detritus washed
in by the waves. Common animals found here are snails, clams, barnacles, .
crustaceans, annelids sea anemones and sea urchine. .The animals here exhibit
zonation with respect to tides -(Fig.8.18) Animals more resistant to desiccation
usually occurring at higher levels than those that are less resistant.

ii) Biota of the Neritic Oceanic Zone :This zone constitutes 75 per cent of the_total
oceanic area and is relatively rich in species and high in productivity owing to
factors such as penetration of light to considerable depths and high
concentrations of nutrients (Fig.8.17).
Communities in this region are both richer and more diverse compared to those
of the open ocean (Fig.8.17). No other region has such a variety of life,'not even
'the tropical rain forests. The most productive phytoplanktons are the
dinoflagellates and diatoms, though red, brown and green algae attached to the
bottom in the shzllow regions may be significant. The zooplanktons are usually
similar to those of the pelagic zone though some purely open-sea species are
replaced by neritic species. Temporary zooplanktons are more numerous here
than in the open sea.
Nekton in the ocean over neritic zone or the continental shelf are diverse and
commonly known, for they include almost all commercial species .as well as
whales, seals, sea-otters, sea snakes and large squids. Fishes are numerous and
include several shark species as well as herring-like species (sadine, herring)
cbds and their relatives (haddock and pollack), sea trout and salmon, flat fish
(sole, halibut) and mackerals including tuna and bonito.
The benthic part of the neritic zone is called the sublittoral zone which has a wide
variety of animals among which are clams, shrimps, snails, lobsters, crabs, sea
cucumber, starfish, brittle stars, anemones, sponges, bryozoa, annelids and
foraminifera. These animals exhibit more diversity than those of the deeper
waters, since the physical factors here are more variable. The bottom may be
rocky, sandy or muddy and the temperature difference in the sublittoral zone of
this region is greater as compared to the deeper ecosystems. The difference in-
the physical environment is reflected in the benthic community occurring here.

iii)
*
iota of Pelagic Zone : Pelagic region constitutes 90 per cent of the total ocean
surface and is less rich in species and numbers of organisms than the two regions
discussed before (Fig.8.17). The species of this zone are characteristic. The
environment due to%hecontinuity of the sea waters is uniform and stable for the
organisms occurring here.
The most abundant pelagic phytoplanktons are still the dinoflageilates and diatoms
which are the chief photosynthetic feeders, other are carnivores. Detritus feeders
such as sea lillies rise above the sea floor while clams and tubeworms remaih
burrowed in mud. Sea cucumbers and sea urchins crawl on the floor eating detritus
and bacteria and serve as food for the carnivorous brittle stars and crabs.
 Types or ~ y s t e m s:
2 Aquatic Eeosy8tems

8.6 ESTUARIES
All the rivers and lakes ultimately drain into the sea. However, many rivers develop
a highly specialised zone before joining the proper sea. This zone is called estuary.
An estuary is a transitional zone between rivers and sea representing an ecotone
possessing unique ecological features and biotic communities. Estuaries. are the most
productive ecosystems of the world. An estuary is semi-enclosed part of the coastal
ocean containing brackish water that has free connection with the sea on one side
and on the other side it is connected with a river mouth and receives fresh water. In
India, estuaries can be seen in plenty along the coast of Kerala..

