CHAPTER ONE

Understanding development

Introduction

Humanity in the 21st century is facing various environmental, social and economic problems.
Almost every government, various international organizations and private stakeholders are
facing challenges. The climate change effects and resources scarcity are constantly increasing,
while their impact is not limited to a state but rather spread all around the world. This, non-
border parameter of environmental, social and economic problems, has rendered them into
collective problems demanding joint efforts in order to reach a solution, or at least to mitigate the
problems or their impact.

Different approaches concerning successful ways to tackle these problems exist. Most of these
approaches lead to joint efforts, which need a specific framework in order to reach fruitful and
solution-oriented policies. One successful approach is the sustainable development strategy
framework. According to Brundtland Commission sustainable development is the “development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs”. Sustainable development is a matter that primarily concerns states and
enterprises, but it also concerns citizens equally. For instance, we tend to speak regularly about
Corporate Social Responsibility while we undermine the value and importance of Personal
Social Responsibility in our efforts to ameliorate the quality of life for everyone.

The continuously increasing severity of environmental problems led to a series of reactions from
independent organizations over the years, from the International Union for Conservation of
Nature in 1948 to the Club of Rome and its report The Limits to Growth in 1972. Focusing
initially on environmental protection and natural resources’ conservation the movement
established, over the seventies and eighties, the links between the environmental, economic and
social dimensions. At the institutional level, the concept of Sustainable Development was coined
at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972 and
subsequently defined through the World Conservation Strategy (1980), the Brundtland Report
(1987), and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio (1992).

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1.1. Definition of development
The idea of development-here taken to be roughly equivalent to social progress-has undergone
many sharp changes through its evolution in human history and human consciousness.
Understandings of the meaning of development are closely linked with people's most
fundamental views of the place of humankind in the universe. That is, our understandings reflect
our cosmological frameworks.

We often forget that there was a long period in human history in which there was practically no
conception of progress at the social level. The cosmological/planetary view was that of a static
world, a world in which one's life task was to adjust to these unchanging conditions. If there was
any progress, it was in one's progression beyond this world to other worlds and other lives.

This static view prevails today in many corners of the world, but we tend to dismiss it,
relegating it to the past by describing it as pre-modern.

Development thinking centered on the idea of the progress of human communities did not really
begin until after World War I, and did not flourish until after World War II. The first published
long-term national development plan was the Soviet Union's First Five-Year Plan, adopted in
1929. According to Ivan Illich, the modern intellectual history of development began on January
10, 1949.

From that time onward, development efforts focused on the achievement of rapid economic
growth. The motivation for striving for economic growth was not originally to alleviate poverty,
but rather to achieve rapid industrialization. Attention was focused on capital accumulation and
central planning for the allocation of that capital, all to expedite growth through industrialization.
Industrialization was understood not so much as a means for reducing the number of poor
people, but as a means for strengthening the nation as a whole, particularly in its relationships
with other nations.

After World War II national development efforts focused on the achievement of rapid economic
growth. In the early stages the central purpose was the achievement of industrialization. Only

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later, beginning in the 1950s, did the alleviation of poverty become a central concern. It soon
became evident that there was little direct linkage between economic growth and the extent of
poverty. New strategies were designed to achieve growth-with-equity. Some efforts were made
to take account of non-economic, physical quality-of-Life indicators of development.

Emphasis has remained on the material aspects of development, but in the 1970s some writers
gave attention to the non-material dimensions of development. It is now argued that development
should be understood in terms of the condition of consciousness of individuals, particularly in
relation to their views of their capacities and rights to act in the world. Moreover, it now seems
increasingly evident that the natural unit of development is not the nation and not the individual
but the community. Social development requires the development of community consciousness.
At any level of society, development is best understood as the increasing capacity to identify,
analyze, and solve one's own problems.

Development should be understood in terms of "the realization of the potential of human

personality". (Dudley Seers).

Development involving a transformation of consciousness. With Freire, I understand this

transformation to involve individuals changing from seeing themselves as victims to seeing
themselves as being in control of their own worlds. I believe that the basic, natural unit of
development is not the individual, the nation, or the world, but rather the community. Ultimately,
then, the transformation of consciousness at issue is not merely that of separate individuals.
Rather, development means the transformation of community consciousness. (Paulo Freire).

‘Development’ encompasses ‘change’ in a variety of aspects of the human condition.

( Chambers’ (2004:)).
Development refers to a process of change in growth and capability over time, function of both
maturation and interaction with the environment.”( Libert, Poulos, and Manner(1979)).

“Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in orderly predictable pattern as
a result of maturation and experience.”( E.B. Hurlock(1959))

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“Development is the series of changes which an organism undergoes in passing from an
embryonic state to maturity.”(Webster’s Dictionary).

Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of
physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. The purpose of
development is a rise in the level and quality of life of the population, and the creation or
expansion of local regional income and employment opportunities, without damaging the
resources of the environment. Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately,
and includes an aspect of quality change and the creation of conditions for a continuation of that
change.

The international agenda began to focus on development beginning in the second half of the
twentieth century. An understanding developed that economic growth did not necessarily lead to
a rise in the level and quality of life for populations all over the world; there was a need to place
an emphasis on specific policies that would channel resources and enable social and economic
mobility for various layers of the population.

Through the years, professionals and various researchers developed a number of definitions and
emphases for the term “development.” Amartya Sen, for example, developed the “capability
approach,” which defined development as a tool enabling people to reach the highest level of
their ability, through granting freedom of action, i.e., freedom of economic, social and family
actions, etc. This approach became a basis for the measurement of development by the HDI
(Human Development Index), which was developed by the UN Development Program (UNDP)
in 1990. Martha Nussbaum developed the abilities approach in the field of gender and
emphasized the empowerment of women as a development tool.

In contrast, professionals like Jeffrey Sachs and Paul Collier focused on mechanisms that prevent
or oppress development in various countries, and cause them to linger in abject poverty for
dozens of years. These are the various poverty traps, including civil wars, natural resources and
poverty itself. The identification of these traps enables relating to political – economic – social

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conditions in a country in an attempt to advance development. One of the emphases in the work
of Jeffrey Sacks is the promotion of sustainable development, which believes in growth and
development in order to raise the standard of living for citizens of the world today, through
relating to the needs of environmental resources and the coming generations of the citizens of the
world.

Development is the result of society's capacity to organize resources to meet challenges and
opportunities. Society passes through well-defined stages in the course of its development. They
are nomadic hunting and gathering, rural agrarian, urban, commercial, industrial, and post-
industrial societies.

The word ‘development’ is widely used to refer to a specified state of advancement or growth. It
could also be used to describe a new and advanced idea or product; or an event that constitutes a
new stage under changing circumstances.

Generally, the term development describes good change. But how do you tell which change is
good?

In this regard, researchers explain three ways that the term ‘development’ is used:

Development as a vision:
Here, the term is used to describe how desirable a society or a region is, possibly with regard to
what it can become.

What type of development is vision?

Visual development is a key part of infant and child development. First, vision is the main
sensory channel for information about objects, space, and people beyond our body surface,
Visual capabilities develop rapidly in infancy, underpinning the child's developing understanding
of the physical and social world

Your Personal Development suggests that it is important to have a vision for your future. A
vision here means a picture of what and where you want to be in life. You might think of this as
identifying what success looks like for you in work, in your personal life, or perhaps in sport and
hobbies. This vision is a vital step on the way to identifying your personal development needs,
and then taking action to address them.

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In other words, your vision needs to give you a broad picture of where you are going: what sort
of life you want, how you want to live, what you want to achieve. It does not, however, have to
be in huge detail.

Development as a historical process:

This refers to social change that occurs over extended periods of time due to inevitable
processes. For instance, it is widely believed that both communism and capitalism are an
inevitable outcome of progress.
Development as action:
This refers to deliberate action to change things for the better, as with providing aid to alleviate
hunger
All of these are definitions of development, but when it comes to distinguishing between nations
that are more developed than others, or when describing some other international aspect, usually
more meaning is implied in the word.
The dimensions of development are extremely diverse, including economic, social, political,
legal and institutional structures, technology in various forms (including the physical or natural
sciences, engineering and communications), the environment, religion, the arts and culture. Some
readers may even feel that this broad view is too restricted in its scope. Indeed, one might be
forgiven for feeling that ‘there is just too much to know now (as, indeed, there always was)’
(Corbridge, 1995: x). We would argue that there are three discernable definitions of
‘development’ (see Figure 1.1).

The first is historical and long term and arguably relatively value free – ‘development’ as a
process of change. The second is policy related and evaluative or indicator led, is based on value
judgements, and has short- to medium-term time horizons – development as the MDGs, for
example. The third is post-modernist, drawing attention to the ethnocentric and ideologically
loaded Western conceptions of ‘development’ and raising the possibilities of alternative
conceptions.

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The first conceptualization is that ‘development’ is a process of structural societal change.
Thomas (2000, 2004) refers to this meaning of development as ‘a process of historical change’.
This view, of ‘structural transformation’ and ‘long-term transformations of economies and
societies’, as Gore noted, is one that predominated in the 1950s and 1960s in particular. Today,
one might argue that this definition of development is emphasized by the academic or research
part of the development community but that there is less emphasis on this perspective in the
practitioner part of the development community (as has already been broached in our
Introduction).

The key characteristics of this perspective are that it is focused on processes of structural societal
change, it is historical and it has a long-term outlook. This means that a major societal shift in
one dimension, for example from a rural or agriculturebased society to an urban or industrial-
based society (what is sometimes called the shift from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’ characteristics),
would also have radical implications in another dimension, such as societal structural changes in
the respective positions of classes and groups within the relations of production for example (by
which we mean the relationship between the owners of capital and labour). This means that
development involves changes to socio-economic structures – including ownership, the
organization of production, technology, the institutional structure and laws. In this
conceptualization development relates to a wide view of diverse socioeconomic changes. The
process does not relate to any particular set of objectives and so is not necessarily prescriptive.
Equally, it does not base its analysis on any expectations that all societies will follow
approximately the same development process.

