Introduction

Wireless channel modeling

RF link budget analysis

Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 1

 Introduction Introduction to Wireless Channel Models
Wireless channel modeling Multipath wireless propagation
RF link budget analysis Path loss, shadowing and fading

Multipath wireless propagation

Wireless communication systems rely on the transmission of signals

through the air, where the environment between the transmitter and
receiver can significantly impact signal quality.
To design and analyze these systems effectively, it’s crucial to
understand the different phenomena that affect signal propagation.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 2

 Introduction Introduction to Wireless Channel Models
Wireless channel modeling Multipath wireless propagation
RF link budget analysis Path loss, shadowing and fading

Multipath wireless propagation

reflection and diffraction

Extracted from Digital Communication lecture notes, McGill Uni.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 3

 Introduction Introduction to Wireless Channel Models
Wireless channel modeling Multipath wireless propagation
RF link budget analysis Path loss, shadowing and fading

Path loss, shadowing and fading

The characteristic of (mobile) wireless channel is the variations of
the channel strength over time and frequency.
The variations can be divided into two types:
Large-scale fading is yielded by:
path loss of signal as a function of distance and
shadowing by large objects such as buildings and hills.
Small-scale fading is yielded by the constructive and destructive
interference of the multiple signal paths between transmitter and
receiver.
Question: Why do both constructive and destructive intereference
happen?

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 4

 Introduction Introduction to Wireless Channel Models
Wireless channel modeling Multipath wireless propagation
RF link budget analysis Path loss, shadowing and fading

Path loss, shadowing and fading

For Small-scale fading :
Question: Why do both constructive and destructive intereference
happen?
→ Different multipath components arrive at the receiver with
different time delays and phase shifts.
→ When the phase shifts are aligned, the multipath components add
constructively; when they are not aligned, they add destructively.
→ This constructive and destructive addition of multipath
components leads to significant variations in the received signal
power.
The received power variations due to constructive and destructive
addition of multipath components occur over very short distances,
on the order of the signal wavelength, since each component’s phase
rotates 360 degrees over that distance.
→ Power variations due to multipath are sometimes referred to as
small-scale propagation effects.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 5

 Introduction Introduction to Wireless Channel Models
Wireless channel modeling Multipath wireless propagation
RF link budget analysis Path loss, shadowing and fading

Path loss, shadowing and fading

For Large-scale fading :
path loss: Received power variation due to path loss occurs over
long distances (100-1000 m)
shadowing: Variation due to shadowing occurs over distances that
are proportional to the length of the obstructing object (10-100 m in
outdoor environments and less in indoor environments)
→ Since variations in received power due to path loss and shadowing
occur over relatively large distances, these variations are referred to
as large-scale propagation effects.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 6

 Introduction Introduction to Wireless Channel Models
Wireless channel modeling Multipath wireless propagation
RF link budget analysis Path loss, shadowing and fading

An example of path loss, shadowing and fading

Question: Differentiate the large-scale fading (pathloss, shadowing) and
small-scale fading phenonmena?

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 7

 Introduction Introduction to Wireless Channel Models
Wireless channel modeling Multipath wireless propagation
RF link budget analysis Path loss, shadowing and fading

An example of path loss, shadowing and fading (cont.)

Path Loss Alone
Shadowing and Path Loss
K (dB)
Multipath, Shadowing, and Path Loss

Pr
(dB)
Pt

0 log (d)
Figure 1: Effects of path loss, shadowing, and multipath on received power as a
function of distance.
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 9
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Path loss models

Definition: Path loss refers to the reduction in signal power as it
propagates through space from the transmitter to the receiver. It is a
fundamental aspect of wireless communication and is primarily caused by
the distance between the transmitter and receiver, as well as the nature
of the propagation environment.
It is well known that the received signal power decays with the
square of the path length in free space.
More specifically, the received envelope power is introduced by Friis:

λc 2


Pr = Pt Gt Gr 4πd , (1)

where:
Pt is the transmitted power,
Gt and Gr are the transmitter and receiver antenna gains,
respectively
d is the radio path length.
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 10
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Path loss models (cont.)

