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ICT Networking Notes

computer science (Kenyatta University)

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Contents
COMPUTER NETWORKS............................................................................................................2

Classification of networks............................................................................................................2

NETWORK TOPOLOGY...........................................................................................................3

INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB.................................4

INTERNET TERMS....................................................................................................................6

Services Provided By Internet......................................................................................................6

WORLD WIDE WEB..................................................................................................................6

NETWORK/INTERNET SECURITY............................................................................................8

INTERNET SECURTY TECHNOLOGIES................................................................................9

NETWORK SECURITY TECHNIQUES...................................................................................9

EMERGING TRENDS/ ISSUES ON INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

.......................................................................................................................................................10

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
A network is a collection of computers and related devices, connected so that they can
communicate with each other and share information, software, peripheral devices, and/or
processing power.

Classification of networks

 Local Area Network or  Metropolitan Area  Wide Area Network or

LAN Network or MAN WAN
LAN covers a small region of space, typically a single building. Maximum network coverage is
about 3 km and is characterized by high speed data transmission

MAN is a collection of LANs within the same geographical area, for instance a city. It enables
network coverage of 10 t0 16 miles.

WAN is a long distance network: it connects systems together throughout a country or even
beyond the border. It is characterized by low data rates and hardware and software components
come from a wide variety of vendors.

The internet
It’s the biggest computer network in the world which links smaller networks worldwide. It
doesn’t belong to any particular organization. Internet is the worldwide, publicly accessible
network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the
standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a "network of networks" that consists of millions of smaller
domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various
information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked
Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.

Intranet- Is a LAN which has facilities e.g. email within a particular combination but those
resources cannot be retrieved from outside the organization.

Extranet- A network belonging to a particular organization and has connection to the outside
world therefore users from outside world can retrieve information from outside.

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NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Topology refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. Network topologies are
categorized into the following basic types:
 bus
 ring
 star
 tree
Bus topology-Bus network use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the
backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an
interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends
a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient
actually accepts and processes the message.

Ring Topology-In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication
purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the
entire network.

Star Topology-A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be a
hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a
failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the
entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.)

Tree Topology-Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its
simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the

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"root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the
network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it
generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone

Mesh Topology-Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous
topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source
to destination. (even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one
direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in
which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh.

INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

The Internet is a global network of networks.
A worldwide network of communications networks. It uses the set of protocols called TCP/IP to
send and receive information.
People and organizations connect into the Internet so they can access its massive store of shared
information. The Internet is an inherently participative medium. Anybody can publish
information or create new services.
The Internet is a cooperative endeavor - no organization is in charge of the net.
HISTORY OF THE INTERNET
Grew out of a research network originally funded by U.S. Department of Defense. Development
of this network, known as the ARPAnet after the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA),
began in 1969.As the network grew, it was used for applications beyond research, such as
electronic mail.In the early 1980s, the current versions of the core Internet protocols, TCP and IP,
were introduced across the network.
The term Internet comes from the word inter-network - an interconnected set of networks.
In 1992, the Center for European Nuclear Research (CERN) released the first versions of World
Wide Web software. Subsequently, the number of Web servers has grown quickly.
Key properties of the Internet:
- The Internet is global. - The Web makes it easy.

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- Reduced communications costs -The Internet is interoperable.-that’s,

-Lower transaction costs systems can be assembled using client and
-Reduced agency costs server computers and software from
-Interactivity, flexibility, customization different vendors.
- Accelerated knowledge
Importance of Internet: -
- It is playing an important role in all aspects of life, leading to emergence of an elite society
called the information society.
- It plays a leading role in research.It provides immediate information hence improving news
and information dissemination.
- Plays important role in communication industry. e-mail, and networking sites.
- It is a place to do business and many other profitable activities e.g. e-commerce.
- The way people entertain themselves using computer games, games played over the Internet,
and other similar facilities. It also includes the way in which people listen to music and watch
movies.