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‘Development’ as a short- to medium-term outcome of desirable targets

A second perspective on ‘development’ can be seen in the light of some of the criticisms which
have been outlined above. Thomas (2000, 2004) characterizes this second approach as ‘a vision
or measure of progressive change’ and Gore (2000: 794) relates it to ‘performance assessment’.
This view is narrower in definition and is technocratic or instrumental – indeed, some might
argue that it is too technocratic. At its most basic level it is simply concerned with development
as occurring in terms of a set of short- to medium-term ‘performance indicators’ – goals or
outcomes – which can be measured and compared with targets (for example changes in poverty
or income levels). It therefore has a much more instrumental element which is likely to be
favored by practitioners within the development community notably in international
development agencies. Poverty reduction objectives in general, and the MDGs in particular, now
play a major role in the thinking of the international agencies such as the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (2001),
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Bank (2000) or the bilateral
aid agencies.

The key feature of this second perspective is that it is focused on the outcomes of change so that
it has a relatively short-term outlook, leading some commentators, such as Gore, to label it as
‘ahistorical’. This is somewhat problematic to many of the more academic members of the
development community because it presupposes a set of (essentially bureaucratic or government)
goals or objectives which may not be shared by many of the people who are supposedly
benefiting from development. This means that there is a paternalistic assumption as to what is
good for people’s wellbeing based on a set of universal values and characteristics. This raises the
question of ‘ownership’ not so much in the context of governments or of countries but more in
the context of peoples, and the poor in particular. In other words there is an issue over whose
objectives and values are expressed within the context of this second approach to development,
and whether the articulation of the objectives is in any sense democratic or involves the effective
participation of civil society (this issue is discussed in more detail in the edited collection of
PRSP country case studies in Booth (2004)). There is a concern that this short-term and
instrumental view of development loses the (grand) vision of societal transformation that Gore

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highlighted, and separates the conception of development from socio-economic structures, social
relations and politics.

Development as a dominant ‘discourse’ of Western modernity

A third conceptualization of development takes a radically different approach so that direct

comparison with the other two outlined in this chapter is difficult. For this reason we intend to
give it more attention than the previous approaches.

The first two of our characterizations of development are based, respectively, on visions of
change and on outcomes. The third definition is based on the view that development has
consisted of ‘bad’ change and ‘bad’ outcomes through the imposition of Western ethnocentric
notions of development upon the Third World. This is the ‘post-modern’ conceptualization of
development (one might also refer to this as the ‘post-development’, ‘post-colonial’ or ‘post-
structuralist’ position. This third perspective emerged as a reaction to the deliberate efforts at
progress made in the name of development since World War II and was triggered in particular by
the 1949 Declaration by the US President Truman that:

We must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and
industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas. (cited in
Esteva, 1992: 6)

According to Hahn-BeerrLee "Development is a process of acquiring a sustained growth of a

system's capability to cope with new, continuous changes toward the achievement of progressive
political, economic and social changes". Development means change plus growth. According to
Gerald M. Meier, the definition that would gain wide approval is one that defines economic
development as the process whereby the real per capita income of a country increases over a long
period of time, subject to the stipulation that the number below an "absolute poverty line" does
not increase, and that the distribution of income does not become more unequal.

The term development should not be equated with the term growth. Though growth is a
precondition to development; mere growth of an economy does not make it a developed
economy. Charles P. Kindleberger rightly asserts that economic growth I merely refers to a rise
in output whereas economic development implies changes in technical and institutional
organization of production as well as in distributive pattern of income. Compared to the

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objective of development, economic growth is easy to realize. By mobilizing larger resources
and raising their productivity, output level can be raised. The process of development is far more
extensive. Apart from a rise in output, it involves changes in the composition of output as well as
shift in the allocation of productive resources so as to ensure social justice. In some countries, the
process of economic growth has been accompanied by economic development. This, however, is
not necessary. Though development without growth is inconceivable, growth without
development is possible.

Generally Development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional

process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic AND social system.

Development is process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally
important aspects. These are:

1. Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e. incomes and consumption, levels of food, medical services,
education through relevant growth processes.

2. Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem through the

establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which promote human
dignity and respect.

3. Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice variables, e.g.
varieties of goods and services.

1.1.1. Alternative Interpretations of Development

A. Development as Economic Growth- too often commodity output as opposed to people is
emphasized-measures of growth in GNP. Note here the persistence of a dual economy where the
export sector contains small number of workers but draws technology as opposed to traditional
sector where most people work and is dominated by inefficient technology.

B. Development as Modernization- emphasizes process of social change which is required to

produce economic advancement; examines changes in social, psychological and political
processes;

 How to develop wealth oriented behavior and values in individuals; profit seeking rather
than subsistence and self-sufficiency.

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  Shift from commodity to human approach with investment in education and skill
training.

C. Development as Distributive Justice- view development as improving basic needs.

Interest in social justice which has raised three issues:

1. Nature of goods and services provided by governments

2. Matter of access of these public goods to different social classes.

3. How burden of development can be shared among these classes.

 Target groups include small farmers, landless, urban underemployed and

unemployed.
1.2. The objectives of development
Several objectives of development is:
 Self-reliance,
 industrialization,
 modernization,
 Economic growth and social justice.
Economic growth
Development Strategy and Planning have tried to increase the stock of capital goals, viz.,
machinery, tools, equipment and infrastructure facilities. This is essential as it helps labour force
to produce a steady flow of goods and services which ultimately leads to an increase in the rate
of savings and capital formation. Thus development through increase in production has become
the corner stone of Indian planning. It has featured in all our development policies and strategies.
The underlying objective behind the setting of plan targets and allocating the resources to various
sectors has been economic growth.

Seek to achieve a balanced rate of growth, that is, a balance between industry, agriculture, light
industry (industry producing consumer goods) and heavy industry (industry producing capital
goods).

Self-reliance

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 A country can be regarded as economically independent only if it follows the path of
development according to its own needs, resources and values. The developing countries such as
India cannot become self-reliant unless and until they are able to detach themselves from the
dependency relationship which they have with other countries in trade, investment and
technology.
Different dimensions of self-reliance:
i. Reduction in the dependence on foreign aid.
ii. Diversification of domestic production.
iii. reduction in imports for certain critical commodities ; and
iv. Promotion of exports to enable us to pay for imports from our own resources.

Through achievement of self-reliance, a country is able to ensure a more equal relationship with
the world economy and reduce its vulnerability to outside pressures and disturbances.

Industrialization
The development of capital good industries has been assigned a key role in the growth profile of
the country. Emphasis has been laid on the production of basic materials and goods like coal,
steel, machines, electricity, chemicals etc. This is essential for setting up of infrastructural
facilities end accumulation of capital. Despite the initial problems of industrialization such as
production of only heavy and basic goods, non-production of consumer goods and lack of
increase in employment opportunities, it is felt that emphasis on this objective ultimately leads to
expansion of capital and consumer goods, availability of job at higher levels of income, capital
formation ad increase in rate of growth.

Modernization
The term “modernization” means a variety of structural and institutional changes in the
framework of economic activity. A shift in the sectoral composition of production,
diversification of activities, advancement of technology and institutional innovation have all

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been a part of the drive for modernization. Application of science and technology in production
raises the output level and accelerates the pace of economic growth.

To bring out modernization, efforts have been made to promote industrial growth and
diversification. Besides this, the strategy for modernization, involves a shift in the industrial
sector towards industries producing basic materials and capital goods and the growth of the
public sector in industry.

Social Justice
One important cause of underdevelopment and backwardness is widespread and multi-
dimensional inequalities. Social, economic, political and cultural spheres are marked by serious
disparities in developing countries. There is no use of political rights (guaranteed in the
Constitution) if social inequalities continue to persist. For removing poverty, unemployment,
regional imbalances and income inequalities and for making democracy effective, it is very
essential to introduce greater equity.

The objective of Social Justice:

a) increase in the living standards of the poorest groups in society
b) reduction in inequalities in asset distribution
c) removal of Poverty and unemployment
d) bringing about balanced regional growth ; and
e) Uplift of backward classes.
The concept of development must incorporate the following elements:
i) Economic growth cannot be equated with development. In fact, there is no guarantee
that growth of investment, capital formation, industries and national income would by
themselves bring about overall development, which would lead to better lives for the
poor. Hence development must be viewed in its totality as one single, unified concept
incorporating social, political, cultural and economic dimensions.
ii) Social justice is basic to development
iii) Development has to be a participative exercise and. not one in which a select minority
of the elite controls and directs the process of development

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 iv) Self-reliance is an integral part of development. It means that the developing countries
should be able to participate in the development process on the basis of full equality in
international relations for the mutual benefit of all concerned.
v) Due to scarcity of natural resources, it is essential that the pursuit of growth should lead
to neither excessive nor imbalanced use of those resources in order to maintain their
natural balance.

CHAPTER TWO
2. Sustainable Development:
2.1. Definition & Main Principles of Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is becoming a watchword of recent times. Try: Google the word
“sustainable development” and you will get nearly 17 million results!!! Nowadays most policies

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by various organizations are interested to achieve the goal of sustainable development. So, what
is sustainable development? How is it connected to what you have learned so far?
The root meaning:
Sustainable = able to maintain or stay in existence over a period of time.
Development = improving the economic and social conditions of countries.
Official definition:
"Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs“
(The Brundtland Report, 1987)
Other than the issue of inter-generational consideration, most definitions of sustainable
development has the view that sustainability depends three "interdependent and mutually
reinforcing pillars", which are:
(1) Economic development
(2) Social welfare
(3) Environmental protection
Environmental Protection: Protecting the environment (what we have covered in class!)
Economic Development: Increasing economic growth (production and distribution of goods).
Social Welfare: Ensuring the welfare or wellbeing of society at every level.

However, sustainable development is an ambiguous concept – it can mean different things to

different people. The concept remains weakly defined and contains a large amount of debate as
to its precise definition.
Different conceptions also reveal a strong tension between different environmental worldviews,
especially between eco-centrism and anthropocentrism.
Some see it as a radical “green” call for a fundamental organization of social, economic, and
political life (particularly those that are more inclined to the worldview of eco-centrism,
individualism, and ecofeminism).

While others see it as a means to continue with the “business as usual’ patterns of economic
growth but with due consideration of social and environmental progress (those with the
worldview of anthropocentrism)

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But most differences in interpretation still revolves around these two elements:
The intergenerational dimension
How do we balance the needs of present and future generations?
The three pillars of sustainability: How do we balance the quality of economic development,
social development and environmental protection?