The signals in land mobile radio applications, however, do not
experience free space propagation. A more appropriate theoretical
model assumes propagation over a flat reflecting surface (the earth).
 2  
λc 2 2πhb hm
Pr = 4Pt Gt Gr sin , (3)
4πd λc d

where hb and hm are the heights of the BS and MS antennas,

respectively.
Under the condition that d ≫ hb hm , (3) reduces to
 2
λc
Pr = Pt Gt Gr , (4)
4πd

where we have used the approximation sin x ≈ x for small x.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 13

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Path loss models (cont.)

The path loss is defined by
 
Pt Gt Gr
Lp (dB) = 10 log10
Pr
(  2  )
λc 2 2πhb hm
= −10 log10 4 sin (5)
4πd λc d

Several useful empirical models for macrocellular systems have been

obtained by curve fitting experimental data.
Two of the useful models for 900 MHz cellular systems are:
Hata’s model based on Okumura’s prediction method and
Lee’s model.
Hata’s empirical model is probably the simplest to use. The
empirical data for this model was collected by Okumura in the city
of Tokyo.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 14

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Okumura-Hata models
With Okumura-Hata’s model, the path loss between two isotropic
BS and MS antennas is

A + B log10 (d)
 for urban area
Lp (dB) = A + B log10 (d) − C for suburban area (6)

A + B log10 (d) − D for open area


where

A = 69.55 + 26.16 log10 (fc ) − 13.82 log10 (hb ) − a(hm )

B = 49.9 − 6.55 log10 (hb )
2
C = 5.4 + 2 (log10 (fc /28))
2
D = 40.94 + 4.78 (log10 (fc )) − 18.33 log10 (fc )

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 15

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Okumura-Hata models (cont.)

and

( log10 (fc ) − 0.7] hm − 1.56 log10 (fc ) + 0.8 for medium or small city
[1.1

ahm = 8.28 [log10 (1.54hm )]2 − 1.1 for fc ≤ 200MHz
for large city
3.2 [log10 (11.75hm )]2 − 4.97 for fc ≥ 400MHz


(7)

Okumura-Hata’s model is expressed in terms of:

the carrier frequency: 150 ≤ fc ≤ 1000(MHz),
BS antenna height: 30 ≤ hb ≤ 200(m),
the mobile station (MS) height: 1 ≤ hm ≤ 10(m),
the distance: 1 ≤ d ≤ 20(km).

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 16

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Numerical results of Okumura-Hata models: Lab assignment

400

urban area
350
suburban area
open area

300
Path loss (dB)

250

200

150

100
50 100 150 200
Base station height h b

Figure 2: Path loss as a function of BS height for hm = 1.5m, d = 1(km),

fc = 900MHz.
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 18
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Numerical results of Okumura-Hata models

450

400 urban area

suburban area
350 open area
Path loss (dB)

300

250

200

150

100
1 5 10 15 20
Distance d (km) under scale of log10

Figure 3: Path loss as a function of distance between BS and MS for

hm = 1.5m, hb = 50m, fc = 900MHz.
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 20
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Path loss models: The COST231- model for

1500 − 2000MHz frequency range
The COST231-Hata model is based on the proposal by Mogensen et al.
[Gordon17] to extend the Okumura–Hata model for use in the
1500 − 2000MHz frequency range, where it is known that the
Okumura-Hata model underestimates the path loss. Note again that the
parameters must be used in the model with their specified units.
Pathloss computing Parameters for the Okumura-Hata’s model:
the carrier frequency: 1500 ≤ fc ≤ 2000(MHz),
BS antenna height ranging from 30 ≤ hb ≤ 200(m),
the mobile station (MS) height: 1 ≤ hm ≤ 10(m),
the distance: 1 ≤ d ≤ 20(km).