- Education sector-The way people learn and teach. This includes direct Internet based
lectures, as well as sites such as e-Notes providing learning aids. Use of obtaining
information from the web, particularly using search engines i.e google, has made a big
impact on the way we learn and obtain other information.
- The way industries operate: This includes all spheres of industries including computer aided
physical operation such as CNC machines and robot bases operation, instrumentation and
control of physical processes, information processes such as production planning and control.
- Business processes including buying, selling, and advertising using Internet and other
computer networks. It also includes physical business transactions carried out through
facilities like ATM, automatic vending, and self-check in/out counters in various
establishments.
- Videoconferencing enables individuals in distant locations to participate in meetings on short
notice, with time and money savings. Technology such as VoIP can be used in conjunction
with desktop videoconferencing to enable low-cost face-to-face business meetings without
leaving the desk, especially for businesses with widespread offices. The technology is also
used for telecommuting,in which employees work from home.

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- Weather forecast and other similar technical applications.

- Scientific investigation and research.
INTERNET TERMS

Website- collection of various pages written in HTML markup language. Each page available on
the Website is called a web page and first page of any web site is called home page for that site.
Browsing or surfing the Web is when you navigate through pages of information
Bookmark-A bookmark marks your place on the Web. They stay on the computer where you
make them.
ISP-Internet Service Provider. They are the companies who provide you service in terms of
internet connection to connect to the internet.

Services Provided By Internet

 Email: A fast, easy, and inexpensive way to communicate with other Internet users around
the world.
 Telnet: Allows a user to log into a remote computer as though it were a local system.
 FTP: Allows a user to transfer virtually every kind of file that can be stored on a computer
from one Internet-connected computer to another.
 Usenet news: A distributed bulletin board that offers a combination news and discussion
service on thousands of topics.
 World Wide Web (WWW): A hypertext interface to Internet information resources.
 Internet Chat: Communication on the Internet goes even further than personal e-mail,
newsgroups and mailing lists, to encompass real-time conversations (synchronous
communication) among two or more people. Chat is available on the Internet through
Internet Relay Chat or IRC. It consists of thousands of chat channels, each covering a
different topic and with participants from all over the world.
 Web Conferencing
WORLD WIDE WEB

This is a collection of documents and other resources linked together using hyperlinks which are
viewed via an internet connection. The WWW uses hypertext transfer protocols (http) to
transport files from one place to another. What makes the www unique is the striking appearance

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of the information when it gets to your computer; In addition to text, the web presents color,
images, sounds and video. This, combined with its ease of use, makes the web the most popular
aspect of the Internet for a large majority of users.
Web components:
 Your personal computer - This is the PC at which you sit to see the web.
 A Web browser - A software installed on your PC which helps you to browse the Web.
 An internet connection - This is provided by an ISP and connects you to the internet to
reach to any Web site.
 A Web server - This is the computer on which a web site is hosted.
 Routers & Switches - They are the combination of software and hardware that take your
request and pass to appropriate Web server.
The Web is known as a client-server system. Your computer is the client and the remote
computers that store electronic files are the servers.
WWW PROTOCOLS
TCP/IP:(Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol). - The low-level communications
protocol that holds the Internet together. It provides means to allow two software on difference
machines on the Internet find each other, meet, and transfer data. It provides the essential service
of making sure that each piece of data is transferred in the correct sequence and without error.
URL-Uniform Resource Locator. Is used to specify addresses on the World Wide Web. A URL is
the fundamental network identification for any resource connected to the web (e.g., hypertext
pages, images, and sound files). A URL will have the following format: protocol:
//hostname/other_information
Hyperlink-A hyperlink or simply a link is a selectable element in an electronic document that
serves as an access point to other electronic resources. Typically, you click the hyperlink to
access the linked resource. Familiar hyperlinks include buttons, icons, image maps, and clickable
text links.
Hypertext- is a collection of documents that contain cross-references called hyperlinks, which
allow the user to jump easily from one document to another. Hypertext is used extensively on
Internets, intranets, and the Internet, as well as in many CD-ROM multimedia applications.
Hypermedia-refers to the integration of graphics, sound, video, and animation into documents
or files that are linked in an associative system of information storage and retrieval