 So, at least all versions of sustainable development seek to balance economic, social and
environmental goals (the three pillars) in ways that meets the needs of present without
compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs (intergenerational
dimension).
Due to its broad definition, Sustainable Development has been used as a guiding principle for
various policy areas. The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development lists the
following areas within the scope of sustainable development:
Agriculture, Atmosphere, Biodiversity, Biotechnology, Capacity-building, Climate Change,
Consumption and Production Patterns, Demographics, Desertification and Drought, Disaster
Reduction and Management, Education and Awareness, Energy, Finance, Forests, Fresh Water,
Health, Human Settlements, Indicators, Industry, Information for Decision Making and
Participation, Integrated Decision Making, International Law, International Cooperation for
Enabling Environment, Institutional Arrangements, Land management, Major Groups,
Mountains, National Sustainable Development Strategies, Oceans and Seas, Poverty, Sanitation,
Science, Sustainable tourism, Technology, Toxic Chemicals, Trade and Environment, Transport,
Waste (Hazardous), Waste (Radioactive), Waste (Solid), Water

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There are many different definitions of sustainable development coming from various disciplines
and with different assumptions about the basic relationship between society and nature. Ideas of
sustainable development have a long history in the literatures of both development and
environmentalism. There have been a number of important international conferences within
which actions towards sustainable development have been debated (and contested) at the highest
levels of government. Sustainable development is widely accepted as a desirable policy objective
amongst many institutions concerned with the future development of the resources of the globe.
Ideas concerning the best way of achieving development have changed over time, but are rarely
replaced entirely. Mainstream environmentalism encapsulates the dominant ideas surrounding
society–environment relationships, but are not subscribed to by all interests, equally. Sustainable
development is currently being pursued in the context of an increasingly globalized world, but
one which is also characterized by poverty. The global challenge of sustainable development lies
in complex interdependencies of environment, social and economic development.

Sustainable development ‘In principle, such an optimal (sustainable growth) policy would seek
to maintain an “acceptable” rate of growth in per-capita real incomes without depleting the
national capital asset stock or the natural environmental asset stock.’ (Turner, 1988: 12)

It is the net productivity of biomass (positive mass balance per unit area per unit time)
maintained over decades to centuries.’ (Conway, 1987: 96)

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.’ (World Commission on Environment and Development,
1987: 43)
Literally, sustainable development refers to maintaining development over time. By the early
1990s, it was suggested that there were more than 70 definitions of sustainable development in
circulation (Holmberg and Sandbrook, 1992).

Evidently, different disciplines have influenced and contributed to the sustainability debate,
‘each making different assumptions about the relation between environment and the human
subject’ (Lee et al., 2000: 9). Differences are even more important when thinking about policy

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development: how the human and environmental ‘condition’ is thought about, viewed or
understood underpins subsequent planning and interventions in the form of development and
conservation projects, yet different disciplines and philosophies may assign quite divergent
‘orders of priority’ to these policies and programmes.

The challenges of understanding what this idea of sustainable development may mean, and how
people can work towards it, are evident in a brief analysis of the definition of sustainable
development provided by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).
Their apparently simple definition of sustainable development is immediately seen to contain a
distinction and a potential conflict between the interests of the present and those of future
generations. Further, very challenging notions can be identified such as those of needs and limits.
Questions emerge such as: what is it that one generation is passing to another? Is it solely natural
capital or does it include assets associated with human ingenuity, language or other aspects of
culture? What and how are the limits set – by technology, society or ecology, for example? What
of the fact that, currently, needs in one place or amongst particular groups are often fulfilled at
the expense of others? Fundamentally, ‘needs’ mean different things to different people and are
linked to our ability to satisfy them, i.e. are closely aligned to ‘development’ itself. So, society is
able to define and create new ‘needs’ within certain groups (that could be interpreted as ‘wants’),
without satisfying even the basic needs of others. These questions highlight the many sources of
conflict in the debates over the meaning of sustainable development: conflict between the
interests of present generations and those of the future; between human well-being and the
protection of nature; between poor and rich; and between local and global.

Sustainable development is an organizing principle that aims to meet human development goals
while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem
services to humans. The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet
human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and stability of the natural system.
Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental
protection, and social well- being. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable
development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet

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their own needs". The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on economic
development, social development and environmental protection for future generations.
Sustainable development requires six central capacities.

Six requirements of central capacities of sustainable development

Sustainable development is interlinked with the normative concept of sustainability. UNESCO

formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: "Sustainability is often thought of
as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the
many processes and pathways to achieve it." The concept of sustainable development has been
criticized in various ways. While some see it as paradoxical (or as an oxymoron) and regard
development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has
been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined.

In 1987, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the
report Our Common Future, commonly called the Brundtland Report. The report included a
definition of "sustainable development" which is now widely used:

 Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains two
key concepts within it:
 The concept of 'needs', in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which
overriding priority should be given; and
 The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the
environment's ability to meet present and future needs.

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Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental
protection, and social well-being.

Sustainability

Several visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions: the left image shows
sustainability as three intersecting circles in the top right it is a nested approach, In the bottom
right it is three pillars 2 The schematic with the nested ellipses emphasizes a hierarchy of the
dimensions, putting environment as the foundation for the other two.

Sustainability is a social goal pertaining to the ability of people to co-exist on Earth over a long
time. Specific definitions of this term are disputed and have varied with literature, context, and
time. Experts often describe sustainability as having three dimensions (or pillars): environmental,
economic, and social dimension. In everyday use, sustainability often focuses on countering
major environmental problems, including climate change, loss of biodiversity, loss of ecosystem
services, land degradation, and air and water pollution. The idea of sustainability can guide
decisions at the global, national, and individual levels (e.g. sustainable living). A related concept
is sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. UNESCO
distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more
sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to
achieve it."

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Sustainable development is a dynamic process in which communities anticipate and
accommodate the needs of current and future generations in ways that reproduce and balance
local social, economic, and ecological systems, and link local actions to global concerns.

This definition provides a basis for deriving a more refined and comprehensive set of sustainable
development principles for guiding an evaluation of local comprehensive plans. Because plans
reflect substantive (or technical) policy outcomes of planning.

For evaluating local comprehensive plans, there is six basic principles.

Those principles are:

1) Work in harmony with nature. Land use and development activities should support the essential
cycles and life support functions of ecosystems. Whenever possible, these activities should mimic
ecosystem processes, rather than modify them to fit urban forms. These activities must respect and
preserve biodiversity, as well as protect and restore essential ecosystem services that maintain water
quality, reduce flooding, and enhance sustainable resource development.

2) Livable built environments. The location, shape, density, mix, proportion, and quality of
development should enhance fit by creating physical spaces adapted to desired activities of inhabitants;
encourage community cohesion by fostering accessibility among land uses; and support sense of place to
ensure protection of special physical characteristics of urban forms that support community identity and
attachment.

3) Place-based economy. A local economy should strive to operate within natural system limits. It should
not cause deterioration of the natural resource base, which serves as a capital asset for future economic
development. Essential products and processes of nature should be used no more quickly than nature can
renew them. Waste discharges should occur no more quickly than nature can assimilate them.

The local economy should also produce built environments that meet locally defined needs and
aspirations. It should create diverse housing, and infrastructure that enhances community livability and
the efficiency of local economic activities.

4) Equity. Land use patterns should recognize and improve the conditions of low-income
populations, and not deprive them with basic levels of environmental health and human dignity.
Equitable access to social and economic resources is essential for eradicating poverty and in
accounting for the needs of the least advantaged.

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5) Polluters pay. Polluters (or culpable interests) that cause adverse community-wide impacts
should be required to pay, taking into account that the polluter must bear the cost of pollution
and other harms, with due regard to the public interest.

6) Responsible regionalism. Communities should not act in their own interests and should
account for the consequences of their actions on others. Just as individual developers may be
subject to the polluter (or culpable) pays, a local jurisdiction has an obligation to minimize the
harm it imposes on other jurisdictions in pursuit of its own objectives.

Development of the concept

Sustainable development has its roots in ideas regarding sustainable forest management, which
were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In response to a growing
awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, John Evelyn argued, in his 1662
essay Sylva that "sowing and planting of trees had to be regarded as a national duty of every
landowner, in order to stop the destructive over-exploitation of natural resources."
Following the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in 1962, the developing
environmental movement drew attention to the relationship between economic growth and
environmental degradation. Kenneth E. Boulding, in his influential 1966 essay The Economics
of the Coming Spaceship Earth, identified the need for the economic system to fit itself to the
ecological system with its limited pools of resources. Another milestone was the 1968 article by
Garrett Hardin that popularized the term "tragedy of the commons".

The direct linking of sustainability and development in a contemporary sense can be traced to the
early 1970s. "Strategy of Progress", a 1972 book (in German) by Ernst Basler, explained how the
long- acknowledged sustainability concept of preserving forests for future wood production can
be directly transferred to the broader importance of preserving environmental resources to
sustain the world for future generations. That same year, the interrelationship of environment and
development was formally demonstrated in a systems dynamic simulation model reported in the
classic report on Limits to Growth. It was commissioned by the Club of Rome and written by a
group of scientists led by Dennis and Donella Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Describing the desirable "state of global equilibrium", the authors wrote: "We are
searching for a model output that represents a world system that is sustainable without sudden

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and uncontrolled collapse and capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all of its
people."

In 1975, an MIT research group prepared ten days of hearings on "Growth and Its Implication for
the Future" for the US Congress, the first hearings ever held on sustainable development.

In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature published a world conservation
strategy that included one of the first references to sustainable development as a global priority
and introduced the term "sustainable development" Two years later, the United Nations World
Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting
nature is to be guided and judged.

Since the Brundtland Report, the concept of sustainable development has developed beyond the
initial intergenerational framework to focus more on the goal of "socially inclusive and
environmentally sustainable economic growth. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and
Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable, and
peaceful global society in the 21st century. The action plan Agenda 21 for sustainable
development identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help
countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. Furthermore,
Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in decision-making is a fundamental
prerequisite for achieving sustainable development.

2.2 Pillars (objectives) of Sustainable development

Sustainable development, like sustainability, is regarded to have three dimensions: the
environment, economy and society. The idea is that a good balance between the three dimensions
should be achieved. Instead of calling them dimensions, other terms commonly used are pillars,
domains, aspects, spheres.

A. Social pillar
The social pillar of a company's sustainable development refers to values that promote equality
and respect for individual rights. The social consequences of the company's social activity are
then assessed in accordance to these issues, such as gender equality.
The principles upon which this pillar is founded are as follows:

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Combat social exclusion and discrimination: helping with reintegration, supporting gender
equality, reducing the gender pay gap, promoting training, encouraging dialogue, and applying
global social rights. In other words, the goal is to seek to aid the global population.