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 21

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Path loss models: The COST231-HATA model for

1500 − 2000MHz frequency range

The path loss as predicted by the COST231-Hata model is

Lp (dB) = A + B log10 (d) + C (8)

where

A = 46.3 + 33.9 log10 (fc ) − 13.82 log10 (hb ) − a(hm )

B = 44.9 − 6.55 log10 (hb )
(9)

(
0 for medium city and suburban areas
C= (10)
3 for metropolitan centers

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 22

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Shadowing
Definition: Shadowing, also known as large-scale fading, represents the
variation in signal power caused by obstacles such as buildings, trees, or
terrain that block or diffract the signal. It is modeled as a slow variation
over larger distances, compared to small-scale fading.

Figure 4: Shadowing fading

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 24
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Shadowing
Key Concepts:
Since the location, size, and dielectric properties of the blocking
objects are generally unknown, statistical models must be used to
characterize this attenuation.
The most common model for this additional attenuation is
log-normal shadowing.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 25

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Shadowing
Key Concepts:
Since the location, size, and dielectric properties of the blocking
objects are generally unknown, statistical models must be used to
characterize this attenuation.
The most common model for this additional attenuation is
log-normal shadowing.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 25

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Fading channel model

Shadowing
A signal transmitted through a wireless channel will typically
experience random variation due to blockage from objects in the
signal path, giving rise to random variations of the received power at
a given distance.
Such variations are also caused by changes in reflecting surfaces and
scattering objects.
Thus, a model for the random attenuation due to these effects is
also needed. Since the location, size, and dielectric properties of the
blocking objects as well as the changes in reflecting surfaces and
scattering objects that cause the random attenuation are generally
unknown, statistical models must be used to characterize this
attenuation.
The most common model for this additional attenuation is
log-normal shadowing.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 21

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Shadowing (cont.)
Empirical studies have shown that Xm has the following log-normal
distribution:
(
)
2 10 log10 x2 − µXm (dBm)
pXm (x) = √ exp − 2
xσX ξ 2π 2σX
(
)
2 10 log10 x − µXs (dBm)
pXs (x) = √ exp − 2
xσX ξ 2π 2σX

where:
Xm and Xs denote the mean envelop and mean squared levels of
received signal (where the expectation is taken over the pdf of the
received envelope).
σX stands for standard deviation; ξ is a constant.
2
µXm (dBm) = 30 + 10E[log10 Xm ]
µXs (dBm) = 30 + 10E[log10 Xs ]

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 26

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Shadowing (cont.)
Sometimes Xm is called the local mean because it represents the
mean envelope level where the averaging is performed over a
distance of a few wavelengths that represents a locality.
This model has been confirmed empirically to accurately model the
variation in received power in both outdoor and indoor radio
propagation environments.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 27

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Fading channel model

Defifinition: Small-scale fading occurs due to multiple signal paths
reaching the receiver at slightly different times, resulting in interference
and causing signal strength to vary rapidly over small distances.
Classification:
Fast vs. Slow Fading: Based on how rapidly the channel changes
with respect to the symbol period.
Flat vs. Frequency-Selective Fading: Based on how the signal
bandwidth compares to the coherence bandwidth of the channel.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 30

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Fading channel model: Baseband vs. passband signals

Local
Scattering
Two Main
Multipaths

In communication systems, signals are often transmitted in two different

forms: baseband and passband. Understanding the difference between
these two and how baseband signals are processed in discrete-time is
fundamental for digital communication.
Baseband Signal x(t): The signal occupies the frequency spectrum
from near zero to some maximum frequency fb . It does not undergo
carrier modulation. Example: digital signals such as binary bits or
multi-level pulse amplitude modulation (PAM).
Passband Signal s(t): The signal is modulated to a higher
frequency range for transmission, typically centered around a carrier
frequency fc .
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 31
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Fading channel model

Local
Scattering
Two Main
Multipaths

The real transmitted signal can be expressed from the complex

baseband signal x(t) by 1
s(t) = Re x(t)ej2πfc t .
 
(11)
Over a multipath (L physical paths) propagation channel, the
received signal can be obtained by
X
yRF (t) = αi (t)s(t − τi (t)) + w(t). (12)
i
1 Source: David Tse - Fundamentals of Wireless Communication
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 32
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Fading channel model (cont.)