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INTERNET THREATS
a) Disclosure-It is relatively simple for someone to eavesdrop on a ‘conversation’ taking place
over the Internet. Messages and data traversing the Internet can be seen by other machines
including e-mail files, passwords and in some cases key-strokes as they are being entered in
real time.
b) Masquerade-A common attack is a user pretending to be someone else to gain additional
privileges or access to otherwise forbidden data or systems. This can involve a machine
being reprogrammed to masquerade as another machine (such as changing its Internet
Protocol – IP address). This is referred to as spoofing.
c) Unauthorized access-Many Internet software packages contain vulnerabilities that render
systems subject to attack. Additionally, many of these systems are large and difficult to
configure, resulting in a large percentage of unauthorized access incidents.
d) Loss of integrity-Just as it is relatively simple to eavesdrop a conversation, so it is also
relatively easy to intercept the conversation and change some of the contents or to repeat a
message. This could have disastrous effects if, for example, the message was an instruction
to a bank to pay money.
e) Denial of service-Denial of service attacks occur when a computer connected to the Internet
is inundated (flooded) with data and/or requests that must be serviced. The machine
becomes so tied up with dealing with these messages that it becomes useless for any other
purpose.
f) Threat of service and resources-Where the Internet is being used as a channel for delivery
of a service, unauthorized access to the service is effectively theft. For example, hacking
into a subscription based news service is effectively theft.
Internet security is important as it will prevent the following negative impacts to business
if attacked by hackers
 Loss of income  Loss of trade secrets
 Damage to reputation  Loss of information (critical data,
 Increased cost of recovery proprietary information, contracts)
(correcting information and re-
establishing services)

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NETWORK/INTERNET SECURITY
Security does prevent unauthorized access to a system, and makes such access more difficult.
The basic dangers are:
Loss of confidentiality, where secret information is made available to the wrong people. This
can rival the organization’s future plans or give details of customer list or product
specifications to a rival.
Loss of integrity, where the data or the software are corrupted, either deliberately or
accidentally. When these corrupted, the reliability of the whole IT system is put into question.
Loss of availability, where any part of the system is unavailable to the user. This means that for
the period of unavailability, the expensively provided IT system is of no use.
For authenticity, require host or service be able to verify the identity of a user

For Authorization -the process that ensures that a person has the right to access certain
resources

For Auditing- the process of collecting information about attempts to access particular
resources, use particular privileges, or perform other security actions

For Repudiation- The ability to limit parties from refuting (contradicting) that a legitimate
transaction took place, usually by means of a signature
INTERNET SECURTY TECHNOLOGIES

a. Firewalls and Access Control. Firewall is a network node consisting of both hardware and
software that isolates a private network from a public network while Access control is use of
passwords

b. Intrusion detection system (IDS)-special category of software that monitors activities

across a network or on a host computer, watch for suspicious activity, and take automated
action based on what it sees
c. Security risk management-A systematic process for determining the likelihood of various
security attacks and for identifying the actions needed to prevent or mitigate those attacks

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NETWORK SECURITY TECHNIQUES

Biometric Techniques-Biometrics characteristics are unique feature of an individual. Such as
fingerprints, voice patterns retinal image and DNA typing. Biometrics are an extremely accurate
way of providing access control. It is also a very easily manages system.
Encryption Techniques-It is unlikely that any system can completely prevent unauthorized
access to transmission media. A more practical way to protect information is to alter it so that
only an authorized receiver can understand it. This can be achieved by encryption and decryption
of information. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another
form and sends the resulting unintelligible message out over the network. Decryption reverses
the encryption process in order to transform the message back to its original form.