Promote solidarity: helping to reduce social inequalities by collaborating with local and
international associations and projects, and prioritizing fair trade products which guarantee an
appropriate income for farmers and help to promote sustainable agriculture.

Contribute to the well-being of stakeholders: developing social dialogue, encouraging the

exchange of information and transparency, adapting working hours according to employee
profile, and making premises accessible to people with reduced mobility.

B. Economic pillar
This pillar is based on companies’ ability to contribute to economic development and growth. In
other words, they must encourage and promote the protection of the environment by limiting the
risks posed by their production. The recycling of products and the use of renewable energy are
therefore fundamental aspects of the development of the economic pillar.

C. Environmental pillar
The environmental pillar is founded on a commitment to protect the environment by reducing
risks and measuring the environmental impacts of companies' activities. The challenges for
companies in this area are as follows:

Saving and preserving natural energy or agricultural resources

Assessing their carbon footprint and reducing total greenhouse gas emissions and further achieve
sustainable development goals.

Prevent water scarcity and reduce overall waste for current and future generations.
Companies must set targets to improve their performance on environmental issues. These goals
are an integral part of Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility (CSER).

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 CHAPTER THREE
3. Population, economic growth and sustainable development
3.1. Population growth and sustainable development
The world’s population, which numbered around 7.8 billion in 2020, has been growing rapidly
and is expected to continue to grow in the coming decades, albeit at a progressively slower pace.
Projections by the United Nations suggest that the size of the global population could rise to
almost 11 billion by the end of the twenty-first century. The size of the global population is
expected to stabilize around 2100, bringing an end to the current era of rapid growth that began
around 1800 in some regions and in the middle of the twentieth century on a global scale.
Plausible future trajectories of world population in the short or medium term lie within a
relatively narrow range. Over the next 30 or 40 years, a slowdown in global growth that is
substantially faster than anticipated in the United Nations projections is unlikely.

Since the middle of the twentieth century, the world’s population has grown rapidly, rising from
around 2.5 billion in 1950 and reaching an estimated 7.8 billion in 2020. The size of the global
population is projected to climb to 8.5 billion in 2030, the target date for achievement of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). From there, it is projected to continue rising to around
9.7 billion in 2050 and 10.9 billion in 2100. Such rapid growth was unprecedented in human
history prior to the industrial era. It is a direct consequence of a process known as the
“demographic transition”, in which decreasing levels of mortality and fertility lead to longer
lives and smaller families. The transition often unfolds in a series of stages, during which
population growth first accelerates and then slows down.

Globally, population growth is shaped entirely by trends in fertility and mortality; at the national
or regional level, international migration can also play an important part. Historical levels and
trends in these three variables determine the demographic characteristics of the current
population, including its distribution by age, which can be a source of momentum that helps to
drive future trends.

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Over the past 70 years, reductions in mortality levels, particularly at younger ages, have
contributed significantly to population growth. Various social and economic changes have led to
higher standards of living and a healthier life in general. These changes include the increased
availability of safe and nutritious foods; improvements in public health, sanitation, housing,
working conditions and educational attainment; and advances in the prevention and treatment of
disease (Desai and Alva, 1998; Lleras-Muney, 2005; Santow, 2001). Despite these gains,
significant disparities in life expectancy at birth remain across countries and regions. High levels
of infant and child mortality persist in many regions even though such deaths are largely
preventable.

Today, all countries and areas have seen at least the start of a transition towards low levels of
fertility. While some completed the transition more than a century ago, others are still in the
early phases with relatively high total fertility rates, including many countries in sub-Saharan
Africa. By the end of the century, all regions except sub-Saharan Africa are projected to have
fertility rates below the replacement level. With its fertility expected to remain relatively high
throughout the century, sub-Saharan Africa will have a significant impact on the future growth of
the global population.

The annual number of births in a population depends both on the fertility level and on the
number of women of reproductive age. The relative youthfulness of today’s global population (a
result of both the mortality decline at younger ages and the historically high levels of fertility that
persisted until recently in many countries) ensures that the number of women of reproductive age
will continue to increase for years and even decades. Fully two thirds of the anticipated increase
in world population between 2020 and 2050 will be driven by the relatively youthful age
distribution of the global population in 2020. Given the large number of women and girls already
living on the planet who are, or will soon be, of childbearing age, a slowdown in global growth
over the next three or four decades that is substantially faster than anticipated in the population
projections of the United Nations is unlikely even with an accelerated drop in the average
number of births per woman. With a longer time horizon, the influence of today’s age structure

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will fade, and population growth will depend increasingly on the future course of mortality and,
especially, fertility.

Although international migration does not have a direct impact on population growth globally, in
some countries and regions, its direct contribution to growth has been significant in particular for
countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, but also for many countries in Europe and Northern
America as well as for Australia and New Zealand. In addition, immigration can also contribute
indirectly to population growth, both by lowering the average age of the population and by
temporarily raising the average level of fertility in countries of destination (Adserà and Ferrer,
2015; Woldemicael and Beaujot, 2012). Among countries where fertility levels are very low,
immigration has in some cases attenuated or even reversed an actual or potential decline in
population size.

Population trends in the long run are highly uncertain, especially for high-fertility countries still
in the early stages of the demographic transition. Increasing uncertainty over time is reflected in
a widening band of prediction intervals for projections of the number of births and of the size of
the total population at dates farther into the future. Even though reductions in fertility over the
next few years can have only a limited effect on population growth between now and 2050 or

2060, a fertility decline in the near term will have important consequences for growth in the last
decades of the century, as its impact on population size cumulates from one generation to the
next. “In a very real sense, today’s births are tomorrow’s momentum. The more concerned we
are with long-range futures, the more important are population policies in the array of strategies
for enhancing the human condition” (Preston, 1994).

One consequence of a rapid and sustained decline in fertility is the so-called demographic
dividend. The dividend is usually described as a window of opportunity for countries with
relatively youthful populations to accelerate their economic and social development by
redirecting resources freed up by having fewer children, at both the societal and familial levels,
towards improving educational and health outcomes and raising standards of living (Bloom and
others, 2003; chaps. 12 and 13). While the demographic circumstances underlying the dividend
are conducive to rapid economic growth on a per capita basis, reaping the maximum potential

27
benefit requires sufficient improvements in education, health, gender equality and gainful
employment.

Because of the temporary nature of the demographic dividend, it is important to take advantage
of the favorable age distribution while it lasts (Lee and Reher, 2011; Guengant, 2012). In many
high-income and upper-middle-income countries, this demographic window of opportunity has
already closed. Countries still in an early stage of the demographic transition, however, have an
opportunity to maximize the boost in economic growth made possible by the decline in fertility
by promoting investments to support the formation human capital and to strengthen capacities
across the age range.

3.1.1. Why population growth matters for sustainable development

Charting a path towards a more sustainable future requires demographic foresight: anticipating
the nature and the consequences of major population shifts before and while they occur and
adopting forward-looking and proactive policies guided by such analysis. Today, in many low
income and lower-middle-income countries, rapid population growth adds to the challenges of
achieving social and economic development. The continuing high levels of fertility that drive
such growth are both a symptom and a cause of slow progress in development, often linked to a
lack of choice and empowerment among women and girls. Achieving the Goals and targets of
the 2030 Agenda, especially those related to reproductive health, education, women’s
empowerment and gender equality, would likely contribute to slowing the pace of global
population growth. Yet, changes in population trends alone will do little to resolve unsustainable
patterns of resource use. Achieving sustainability will depend critically on humanity’s capacity
and willingness to increase resource efficiency in consumption and production and to decouple
economic growth from damage to the environment, with high-income and upper-middle income
countries taking responsibility and leading by example.

Rapid population growth is both a cause and a consequence of slow progress in development.
In low-income and lower-middle-income countries facing multiple challenges with limited
resources, rapid population increase may slow progress in reaching certain Goals and targets of
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Although it is only one of many factors, the

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continuing growth of population in resource-poor settings enlarges the scale of existing
challenges, such as eradicating poverty, ending hunger and ensuring that all people have
sufficient access to safe and nutritious food. In a similar manner, rapid population growth may
also add to the difficulties of ending preventable and treatable diseases and conditions, ensuring
inclusive and equitable education and schooling, and promoting full and productive employment
and decent work for all.

The world’s poorest countries have some of the fastest growing populations: the total population
of low income countries is projected almost to double in size between 2020 and 2050, and sub-
Saharan Africa will account for most of the global increase expected by the end of the century. In
these countries, a rapid rise in public expenditures on a per capita basis will be needed to
eradicate poverty, end hunger and malnutrition, and ensure universal access to health care,
education and other essential services. In such settings, rapid population growth adds to the
urgency of achieving these objectives while also magnifying the scale of the investments and
effort required.

ADDITIONAL
A. INTRODUCTION
“Human beings are at the Centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a
healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.”.............. Rio Declaration, Principle 1 (UN, 1992).

The Rio Declaration agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, as well as the Programme of Action agreed at the
International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), held in Cairo, Egypt, in 1994 place
humans at the center of development. Both declarations recognize and emphasize the need to promote
human wellbeing and higher living standards, but at the same time they stress the need to do so in
harmony with nature. To this end, both political declarations suggest policies that promote more
sustainable patterns of production and consumption, which is the hallmark of the green economy, and
policies that address population dynamics.

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“To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should reduce and
eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate
demographic policies.” Rio Declaration, Principle 8 (UN, 1992).

“Sustainable development as a means to ensure human well-being, equitably shared by all people today
and in the future, requires that the interrelationships between population, resources, the environment
and development should be fully recognized, appropriately managed and brought into harmonious,
dynamic balance. To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States
should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote
appropriate policies, including population related policies, in order to meet the needs of current
generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” ICPD
Programme of Action, Chapter II, Principle 6 (UN, 1994).

The pursuit of development is the pursuit of a better life and the ambition to improve human wellbeing.
Whatever the measure of human wellbeing – for example, the elimination of poverty and food
insecurity, access to adequate clothing and housing, the enjoyment of health and education, and more
generally capabilities and functioning – it is associated with the enjoyment of goods and services. While
wellbeing is more than the satisfaction of material needs and desire, wellbeing is most fundamentally
dependent on the consumption of goods and services. Adequate consumption does not only require a
more balanced distribution of economic resources, which is an important challenge in an increasingly
unequal world, but is also dependent on higher levels of production. Social progress – improvements in
human wellbeing – is dependent on higher levels of economic output, and higher economic output will
place pressures on all natural resources – land, forests, ground water, oceans and the climate.