Substituting (11) into (12) yields the following
" #
X
j2πfc (t−τi (t))
yRF (t) = Re αi (t)x (t − τi (t)) e + w(t)
i
" ! #
X
= Re αi (t)e−j2πfc (τi (t)) x (t − τi (t)) ej2πfc t + w(t)
i
= Re y(t)ej2πfc t + w(t)
 

As a result, the received baseband signal can be determined by

X
y(t) = αib (t)x(t − τi (t)) + wb (t). (13)
i

where αib (t) = αi (t)e−j2πfc τi (t) and wb (t) is the receiver (thermal)
noise signal.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 33

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Fading channel model: A discrete-time Baseband model

The next step in creating a useful channel model is to convert the
continuous-time channel to a discrete-time channel.
We take the usual approach of sampling theorem.
Assuming that the input waveform is band-limited to W , the
baseband equivalent can be represented by
X
x(t) = xn sinc(W t − n), (14)
n

sin(πt)
where xn = x(n/W ) and sinc(t) ≜ πt .
This representation follows from the sampling theorem, which says
that any waveform band-limited to W/2 can be expanded in terms
of the orthogonal basis functions sinc(W t − n) with coefficients by
samples (taken uniformly at integer multiples of 1/W )

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 34

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Fading channel model: A discrete-time Baseband model

As a result, the baseband received signal can be determined by
X X
y(t) = αib (t) xn sinc (W (t − τi (t)) − n) + wb (t)
i n
X X
= xn αib (t)sinc (W (t − τi (t)) − n) + wb (t).
n i

The sampled outputs at multiples of 1/W is ym ≜ y(m/W ) then

X X
ym = xn αib (m/W )sinc (m − n − τi (m/W )W ) + wb (m/W ).
n i
(15)

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 35

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Fading channel model: A discrete-time Baseband model

Let l ≜ m − n then one can have
X X
ym = xm−l αib (m/W )sinc (l − τi (m/W )W ) + wb (m/W )
l i

Then, the discrete-time channel model can be given by

P
ym = l xm−l hl,m + wb (m/W ) (16)

αib (m/W )sinc (l − τi (m/W )W )

P
where hl,m = i
This simple discrete-time signal model is widely used in physical-layer
transmission techniques in OFDM systems (e.g., WiFi, LTE)

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 36

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Examples of transmitted baseband signal xm

BPSK Q 16-QAM b0b1b2 b3
Q
b0
+1
00 10 01 10 11 10 10 10
0 1 +3
–1 +1
I
–1 00 11 01 11 11 11 10 11
+1

–3 –1 +1 +3
I
QPSK 00 01 01 01 11 01 10 01
Q b0b1 –1

01 11
+1
00 00 01 00 11 00 10 00
–3
–1 +1
00 10 I
–1

Number of bits to be conveyed by one M-QAM

(M ∈ {2, 4, 8, 16, 64}) complex symbol:
b = log2 (M ) (17)
It is noted that multipath fading gains hl,m (channel impulse
response) is time-variant (depend on time index m).
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 37
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Examples of transmitted baseband signal xm

BPSK Q 16-QAM b0b1b2 b3
Q
b0
+1
00 10 01 10 11 10 10 10
0 1 +3
–1 +1
I
–1 00 11 01 11 11 11 10 11
+1

–3 –1 +1 +3
I
QPSK 00 01 01 01 11 01 10 01
Q b0b1 –1

01 11
+1
00 00 01 00 11 00 10 00
–3
–1 +1
00 10 I
–1

Number of bits to be conveyed by one M-QAM

(M ∈ {2, 4, 8, 16, 64}) complex symbol:
b = log2 (M ) (17)
It is noted that multipath fading gains hl,m (channel impulse
response) is time-variant (depend on time index m).
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 37
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Examples of transmitted baseband signal xm

BPSK Q 16-QAM b0b1b2 b3
Q
b0
+1
00 10 01 10 11 10 10 10
0 1 +3
–1 +1
I
–1 00 11 01 11 11 11 10 11
+1