8.6.1 Features of Estuaries

The physico-chemical properties of the estuaries have large variation in several
parameters and this often creates stressful environment for organisms. This is the one
cause that large organisms are less in number in this area than smaller organisms.
The most dominant feature of the estuarine environment is the fluctuation in salinity.
Though salinity gradient exists sometime in an estuary but the pattern of gradient
Fco5?5trm: FuncfloningandI ? P
varies seasonally. with the topography, with the tides and with the amount of fresh
water.
The estuaries are dominated by muddy substrates. which are often very soft. T h e
deposition of particles is also controlled by currents and size of particle. If the strong
currents prevail, the substrate will be coarse (sand)' whereas where waters are calm
and the currents are weak only fine silt will settle out. These particle in the
estuary are of many organic origin derived from both the terrestrial and marine
movements. As a result, the accumulated substrate is very rich.
Another important variable is temperature.'The temperature of estuary keeps o n
fluctuating, ir heats u p and cools down more rapidly under prevailing atmospheric
conditions. Another reason for this variation is fresh water input. Temperature also
varies vertically. The surface waters have the greatest temperature range and the
deeper waters the smallest.
All the variation i.e. the salinity. the t q t u r e of substrate, temperature, organic
matter content and available oxygen are controlled by wave action and currents. T h e
wave action in the estuaries is small. A s a result there is deposition of fine sediments
and development of rooted plants.
Currents in estuaries are caused primarily by tidal action and river flow. Currents are
generally confined to channels. but velocities upto several knots can occur. T h e
highest velocities occur in the middle whereas in the bottom and side bank the
velocity is lowest. The erosion and deposition in the estuaries are due t o currents
which is a natural cycle. However, in estuaries deposition exceedserosion so there is
a net accumulation of silt. During dry part of the year. water movement is severely
reduced. leading to stagnation, reduced oxygen content, formation of algal blooms
and incidence of fish kills.
T h e water of estuaries is turbid because of the great number of particplates in
suspension in the water. The turbidity is minimum near the mouth and increases with
distance i n l a n d . ' ~ h emajor ecological effect of turbidity is a marked dkcrease in the
perletration of light. This, in turn, decreases photosynthesis by phytoplankton and
benthic plant*, thereby reducing productivity. One of the most important factors in
estuary water is oxygen. Since the solubility of oxygen in water decreases with
increased temperature and salinity, the precise amount of oxygen in water varies with
these parameters. Oxy,gen is severely depleted in the substrate. The high organic
content and high bacterial population of the sediments exert a large oxygen demand
on water. Estuarine sediments are, therefore, anoxic below the first few centimetres
unless they have large particle'size andlor large number of burrowing animals such
as ghost shrimp Callianassa and the hemichordate worm Balanoglossus which by their
activities oxygenate lower sediment layers.

8.6.2 Biota of Estuaries

The estuarine community is a mixture of three componerlts : Marine, Fresh water
and Brackish water, but overall estuarine diversity is still lower than that of the river
or marine community. This is because of tremendous variation in the estuary's
physical environment. Thus, the great productivity of estuaries is built on a narrow
base.
The plants of the estuary are of four basic types : i) Phytoplankton, ii) marginal marsh
vegetation, iii) mud-flat algae and iv) epiphytic plants growing o n the marginal marsh
vegetation. Because of the turbidity in water, phytoplankton are normally
uncommon. However: great blooms of certain algae are well known which include
Spartina and Salicornin. Most of the estuarine algae are of marine origin common
genera include Ulvn, Entrromorpha, Chaetomorpha and Cladophora. These are often
seasonally abundant, disappearing during certain seasons.
The obvious estuarine plants are the marginal and marsh vegetation. These include
mangroves and marsh grasses and marsh submerged filamentous colonial green algae.
A few animal-feed on them directly but a large proportion is consumed as detritus.
The mud-flats which are uncovered at low tide may be sites of intense photosynthesis
by diatoms and filamentous blue-green algae. The brown colour of a mug-flat may
be due as much to number of diatoms as t o the presence of organic material in the
mud.
 T h e animals of estuaries and related wetlands such as marshes and swamps are Types of Ecosystems :
2 Aquatic Eemystems
tremendously important not only as denizens of their environment but also for their
role in marine communities and in human etonomies. T h e beSt known estuarine
animals are detritus feeders such as oysters, clams, lobsters and crabs. Several insect
larvae, annelid worms and mollusks enter the estuary from fresh water, most
nearshore marine zooplankton can also be found partway into the estuary along with
4everal types of larger animals. Most important of all this is that estuaries a r e the
nursery ground for a vast number of marine animals ranging from shrimps and crabs
to fishes. .
T h e presence of high nutrient level in the estuaries results in a very high level of
production within the detritus food chain. Nutrient matter is broken down by bacteria
at a very high rate. and recycled into soluble form. Plants adapted to the difficult
conditions of salinity found in the estuary can maintain a high level of productivity
T h e amount of nutrient rich organic detritus also allow a high level of productivity
for detritus eating animals.
' T h e estuarine ecosystem is complex and significant. It is also vulnerable since
estuaries have served as conduits for shipping and as sites for cities throughout human
history. Estuaries are inhabited by animals that are adapted t o a changeable
environment, to be sure, but their strategic location has led t o a substantially greater
,degree of human alterations than in any other ecosystem. Many people look upon
estuaries as area whose greatest value is t o be filled and built upon, o r t o serve as
dumping grounds for garbage, sewage and industrial wastes. This is not true and their
tremendous productivity can be made to serve as a food source for people -indeed,
it is already a very important food source in the far East -and almost all the major
marine fisheries of the world are totally dependent on the estuaries for their
continuance, because the-adult fishes often resort t o estuaries for laying eggs, i.e.,
spawning.