Unsustainable patterns of consumption and production, which erode essential and irreplaceable natural
resources, would ultimately undermine the very basis for economic growth and social progress. It is
therefore important that the objective to promote social progress, which requires higher economic
output, does not jeopardize the sustainability of the environment. Efforts to achieve these balances –
which are at the heart of sustainable development strategies – are strongly influenced by population
dynamics.

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The environmental impact of human activity is attributable to three principle determinants (Ehrlich and
Holdren, 1971), namely the rate of economic growth, the rate of technological progress and the rate of
population growth. These determinants are recognized by the aforementioned international political
declarations, for example, but also by the scientific literature. Despite the recognition of these
determinants, past policies and the current debate have not adequately addressed these determinants
and their inter-linkages.

The promotion of the green economy, which addresses two of these determinants – economic growth
and technological progress – is only gradually receiving support, but efforts to address the third
determinant – population growth – continues to receive little attention in the discussion. Other aspects
of population dynamics, including changes in age structures and spatial distribution of people, have
received even less attention. Some of the reasons for this are (i) the fact that population growth rates in
the last two decades have been declining in most of the countries and the belief that the “population
problem” has already been solved; (ii) the concern that some of the past policies implemented in order
to influence population dynamics infringed on fundamental human rights and freedoms; and (iii) the
sensitivity of the issues related with the ICPD Programme of Action.

More than two-thirds of the governments of the world’s least developed countries have expressed
major concerns with high population growth, high fertility and rapid urbanization.

In order to bring back the population agenda into the sustainable development discussion, there is a
need to recognize that:
• Population dynamics have a significant influence on sustainable development;
• Efforts to promote sustainable development that do not address population dynamics have, and will
continue to, fail; and,
• Population dynamics are not destiny. Change is possible through a set of policies which respect human
rights and freedoms and contribute to a reduction in fertility, notably access to sexual and reproductive
health care, education beyond the primary level, and the empowerment of women.

Population and sustainable development at the United Nations conferences on population

The debate about whether or for how long the planet can sustain a growing population has a long
history. Concerns that population growth might outstrip food production inspired Thomas

31
Malthus in 1798 to call on people to limit their fertility by delaying marriage and practicing
abstinence within marriage. Although technological innovation foiled some of Malthus’ more
dire predictions (Trewavas, 2002), a similar narrative about the rapid growth of the human
population has played an important role in shaping more recent discussions of environmental
sustainability and overpopulation (Robertson, 2012). The notion that human numbers, even more
than human behaviors, comprise the central obstacle to a sustainable future is well entrenched.

In addition to concerns about the aggregate impact of population growth on the planet,
discussions of the nexus between population growth and development have been shaped by a
parallel discussion of women’s rights, including reproductive rights. The latter include the right
to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence. Gender
equality, reproductive rights and universal access to sexual and reproductive health care services,
including for family planning, information and education, have been identified as critical
elements for the achievement of social and economic development (Das Gupta, Bongaarts and
Cleland, 2011; Eager, 2004).

Concerns about the economic situation of developing countries, about the sustainability of
human economic activity and about the promotion and protection of reproductive rights have all
been prominent topics at the United Nations conferences on population. These conferences
showcased a range of views, with some identifying population growth as a serious impediment to
development, some regarding it as a consequence rather than a cause of slow progress in
development, and others describing the causal relationship between population growth and
sustainable development as bi-directional (Critchlow, 1995; McIntosh and Finkle, 1995).

The International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), held in Cairo in 1994,
embraced the latter position, recognizing that efforts to slow population growth, reduce poverty,
achieve economic progress, improve environmental protection, and reduce unsustainable
consumption and production patterns were mutually reinforcing. The Programme of Action
adopted in Cairo explicitly recognizes issues of women’s empowerment, gender equality and
reproductive rights, as well as the importance of male responsibility in domains traditionally
regarded as a woman’s sphere (Pollack Petchesky, 1995).

32
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the General Assembly in 2015,
echoes the ideals set forth in the Cairo document. The 2030 Agenda also reiterates the
commitment to ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive health care and to protecting
and promoting reproductive rights, in accordance with the Cairo Programme of Action and the
Beijing Platform for Action and with the outcome documents of their review conferences.

For many low-income countries, including some Small Island Developing States (SIDS), the
challenges of achieving sustainable development in the context of a rapidly growing population
are compounded by their vulnerability to the adverse impacts of climate change, including rising
sea levels. People living in these countries are often more vulnerable because they lack access to
the resources needed for adaptation and coping. As the world’s population continues to grow,
improving the lives of those farthest behind should include efforts to reduce their vulnerability
and increase their resilience in the face of environmental change, including extreme climate
conditions and variability.

In addition to compounding the difficulties of achieving sustainable development in some

countries, in some situations rapid population growth and associated high levels of fertility are
also a symptom of slow progress in development. People trapped in poverty may lack access to
the information and services needed to control the number and timing of their children. Women
and girls who are denied access to education, or who live in societies where they cannot exercise
their full range of rights, may be forced into a marriage or other union at a young age and may
have their first experience of pregnancy and childbirth starting in adolescence. Such
circumstances often result in higher levels of fertility over the life course and bring greater risks
of poor health and educational outcomes for both mothers and their children. Achieving the
Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda, particularly those related to reproductive health, education
and empowerment of women and girls, could in the long run accelerate the ongoing slowdown in
population growth worldwide; this would have the effect of moving forward the date when the
world’s population may stop growing and of reducing its peak size (Abel and others, 2016;
Banerjee and Duflo, 2011).

33
Although the environmental and ecological impacts of human activity have been studied
extensively, there is no scientific consensus about the planet’s ultimate carrying capacity for
human life (Cohen, 1995; Pengra, 2012; de Sherbinin and others, 2007). Holding other factors
constant, a growing global population places increasing pressure on the earth’s natural resources,
in particular common property resources like air and water, whose use is not well regulated by
market forces. However, population increase is not the only factor underlying this pressure:
rising living standards and changing patterns of production and consumption are typically just as
important as, and often much more important than, population increase as a cause of
environmental damage.

While there remains great uncertainty about future consumption and production patterns,
according to the United Nations’ International Resources Panel, about 70 per cent of the
anticipated global increase in the use of natural resources through 2050 will be attributable to an
increase in consumption per capita, while about 30 per cent will be attributable to population
growth (UNEP, 2017). In short, satisfying the increasing demand for resources and managing the
aftereffects of their use would pose major challenges even if global population growth came
immediately to an end.
A central challenge of sustainable development is how to promote sustained economic growth
without further increasing the adverse impacts of economic activity on the environment.
Strategies to decouple trends in economic growth and human development from trends in
resource use and environmental degradation are essential. These can involve lessening the
reliance on fossil fuels and other non-renewable, high-intensity resources; increasing the
efficiency of resource use; reducing emissions and waste from extraction, production,
consumption and disposal; extending product life cycles through intelligent product design and
standardization to encourage reuse, recycling and re-manufacturing; and promoting a shift in
consumption patterns towards goods and services with lower energy and material intensity.

One measure of the global impact of economic activity is the material footprint of the human
population, defined as the total amount of primary materials required to meet basic needs for
food, clothing, water, shelter, infrastructure and other aspects of life. The footprint, which serves
as an indicator for monitoring progress towards SDG 8 on sustained, inclusive and sustainable

34
economic growth, and SDG 12 on sustainable consumption and production, has been growing
faster globally than both population and the gross domestic product (GDP) (IRP, 2017; United
Nations, 2019 and 2021a). Decoupling growth in the material footprint from growth in
population and GDP will require a global economic system designed to reduce or eliminate
waste and pollution, recycle or reuse existing products and materials, and regenerate natural
systems (United Nations, 2019b and 2021b).
The commitment of high-income and upper-middle-income countries to reduce their collective
material footprint is critical. Even though in most cases their populations are not expected to
grow rapidly, these countries are likely to be responsible for most of the additional pressures that
humans will exert on the global environment over the next few decades (Wiedmann and others,
2015; United Nations, 2017a). Continued technological innovation and greatly increased
investments in renewable energy, especially solar and wind power, will be needed if low-income
and lower-middle-income countries are to achieve sustained economic growth and continuing
progress in human development while minimizing the impact of human activity on climate and
other natural systems.

3.1.2. Strengthening the demographic evidence base for sustainable development

Demographic data are essential for development planning and for assessing progress towards the
achievement of the Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Around
a quarter of the indicators approved for use in the global and regional monitoring of progress are
calculated using population data produced by the Population Division of the United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Such data are based on country-specific
information derived from population censuses and sample surveys as well as civil registration
and vital statistics systems.

Information gathered in a population census is critical for national planning and policymaking, as
censuses almost always involve a complete enumeration of the population. Together with sample
surveys administered at the household level, censuses provide essential information for assessing
progress in the implementation of the 2030 Agenda, including data disaggregated by sex, age and
other individual attributes.

35
Civil registration systems are the preferred source of information for computing statistics on
levels and trends in the fertility and mortality of a population, and for tracking changes between
censuses in the size of a population and in its distribution by age and sex. In addition to being a
source of essential population statistics, the universal registration of births and deaths also helps
to ensure access to legal identity for all persons, as called for in SDG target 16.9 on “legal
identity for all, including birth registration”.

It is critical to strengthen national capacities to collect, use, analyses and disseminate

demographic data gathered through civil registration systems and other administrative registers,
as well as data coming from population censuses and household surveys. The COVID-19
pandemic disrupted the planning and conduct of population censuses during 2020 and 2021 and
has impaired the functioning of registration and reporting systems in many countries. It is
important to assess the negative impacts of the pandemic on the timely production of complete
and reliable population data and to learn from these experiences how to build more efficient and
resilient data systems.

Population growth is both a cause and a symptom of slow progress in development

Sustained, rapid population growth adds to the challenge of achieving social and economic
development and magnifies the scale of the investments and effort required to ensure that no one
is left behind.

Rapid population growth makes it more difficult for low-income and lower-middle-income
countries to afford the increase in public expenditures on a per capita basis that is needed to
eradicate poverty, end hunger and malnutrition, and ensure universal access to health care,
education and other essential services.