–3 –1 +1 +3
I
QPSK 00 01 01 01 11 01 10 01
Q b0b1 –1

01 11
+1
00 00 01 00 11 00 10 00
–3
–1 +1
00 10 I
–1

Over multipath channels, the received signal at MS is:

P
ym = l xm−l hl,m + wb (m/W ) (18)

It is noted that multipath fading gains hl,m (channel impulse

response) is time-variant (depend on time index m).
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 38
 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Time-variant path gain hl,m under mobile speed of 5 km/h

2
Mobile user speed = 5 km/h,
Absolute value of amplitude of one path gain hl

1.9 f = 2 GHz,
c
1.8 128−FFT, CP length = 10,
f = 1.92 MHz,
s
1.7 2 time slots in LTE are considered,
Jakes model is considered.
1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2 pilot OFDM symbol

for channel estimation
1.1

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (in OFDM symbol duration)

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 39

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

hl,m under mobile speed of 50 km/h

Mobile user speed = 50 km/h,

Absolute value of amplitude of one path gain hl

fc = 2 GHz,
128−FFT, CP length = 10,
1.15 f = 1.92 MHz,
s
2 time slots in LTE are considered,
Jakes model is considered
1.1

1.05

1
Data OFDM symbol

0.95
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (in OFDM symbol duration)

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 40

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

hl,m under mobile speed of 300 km/h

Mobile user speed = 300 km/h,

l
Absolute value of amplitude of one fading gain h

fc = 2 Ghz, 128−FFT, CP length = 10, fs = 1.92 Mhz,

1.3 2 time slots in LTE are considered,
Jakes model is considered.

1.2

1.1

0.9 Data OFDM symbol

0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (in OFDM symbol duration)

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 41

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Channel estimation in mobile communications

Source Channel Digital

S
encoder encoder modulation

Channel h

Source Channel Digital

decoder decoder demodulation
r = Sh + n

h h h h’ h’ h’
Pilot Data Data Pilot Data Data Pilot
S S S S S S S

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 42

 Path loss models
Introduction
The COST231- model for higher frequency range
Wireless channel modeling
Shadowing
RF link budget analysis
Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading)

Digital Modulation: Lab 4

Lab 4. Expected plots of MQAM constellation before (at TX) and after
(at RX) transmitting via the AWGN channel

1.5 MQAM constellation at transmitter

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

1.5 MQAM constellation at receiver over AWGN channels

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 44

 Introduction
Introduction
Wireless channel modeling
The channel
RF link budget analysis

Introduction
A communication link encompasses the entire path from the
information source, through the channel, and terminating at the
information sink.
The link analysis and its output, the link budget, consist of the
calculations and tabulation of the useful signal power and the
interfering noise power available at the receiver.
The link budget is a balance sheet of gains and losses.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 46

 Introduction
Introduction
Wireless channel modeling
The channel
RF link budget analysis

Introduction (cont.)
By examining the link budget, one can learn many things about
overall system design and performance.
For instance, from the link margin, one learns whether the system
will meet many of its requirements comfortably, marginally, or not at
all.
The link budget may reveal if there are any hardware constraints,
and whether such constraints can be compensated in other parts of
the link.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 47

 Introduction
Introduction
Wireless channel modeling
The channel
RF link budget analysis

Introduction (cont.)
The link budget is often used as a ”score sheet” in considering
system trade-offs and configuration changes, and in understanding
subsystem nuances and interdependencies.
Based on a quick examination of the link budget and its supporting
documentation, one can judge whether the analysis was done
precisely or if it represents a rough estimate.
Together with other modeling techniques, the link budget can help
predict equipment weight, size, prime power requirements, technical
risk, and cost.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 48

 Introduction
Introduction
Wireless channel modeling
The channel
RF link budget analysis

The channel
The propagating medium or electromagnetic path connecting the
transmitter and receiver is called the channel.
In general, a communication channel might consist of wires, coaxial
cables, fiber optic cables, and in the case of radio-frequency links,
waveguides, the atmosphere or empty space.
Most of this part presents link analysis in the context of a wireless
communication link.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 49