Access Control Techniques- their purpose is to permit only authorized parties to use particular
facilities. Some access control techniques are;

 Password
Following can help to improve password security:
 All users must have a password. It must be at least six characters long, not be easy
enough to guess, not be written down, changed at least monthly, changed immediately if
there is suspicion that someone has figured out your password.
 There must be limited entries to try the password (no more than three).
 Dial Back
The principle behind this technique is straightforward. A user wishing to access must first leave a
message which indicates who they are, some corroboration of this (a password) and a telephone
number. The target system may then examine the details and decide whether or not to re-
establish connection. A decision in affirmative requires the target system to contact the user on
the telephone number given.

EMERGING TRENDS/ ISSUES ON INFORMATION COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY

 The rapid growth of the telecommunications and Internet infrastructure - Wireless

technologies (both cellular and WIFI). Current devices (cell phones, PCs, laptops, and PDAs)
continue to improve-more powerful, lighter, and less expensive devices. Additionally, much

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R&D effort is being expended on developing longer lasting, lighter batteries. Cellular Phones
are more specialized. - Phones with improved cameras for both still and video pictures, touch
screen, gaming and/or music capabilities, double as PDAs.

 The increasing automation (computerization) of businesses and government processes in

Kenya (i.e., implementation of E-business and E-government strategies). Globalization and
the global knowledge economy that forces all countries to achieve a high degree of
networked readiness in order to be competitive. That means that the E-readiness or ICT
readiness of countries will determine their competitiveness in goods and services.
 Semantic Web- it is about machines talking to machines. It's making the Web more
'intelligent', thats "analyzing all the data on the Web, links, and transactions between people
and computers."
 Artificial Intelligence (AI)-a machine's capability to participate in human-like conversation.
AI means making intelligent machines. In that sense, it has some things in common with the
Semantic Web vision. It enables computer programs to co-ordinate the use of human
intelligence to perform tasks which computers are unable to do.
 Virtual Worlds-It's not just about digital life, but also making our real life more digital. We
are beginning to annotate (interpret) our planet with digital information, via technologies like
Google Earth.

 Online Video / Internet TV-This is a trend that has already exploded on the Web. YouTube
continues to dominate. Meanwhile Internet TV services are slowly getting off the ground.
 Internet Chat
 Web Conferencing

NEGATIVE/CHALLENGES POSED BY NEW TRENDS IN ICT

 Social problems- Nowadays, people tend to choose online communication rather than
having real time conversations. People tend to become more individualistic and introverts,
theft, hacking, pornography and online gambling. This will result in moral decadent and
generate threat to the society

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 Health Problems- A computer may harm the user if they use it if they use it for a long hours
frequently. Computers users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental
stress. An ergonomic chair can reduced back strain and a screen filter minimize eyestrain.

 Issues of personal freedom, such as feelings of enslavement or subjugation to the

technology, fear of surveillance, and feelings of being engaged in a constant struggle with
technology. not being able to do a job without it, a total reliance on technology and the
bureaucracy that they entrain

 Problems of inclusion and exclusion, identity and socialization: Ignorance of, or lack of
access to technology can make people feel they are being excluded from certain activities or
changes in society, incompetent and being left behind.

 everyday usage problems and frustration with limits of the technology- Some of these
are related to the institutional context of use, for example access to a technology can be
limited, or in unfavorable conditions, or there may be problems with service. It also applies
to the problems of setting up a product to use, and chronic everyday problems which may be
technical, interface, service etc. Even when there is nothing wrong with a technical artefact it
can still cause problems when the user is frustrated by not being able to do what they would
like to do with it.

 Uncertainty over innovation and upgrading- the rapid pace of innovation can create
uncertainties in the decision to adopt or upgrade a technology. Uncertainty occurs over
choice of standards, reliability of new products, choice of brand, or the rapidity with which a
product versions will become obsolete. Replacing or upgrading to a newer product could
overcome current limitations of a technology and resolve existing problems, but could
equally bring new problems, especially if it involves adopting cutting edge technology, or
new functions and facilities

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