Lack of autonomy and opportunity among women and girls can contribute to high fertility and
rapid population growth. Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030

36
Agenda for Sustainable Development, especially targets related to reproductive health, education
and gender equality, requires empowering individuals to make informed choices.

Today, millions of people around the globe, mostly in low-income and lower-middle-income
countries, lack access to the information and services needed to determine whether and when to
have children. In general, women with higher levels of education tend to have greater autonomy
to make these decisions compared to women with no education living in the same country.
Ensuring that individuals, in particular women, have the ability to decide the number of children
that they will have and the timing of their births can markedly improve well-being and help to
disrupt intergenerational cycles of poverty. Increased access to high quality reproductive health-
care services, including for safe and effective methods of family planning, could help reduce
fertility and accelerate economic and social development.

A sustained reduction in fertility opens a window of opportunity for economic growth

In addition to driving rapid population growth, continuing high levels of fertility in some regions
have helped to maintain a relatively youthful global age distribution. From a demographic
perspective, a youthful age structure ensures that the global population will continue to grow
even if average fertility drops immediately to the “replacement level”, at which each generation
bears the exact number of children needed to replace itself. Indeed, fully two thirds of the

anticipated increase in global population between 2020 and 2050 will be driven by the

momentum of growth embedded in the relatively youthful age distribution of the world’s
population in 2020.

A youthful population presents an opportunity for accelerated economic growth on a per capita
basis, if countries where the population is growing rapidly achieve a substantial and sustained
decline in the fertility level, leading to an increased concentration of the population in the
working-age range. The increased share of population in the working ages can support an
accelerated rise in income per capita, a phenomenon referred to as the “demographic dividend”.

37
Investments in education and health and the promotion of full and productive employment for
all, including for women, can greatly expand the positive economic impact of a favorable age
structure created by a sustained decline in fertility.

Changes in population trends alone will do little to resolve unsustainable patterns of

resource use
Environmental damage often arises from economic processes that lead to higher standards of
living for the population, especially when the full social and environmental costs, such as
damage from pollution, are not factored into economic decisions about production and
consumption.

Population growth amplifies such pressures by adding to total economic demand. However, the
countries that have been contributing the most to unsustainable patterns of production and
consumption are generally those where income per capita is high and the population is growing
slowly if at all, not those where income per capita is low and the population is growing rapidly.

Moving the global economy towards greater sustainability will require a progressive decoupling
of the growth in population and in economic activity from a further intensification of resource
extraction, waste generation and environmental damage. Limiting climate change and global
warming, for example, will require rapid progress in decoupling economic activity from the
current over reliance on fossil fuels.

To end poverty and hunger, achieve the SDGs related to health, education and access to decent
work, and build the capacity to address environmental challenges, the economies of low-income
and lower-middle-income countries need to grow much more rapidly than their populations,
requiring greatly expanded investments in infrastructure as well as increased access to affordable
energy and modern technology in all sectors. Wealthy countries and the international community
can help to ensure that these countries receive the necessary technical and financial assistance so
that their economies can grow using technologies that will minimize future greenhouse gas
emissions.

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A path towards a more sustainable future requires demographic foresight, which involves
anticipating the nature and consequences of major population shifts before and while they occur
and adopting forward-looking and proactive planning guided by such analysis. In working to
achieve sustainable patterns of consumption and production and to reduce the impacts of human
activity on the environment, it is important to recognize that plausible future trajectories of world
population lie within a relatively narrow range, especially in the short or medium term. Over the
next 30 or 40 years, a slowdown in global population growth that is substantially faster than
anticipated in the United Nations projections seems highly unlikely. Even though the pace of
global population growth will continue to decline in the coming decades, world population is
likely to be between 20 and 30 per cent larger in 2050 than in 2020.

Achieving sustainability, therefore, will depend critically on humanity’s capacity and willingness
to increase resource efficiency in consumption and production and to decouple economic growth
from damage to the environment, with high-income and upper-middle-income countries taking
responsibility and leading by example.

Which part of the population has more impact on sustainable development (SD)?
Since Thomas Malthus suggested that in 1798 the population could be reduced by hunger and
diseases, the population has been addressed and continues to be addressed for many economic
variables.
According to Malthus (1976), population control is necessary for humanity in order not to
overtake the world's carrying capacity. Because the power of the population in this direction is
unlimitedly greater than the power of the earth to provide for the livelihood of the human being.
In this view, Thomas Malthus, together with Adam Smith, is one of the first to examine the
relationship between population size and control of economic growth. Nevertheless, the neo
Malthusianism movement argues that population is at the heart of all global problems and that
population growth must be controlled. In his book, The Population Bomb, published in 1968,
Paul Ehrlich, for example, emphasizes that in the near future the increase in human population
will accelerate the depletion of resources, as competition for limited resources will increase.
From a historical perspective, it is clear that this thought is correct. According to Jiang and
Hardee (2011), economic growth, energy consumption and carbon emissions have increased in

39
parallel with population growth between 1800 and 2000. In this 200-year period, energy
consumption is 35 times, carbon emissions 20 times, and world population has increased 6 times.
Global income has increased 70 times. Despite technological advances in these figures, it
remains to be argued how exactly the population increase or consumption will cause exactly
carbon emissions (Nakicenovic et al., 2007; Dietz et al., 2007; Meyerson, 1998; Ehrlich and
Holden, 1971).

On the other hand, in the world, the 'optimum population' in which standard life in European
qualities is supported by the Earth planet is less than two billion (Anthony, 2004)4 . In 2000, the
world population was 6.1 billion and by 2015 it was 7.2 billion. These figures show that
population growth is increasingly pressing on the environment, which provides both resources
and resources.

Moreover, the only problem is not pressure. Today more than one billion people live an
extraordinary poverty. Some of these people live in slums (FAO, 2008; UN Habitat, 2010), while
others are far from finding a good job to rescue their lives (ILO, 2011; 2012). Increasing human
population also causes unbalanced distribution of resources, leading more people to food
insufficiency. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates, agricultural
production should not show less than 70 per cent growth in order to satisfy the world population
in 2050 (FAO, 2009; 2010; 2010; Godfray et al., 2010; IFPRI, 2010).

Therefore, the slowdown in population growth will contribute not only to reducing the pressure
on the environment, but also to the further deterioration of resource allocation.

3.2. Rural-urban migration

Today, most people live in cities, but it probably doesn't take much tracing back to past
generations to find a time when your family lived in a rural area. Since the onset of the industrial
era, migration from rural to urban areas has been taking place across the world. Migration is an
important factor influencing population growth and spatial patterns of the population.

Rural-to-urban migration has shifted the concentration of rural and urban populations, and today,
more people live in cities than at any previous time in human history. This change is not merely

40
a matter of numbers; a reorganization of space naturally accompanies such a dramatic transfer of
population.

Rural-to-urban migration is an inherently spatial phenomenon, so the field of human geography

can help to reveal and analyze the causes and consequences of this change.

People living in rural areas are more likely to migrate than those living in urban cities. Cities
have developed into centers of industry, commerce, education, and entertainment. The allure of
city living and the many opportunities that may come with it have long driven people to uproot
and settle in the city.

Rural-to-urban migration is when people move, either temporarily or permanently, from a rural
area to an urban city.

Rural-to-urban migration occurs at both the national and international level, but internal or
national migration takes place at a higher rate. This type of migration is voluntary, meaning that
migrants willingly choose to relocate. However, rural-to-urban migration can also be forced in
some cases, such as when rural refugees flee to urban areas.

Developing countries characteristically have higher rates of rural-to-urban migration compared

to countries with more developed economies. This difference is attributed to developing
countries having a larger proportion of the population living in rural areas, where they participate
in traditional rural economies like agriculture and natural resource management.

Causes of Rural-to-Urban Migration

While urban cities have been undergoing remarkable transformations through population growth
and economic expansion, rural areas have not experienced this same level of development. The
discrepancies between rural and urban development are the principal causes of rural-to-urban
migration, and they best described through push and pull factors.

A push factor is anything that causes a person to want to leave their current living situation, and
a pull factor is anything that attracts a person to move to a different location.

Let's take a look at some important push and pull factors across the environmental, social, and
economic reasons that people choose to migrate from rural to urban areas.

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Environmental Factors
Rural life is highly integrated with and dependent on the natural environment. Natural disasters
are a common factor that pushes rural residents to migrate to urban cities. This includes events
that may immediately displace people, such as floods, droughts, wildfires, and intense weather.
Forms of environmental degradation operate more slowly, but are still noteworthy push factors.
Through processes of desertification, soil loss, pollution, and water scarcity, the profitability of
the natural environment and agriculture is reduced. This pushes people to move in pursuit of
replacing their economic losses. Example: Much of Ethiopia is rural, so the drought has affected
millions of those whose livelihoods rely on agriculture.

Urban cities offer the promise of a less direct dependence on the natural environment.
Environmental pull factors include access to more consistent resources like fresh water and food
in cities. Vulnerability to natural disasters and climate change impacts is also reduced when
moving from a rural to urban area.

Social Factors
Increased access to quality education and health care facilities are a common pull factor in rural-
to-urban migration. Rural areas often lack government services when compared to their urban
counterparts. More government spending often goes towards providing public services in cities.
Urban cities also offer a plethora of recreation and entertainment options not found in rural areas.
From shopping malls to museums, the excitement of city life attracts many rural migrants.

Economic Factors
Employment and educational opportunities are cited as the most common pull factors associated
with rural-to-urban migration. Poverty, food insecurity, and lack of opportunities in rural areas
are a consequence of uneven economic development and push people to urban areas where
development has been greater.

It is not uncommon for rural residents to abandon agricultural lifestyles when their land becomes
degraded, affected by natural disasters, or otherwise unprofitable. When paired with job loss

42
through the mechanization and commercialization of agriculture, rural unemployment becomes a
major push factor.

The Green Revolution occurred in the 1960s and included the mechanization of agriculture and
the use of synthetic fertilizers. This coincides with a massive shift to rural-to-urban migration in
developing countries. Rural unemployment increased, as less labor was needed in food
production.

Advantages of Rural-to-Urban Migration

The most prominent advantages of rural-to-urban migration are the increased educational and
employment opportunities provided to migrants. With increased access to government services
like health care, higher education, and basic infrastructure, a rural migrant's standard of living
can dramatically improve.

From the city level perspective, the availability of labor is increased through rural-to-urban
migration. This population growth promotes further economic development and the
accumulation of capital within industries.