8.7 SUMMARY
Ecosystems consisting of water as the main habitat are known as aquatic
ecosystems. There are three kinds of aquatic ecosystems -fresh water, saline and
brackish water ecosystems.
Fresh waters are again of two types. T h e static water ecosystems are called as lentic
systems and are exemplified by various lakes impoundments and wetlands. T h e
lotic system3 are characterised by flowing water and a r e exemplified by rivers.
Eutrophic lakes are age old lakes with, rich nutrient content, low dissolved oxygen,
shallow margines and high productivity. Oligotrophic lakes a r e deep, less warm,
low in oxygen content and low in productivity.
Rivers are main channels which supply surplus rainwater from land t o sea. Each
river has a slow moving and a fast moving zone. In slow moving o n e main factor
limiting the growth of organisms is the availability of dissolved oxygen. In t h e fast
moving waters the speed of water current is the main factor limiting t h e growth.
~eosystem: Fun- d Types Saline ecosystems comprise all the oceans of the world and contain a major portion
of the total biomass of the earth. Oceans are also the main reservoir of air and
water vapour in the atmosphere.
Estuaries are examples of brackish water ecosystems. Their salt content varies
between 5 to 35 ppt. They are the most productive ecosystems of the world. They
are also the most delicately balanced ecological systems, because the factors
governing the functions of estuarine ecosystems are intricately dependent upon
each other. One should be careful before deciding to dump garbage, sewrige or
industrial wastes into such ecosystems.

8.8 TERMINAL OUESTIONS

1) Why tropical lakes do not show a pronounced thermal stratification during
summers
2) How are impoundments different from lake? What are their similarities?
3) What is the difference between lentic and lotic ecosystems?
4) How is a river different from a lake?
5) What are the six features based on which oligotrophic lakes can be compared with
eutrophic lakes?
6) Name the important physico-chemical factors affecting marine ecosystems.

8.9 ANSWERS
Answers to Self-assessment Questions

SAQ 1
i) a) T b) T c) T d) T
ii) a e
b d
c a
d c
e b .
SAQ 2
i) a) epilimnion, metalimnion, hypolimnion
b) compensation point
c) littoral, open-water and benthic
d) six
e) limnetic, profoundal
ii) a) T b) T c) T d) T
SAQ 3

ii) a) four, three

b) current
c) wide
d) land

ii) a) i) supra littoral, ii) littoral, iii) sublittoral, iv) continental slope,
v) continental rise, bathyal, 6,000 m vi) abyssal plain
b) i) epipelagic, . ii). mesopellhgu, iii) bathypelagic, iv) abyssopelagic
iii) 1 c
2 e
3 d
4 b
5 a
 ' Types of Ecosystems :
SAQ 5 2 Aquatic Ecosystem.
i) a) T b) T c) T d) T
ii) a) i) phytoplankton, ii) marginal marsh vegetation
iii) mud-flat algae, iu) epiphytic.
b) vulnerable

Answers to Terminal Questions

1 ) Thermal stratification means distribution of water layers with respect t o
temperature gradient. If, however. the layers having uifferent temperatures get
mixed up, the lake will be left with no gradient. In case of tropical lakes the rate
of mixing of layers is very fast. except in very deep lakes.
7) Impoundments are small or large reservoirs of water artificially created by man.
Lakes are water bodies arising from natural causes such as warps or folds in rocks.
3) Both lotic and lentic systems are iiyuatic ecosystems. Stationary water systems are
called as lentic ecosystems. such as a lake, whereas running water systems are
called lotic ecosystems, such as a river.
4) Rivers are open heterotrophic systems, whereas lakes are closed, self contained
systems. Nutrients in a lakc may be reused several times, whereas. in a river plants
and animals must avail of temporarily available nutrients, which are most likely
t o be used only once.
5) T h e six features based o n which oligotrophic lakes are compared with eutrophic
lakes are : depthtsurface-area ratio, nutrient status, primary poduction, species
diversity, oxygen content and transparency of water body.
6) T h e twelve physico-chemical factors cffccting marine ecosystems are : salinity,
light, temperature, concentration o f nutrients, dissolved gases. alkalinity,
pressure, continuity of oceans. depth of the sea. sea currents, tidal waves and
circulation nutrients in the coastal zone.