Disadvantages of Rural-to-Urban Migration

The loss in population experienced by rural areas disrupts the rural labor market and can deepen
the rural and urban development divide. This can hinder agricultural productivity in areas where
commercial agriculture is not prevalent, and it impacts city residents who rely on rural food
production. In addition, once land is sold as migrants leave for the city, it can often be acquired
by large corporations for industrial agriculture or intensive natural resource harvesting. Often,
this land use intensification can further degrade the environment.

Brain drain is another disadvantage of rural-to-urban migration, as those who could contribute to
the development of rural economies choose to remain permanently in the city. This can also
result in the loss of family ties and a reduction in rural social cohesion.

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Lastly, the promise of urban opportunities is not always kept, as many cities struggle to keep up
with their population growth. High rates of unemployment and lack of affordable housing often
lead to the formation of squatter settlements on the periphery of megacities. Rural poverty then
takes on an urban form, and the standard of living can decrease.

Solutions for Rural-to-Urban Migration

Solutions to rural-to-urban migration center on the revitalization of rural economies. Rural
development efforts should be concentrated on incorporating the pull factors of cities into rural
areas and reducing the factors that push people to migrate away.

This is achieved through providing increased government services in higher and vocational
education, which prevents rural brain drain and fosters economic growth and entrepreneurship.
Industrialization can also offer greater employment opportunities. Urban pull factors like
entertainment and recreation can be supplemented with the establishment of these infrastructures
in rural spaces. In addition, public transportation investments can allow rural residents to more
easily travel to and from city centers.

To ensure that the traditional rural economies of agriculture and natural resource management
are viable options, governments can work to improve land tenure rights and subsidize food
production costs. Increasing loan opportunities for rural residents can support new land buyers
and small businesses. In some regions, the development of a rural ecotourism economy can
further offer rural employment opportunities in sectors such as hospitality and land stewardship.

Examples of Rural-to-Urban Migration

Rural-to-urban migration rates are consistently higher than urban-to-rural migration rates.
However, different social, political, and economic factors contribute to the unique push and pull
factors causing this migration.

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South Sudan
The urban city of Juba, located along the Nile River in the Republic of South Sudan, has
undergone rapid population growth and economic development in recent decades. The
surrounding agricultural lands of the city have provided a steady source of rural-to-urban
migrants settling in Juba.
A 2017 study found that the primary pull factors from rural-to-urban migrants are the greater education
and employment opportunities offered by Juba. The underlying push factors were related to issues of land
tenure rights and climate change impacts on agriculture and animal husbandry. The city of Juba has
struggled to meet the demands of its growing population, and several squatter settlements have formed as
a result.

China
China's population is thought to have seen the largest rural-to-urban migration flows in history. Since the
1980s, national economic reforms have increased taxes related to food production and increased the
scarcity of available farmland. These push factors have driven rural residents to take up temporary or
permanent employment in urban centers, where much of their income is returned to family members who
do not migrate.
This example of mass rural-to-urban migration has had many consequences on the remaining
rural population. Often, children are left to work and live with grandparents, while parents seek
employment away in cities. Issues of child neglect and under education have grown as a result.
The disruption of family ties is directly caused by partial migration, where only a portion of the
family moves to the city. The cascading social and cultural effects demand increased attention to
rural revitalization.

Rural-to-Urban Migration - Key takeaways

 Rural-to-urban migration is primarily caused by the allure of greater education and
employment opportunities in urban cities.
 Uneven rural and urban development has resulted in cities having greater economic growth
and government services, which attracts rural migrants.
 Rural-to-urban migration can have negative consequences on rural economies like agriculture
and natural resource management, as the labor force can be drastically reduced.
 Natural disasters and environmental degradation reduce the profitability of rural land and
push migrants to urban cities.

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 Increasing education and employment opportunities in rural areas are the first steps to
revitalizing rural economies and reducing rural-to-urban migration.

3.3. The link between population growth and economic growth

Population and economic growth are economic concepts that don't always follow the same rules
between countries.
Effects of Population Growth on the Economy
Population growth has many effects on the economy. First, let's go over the definition of
population growth: the increase in the number of people in a given area. With this definition,
how can we apply it to the economy?

Population growth may have a positive effect on the economy. For example, an increase in the
number of people in the United States will lead to more access to labor, which will lead to higher
productivity, which then will lead to more goods being produced. Output (as measured by GDP)
will increase in the country as a result! More people in the country will also lead to more demand
for goods. Demanding and producing more goods will yield economic growth. This is an
example of population growth having a positive effect on the economy.

Population growth may also have a negative effect on the economy. For example, what if there is
an increase in the number of people in the United States, but many of them are not able to work?
No greater access to labor, no higher productivity, and no extra goods being produced. However,
the demand for those goods is still higher since there are more people in the United States than
before. There is more demand with relatively the same supply leading to an increase in prices.
This is an example of population growth having a negative effect on the economy. Population
Growth is the increase in the number of people in a given area.

Think of supply and demand! An increase in demand with no change in supply will increase
price level and output. An increase in both demand and supply will increase the output with no
change in the price level.

Population Growth and Economic Development

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Let's discuss population growth and economic development. Population growth can be a
potential catalyst for economic development. Will a country with 100 people produce more
goods than a country with 100,000 people? Of course not! A country with a larger population
will have the potential to increase its output more than a country with a smaller population. But
just because a country has a large population doesn't mean that it will automatically develop its
economy.

Developing countries experiencing a sudden spike in population can be problematic for a variety
of reasons. Developing countries do not have the infrastructure or human capital to keep up with
a large influx of people and increase in output is not guaranteed in this situation. Institutions are
also not as well trusted by other countries which makes it hard to engage in trade in the first
place. Developing countries will end up being strained to keep up with a growing population.

So what is the correct approach?

Is population growth good or bad for economic development? It depends on many factors that
make it impossible to give a conclusive answer. Some factors include the following: trust in
institutions, human capital, and infrastructure. Overall, it is important to recognize that
population growth can have different outcomes on economic development depending on the
current state of the country.

Relationship between Population and Economic Growth

What is the relationship between population and economic growth? Does a larger population
cause economic growth? Or does a country with economic growth cause its population to
increase? We can see examples of economically prosperous countries with large populations, but
how did they get there? Which concept causes the other? Let's go over examples of both
phenomena to understand this relationship.

Population Growth Causes Economic Growth

How might a larger population cause economic growth? The easiest path to economic growth
through the population is labor. More people in a country can lead to a larger workforce and

47
easier access to labor. More labor will lead to more products being produced which will then
cause economic growth. Population growth allows for the expansion of labor and products which
then grows the economy.

It is not just about more products being made, there must also be demand for those products!
With a larger population, there will inevitably be more demand for products. Since the supply of
products is growing due to the increased labor, the increased demand will be addressed. Overall,
the population growth caused economic growth with more people demanding and supplying
products.

Economic Growth Causes Population Growth

If population growth certainly causes economic growth, then we would not see economically
poor countries with large populations. Is it possible that, instead, economic growth leads to
population growth?

It is entirely possible that economic growth entices people to move to economically prosperous
countries for more opportunities. An economically prosperous country is likely to have more
jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities for people. An economically prosperous country is also
likely to have better infrastructure, such as roads and bridges, causing more interest in
immigrating to the country.

Unfortunately, there is no clear answer to the relationship between population growth and
economic growth. There are theories that predict how the relationship will play out, but no
definitive answer to its outcome.

Small countries can also be economically prosperous! Many of the Nordic countries are small
but are economically well off.

Positive Effects of Population Growth on Economic Development

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Let's discuss the positive effects of population growth on economic development. What do more
people in a country do for the economy? There are more buyers and sellers — this is pivotal for
economic growth! More products can be made and purchased from a growing population.

Besides, that a growing population can provide a larger labor force, expand domestic markets,
and act as a catalyst for innovation. Other potential benefits of population growth on economic
development include:
 increased entrepreneurship,
 greater diversity and cultural richness,
 support for social security systems through an influx of younger workers,
 increased demand leading to economies of scale in production,
 infrastructure development driven by urbanization, larger political influence,
 increased potential for specialization and division of labor,
 faster diffusion of ideas and innovation,
 and a larger pool of talent

Larger Labor Force

A growing population increases the size of the labor force, providing more human capital which
is a key component of economic growth. For instance, China's population growth during the late
20th century contributed to its phenomenal economic expansion. A larger labor force facilitated
an increase in industrial production and enabled China to become the "world's factory."

Increased Demand
The demand for all goods will increase as a result of a growing population. Recall that a key
component of Aggregate Demand is consumption — with a growing population, increased
consumption is likely to occur. Since a growing population will also mean growing labor, the
increased demand will be met with increased supply and economic growth will occur.

Catalyst of Innovation

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Population growth can stimulate innovation and technological advancements. A larger
population often creates a diverse range of needs and challenges that require innovative
solutions. For example, Japan's ageing population has been a catalyst for advancements in
robotics and automation technology.

Negative Effects of Population Growth on Economic Development

On the other hand, unchecked population growth can exert immense pressure on economic,
social, and environmental resources. Negative effects of population growth on economic
development may include overpopulation leading to resource depletion, increased social
expenditure, and rising unemployment and poverty rates. In this section we will focus on these
free major effects. Other possible drawbacks encompass:
 increased pressure on housing and infrastructure,
 potential for increased crime and social unrest,
 a higher risk of disease spread,
 potential food and water shortages,
 impacts, increased waste production and pollution,
 challenges in managing urbanization and ensuring adequate public services,
 potential increase in income inequality,
 difficulty in achieving universal education, and
 Increased demand for energy resources contributing to global warming.

Overpopulation and Resource Depletion

Rapid population growth can lead to overpopulation, which puts a strain on natural resources and
the environment. For example, deforestation in the Amazon rainforest, driven in part by
population growth, has led to biodiversity loss and contributed to climate change, which poses
significant challenges to sustainable economic development.

Increased Social Expenditure

A high population growth rate often requires increased social expenditure in education and
healthcare, potentially diverting resources from other areas that could contribute to economic

50
development. This effect can be seen in many developing countries, where high birth rates
necessitate substantial investments in schooling, potentially limiting the resources available for
investments in infrastructure or industrial development.

Unemployment and Poverty

If economic growth fails to keep pace with population growth, it can lead to higher
unemployment rates and exacerbate poverty. For instance, in some regions of Sub-Saharan
Africa, rapid population growth has outpaced economic development, leading to high
unemployment rates and persistent poverty.