GLOSSARY
abiotic : nonliving organisms
abyssal : deep water, i.e., approximately below 1,000 metres
alluvium : deposits of finely divided material (such as grit, silt and shingle) left by
flood
benthic : on o r near the bottom of an ocean o r lake
biomass : weight of living material
biota : the organisms of an area
biotic : pertaining t o life
calorie : the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water
through l o celsius
carnivore : animals which feed o n other animals
climbers :climbing plants
consumer : organism that ingest organic food o r other organisms as a food source
decomposer : organisms such as bacteria, fungi and maggots, etc. that obtain energy
from breakdown of dead organic matter and convert them into more simple
substances'
deforestation : removal of forest
detritus : fresh o r decaying organic matter of plant and animal origin
dunes : low stretch of loess, dryland formed by wind
ecological pyramid : a triangular graphic form showing number of individuals,
biomass, o r available energy at successive trophic levels in the ecosystem
ecosystem : the biotic community and its non-living environment as an interacting
system. A functional unit of nature
ecotone : a zone of integration between ecological communities
Ecosystem : Fundioningand Types estuary : a coastal ecosystem where fresh water meets salt water specially the wide
mouth of a river, where the tide meets the current
faulting : discontinuity in a solid material such as a rock
food chain : a sequence of organisms each of which feeds on the preceding one
food web : the complex interlocking pattern of food chains in. a biotic community
grit ,: particles of coarse sand
gross primary production (GPP) : the total amount of solar energy fixed by plants
through photosynthesis over a unit area (or volume) and time. It is also called gross
production
habitat : place w h e ~ ea plant or animal lives
herbivore : organism that feeds on plants
heterotroph : an organism which depends on organic matter for food or as a source
of energy
homeostasis : the capacity of ecosystem to resist changes due to disturbances or t o
return to balance state
humus : dark amorphous colloidal material derived from partial decay of organic
debris
mangrove vegetation : common name for species of inshore tropical trees or shrubs
that dominate estuarine association
nutrient : a chemical substance that contributes to the growth of -an organism
prairie : wide area of level land with grass but no trees
primary production : the energy accumulated and stored by plants through
photosynthesis
producer : organisms that convert light energy from the sun into chemipal bond
energy. Green plants are the producers
' .
pr,oductivit :the rate of production of organic matter per unit area in a community
riffle : to make special grooves in water course
savanna : grassy plain with few or no trees in tropical and sub-tropical regions
shingle : pebbles
silt :a type of soil with particle size and properties intermediate between sand and clay
solar radiation :any radiation from sun, for example high energy, ultraviolet, visible
or long wavelength radiation
standing crop : biomass present at a given time in a specified area
steppes.: level grassy plain' devoid of forest
trophic level : functional classification of organisms in an ecosystem according to
feeding relationship from first trophic level through succeeding levels of herbivores,
carnivores, etc.
warp : a gentle fold in rock
Suggested Reading
1) A Textbook of Plant Ecology, R.S. Ambasht, Dev Jyoti Press, Varan'dsi, 1976.
2) Basic ~ c o l o E.P.
~ ~ Odum.
, Holt-Sauders, Japan, 1983.
3) Communities and Ecosystem, R . H . Whittaker, Macmillan, New York; 1975
4 ) Concepts of Ecology (third edition), E.J. Kormondy, Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. ,Ltd., New Delhi, 1986.
5) Ecology (Modern Biology Series-Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.), E.P. Odum,
2nd lndian Edition, Mohan Pirmlani, Oxford and IBM Publishing Company,
New Delhi, 1,975.
6 ) Ecology and Field Biology (Fourth edition), R.L. Smith, Harper and Row,
New York, 1990.
7) Principles of Environmental Biology, P.K. G . Nair , Himalaya Publishing House,
New Delhi, 1990.