Population and Economic Growth in Developing Countries

Let's go over population growth and economic growth in developing countries. Developing
countries typically have fragile infrastructure and low average per capita income. Therefore,
population growth will not directly lead to economic growth. In fact, population growth will
likely cause economic stagnation in developing countries.

Why might population growth be bad for developing countries? Without the proper institutions
and infrastructure, developing countries cannot meet the demand of a growing population. For
example, if there is an influx of demand for resources but no more supply of those resources,
then the country will have to raise prices on the existing supply leading to inflation. There will
also be a scarcity of all resources, such as land, food, shelter, and clothing. Institutions and
infrastructure designed to keep up with a growing population can get around these issues.
However, developing countries are not in the position to maintain a growing population within
their borders.

Population and Economic Growth - Summary

 Population Growth is the increase in the number of people in a given area.
 Developing countries are countries with fragile infrastructure and low average per capita
income.
 The relationship between population growth and economic growth is inconclusive; both
can cause the other to happen.

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  The positive effects of population growth on the economy revolve around increased
output.
 Developing countries struggle with population growth due to a lack of institutions and
infrastructure.
 Economic growth may grow the population — economic growth may also stagnate the
population.
 The relationship between the economy and population growth is undetermined — there
can be both a positive or negative relationship between the two.
 Yes, the economy can grow without population growth, but it can be made easier if it
does have population growth if the infrastructure is in place for the country to succeed.
 Population growth is important because it can help with economic growth.
 The relationship between population and economic development is not conclusive.
Population growth can cause economic development; economic development can cause
population growth.
 If the population growth rate surpasses that of economic development, resources per
capita may become strained, leading to a potential decline in living standards and
economic well-being. This scenario can exacerbate issues like poverty, unemployment,
and social inequalities and may pose significant challenges to infrastructure, health and
education systems, and the environment.

CHAPTER FOUR

4. Poverty, underdevelopment and sustainable development

4.1. Definition of poverty
Poverty is the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material
possessions. Poverty is said to exist when people lack the means to satisfy their basic needs. In
this context, the identification of poor people first requires a determination of what constitutes
basic needs. These may be defined as narrowly as “those necessary for survival” or as broadly as

52
“those reflecting the prevailing standard of living in the community.” The first criterion would
cover only those people near the borderline of starvation or death from exposure; the second
would extend to people whose nutrition, housing, and clothing, though adequate to preserve life,
do not measure up to those of the population as a whole. The problem of definition is further
compounded by the noneconomic connotations that the word poverty has acquired. Poverty has
been associated, for example, with poor health, low levels of education or skills, an inability or
an unwillingness to work, high rates of disruptive or disorderly behavior, and improvidence.
While these attributes have often been found to exist with poverty, their inclusion in a definition
of poverty would tend to obscure the relation between them and the inability to provide for one’s
basic needs. Whatever definition one uses, authorities and laypersons alike commonly assume
that the effects of poverty are harmful to both individuals and society.

Although poverty is a phenomenon as old as human history, its significance has changed over
time. Under traditional (i.e., non-industrialized) modes of economic production, widespread
poverty had been accepted as inevitable. The total output of goods and services, even if equally
distributed, would still have been insufficient to give the entire population a comfortable
standard of living by prevailing standards. With the economic productivity that resulted from
industrialization, however, this ceased to be the case—especially in the world’s most
industrialized countries, where national outputs were sufficient to raise the entire population to a
comfortable level if the necessary redistribution could be arranged without adversely affecting
output.

Poverty is about not having enough money to meet basic needs including food, clothing and
shelter. However, poverty is more, much more than just not having enough money.

The World Bank Organization describes poverty in this way:

“Poverty is hunger. Poverty is lack of shelter. Poverty is being sick and not being able to see a
doctor. Poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not
having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time.

Poverty has many faces, changing from place to place and across time, and has been described in
many ways. Most often, poverty is a situation people want to escape. So poverty is a call to

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action -- for the poor and the wealthy alike -- a call to change the world so that many more may
have enough to eat, adequate shelter, access to education and health, protection from violence,
and a voice in what happens in their communities.”

In addition to a lack of money, poverty is about not being able to participate in recreational
activities; not being able to send children on a day trip with their schoolmates or to a birthday
party; not being able to pay for medications for an illness. These are all costs of being poor.
Those people who are barely able to pay for food and shelter simply can’t consider these other
expenses. When people are excluded within a society, when they are not well educated and
when they have a higher incidence of illness, there are negative consequences for society. We all
pay the price for poverty. The increased cost on the health system, the justice system and other
systems that provide supports to those living in poverty has an impact on our economy.

While much progress has been made in measuring and analyzing poverty, the World Bank
Organization is doing more work to identify indicators for the other dimensions of poverty. This
work includes identifying social indicators to track education, health, access to services,
vulnerability, and social exclusion.

There is no one cause of poverty, and the results of it are different in every case. Poverty varies
considerably depending on the situation. Feeling poor in Canada is different from living in
poverty in Russia or Zimbabwe. The differences between rich and poor within the borders of a
country can also be great.

Despite the many definitions, one thing is certain; poverty is a complex societal issue. No matter
how poverty is defined, it can be agreed that it is an issue that requires everyone’s attention. It is
important that all members of our society work together to provide the opportunities for all our
members to reach their full potential. It helps all of us to help one another.

Other Definition of poverty

Poverty is a state or condition in which one lacks the financial resources and essentials for a
certain standard of living. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and
effects. When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures:

54
1. Absolute poverty compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs,
such as food, clothing, and shelter;
2. Relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards,
compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of relative poverty varies from
one country to another, or from one society to another.

Statistically, as of 2019, most of the world's population live in poverty: in PPP (purchasing
power parities)dollars, 85% of people live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than
$10 per day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day now changed to $2.15/day.(extreme
poverty).

According to the World Bank Group in 2020, more than 40% of the poor live in conflict-affected
countries. Even when countries experience economic development, the poorest citizens of
middle-income countries frequently do not gain an adequate share of their countries' increased
wealth to leave poverty. Governments and non-governmental organizations have experimented
with a number of different policies and programs for poverty alleviation, such as electrification
in rural areas or housing first policies in urban areas. The international policy frameworks for
poverty alleviation, established by the United Nations in 2015, are summarized in Sustainable
Development Goal 1: "No Poverty".

Social forces, such as gender, disability, race and ethnicity, can exacerbate issues of poverty with
women, children and minorities frequently bearing unequal burdens of poverty. Moreover,
impoverished individuals are more vulnerable to the effects of other social issues, such as the
environmental effects of industry or the impacts of climate change or other natural disasters or
extreme weather events. Poverty can also make other social problems worse; economic pressures
on impoverished communities frequently play a part in deforestation, biodiversity loss and ethnic
conflict. For this reason, the UN's Sustainable Development Goals and other international policy
programs, such as the international recovery from COVID-19, emphasize the connection of
poverty alleviation with other societal goals.

4.2. Forms of poverty

A. Cyclical poverty
Cyclical poverty refers to poverty that may be widespread throughout a population, but the
occurrence itself is of limited duration. In nonindustrial societies (present and past), this sort of

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inability to provide for one’s basic needs rests mainly upon temporary food shortages caused by
natural phenomena or poor agricultural planning. Prices would rise because of scarcities of food,
which brought widespread, albeit temporary, misery.
In industrialized societies the chief cyclical cause of poverty is fluctuations in the business cycle,
with mass unemployment during periods of depression or serious recession. Throughout the 19th
and early 20th centuries, the industrialized nations of the world experienced business panics and
recessions that temporarily enlarged the numbers of the poor. The United States’ experience in
the Great Depression of the 1930s, though unique in some of its features, exemplifies this kind of
poverty. And until the Great Depression, poverty resulting from business fluctuations was
accepted as an inevitable consequence of a natural process of market regulation. Relief was
granted to the unemployed to tide them over until the business cycle again entered an upswing.
The experiences of the Great Depression inspired a generation of economists such as John
Maynard Keynes, who sought solutions to the problems caused by extreme swings in the
business cycle. Since the Great Depression, governments in nearly all advanced industrial
societies have adopted economic policies that attempt to limit the ill effects of economic
fluctuation. In this sense, governments play an active role in poverty alleviation by increasing
spending as a means of stimulating the economy. Part of this spending comes in the form of
direct assistance to the unemployed, either through unemployment compensation, welfare, and
other subsidies or by employment on public-works projects. Although business depressions
affect all segments of society, the impact is most severe on people of the lowest socioeconomic
strata because they have fewer marginal resources than those of a higher strata.

B. Collective poverty
In contrast to cyclical poverty, which is temporary, widespread or “collective” poverty involves a
relatively permanent insufficiency of means to secure basic needs. A condition that may be so
general as to describe the average level of life in a society or that may be concentrated in
relatively large groups in an otherwise prosperous society. Both generalized and concentrated
collective poverty may be transmitted from generation to generation, parents passing their
poverty on to their children.
Collective poverty is relatively general and lasting in parts of Asia, the Middle East, most of
Africa, and parts of South America and Central America. Life for the bulk of the population in
these regions is at a minimal level. Nutritional deficiencies cause disease seldom seen by doctors

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in the highly developed countries. Low life expectancy, high levels of infant mortality, and poor
health characterize life in these societies.

Collective poverty is usually related to economic underdevelopment. The total resources of many
developing nations in Africa, Asia, and South and Central America would be insufficient to
support the population adequately even if they were equally divided among all of the citizens.
Proposed remedies are twofold: (1) expansion of the gross national product (GNP) through
improved agriculture or industrialization, or both, and (2) population limitation. Thus far, both
population control and induced economic development in many countries have proved difficult,
controversial, and at times inconclusive or disappointing in their results.

An increase of the GNP does not necessarily lead to an improved standard of living for the
population at large, for a number of reasons. The most important reason is that, in many
developing countries, the population grows even faster than the economy does, with no net
reduction in poverty as a result. This increased population growth stems primarily from lowered
infant mortality rates made possible by improved sanitary and disease-control measures. Unless
such lowered rates eventually result in women bearing fewer children, the result is a sharp
acceleration in population growth. To reduce birth rates, some developing countries have
undertaken nationally administered family-planning programs, with varying results. Many
developing nations are also characterized by a long-standing system of unequal distribution of
wealth—a system likely to continue despite marked increases in the GNP. Some authorities have
observed the tendency for a large portion of any increase to be siphoned off by persons who are
already wealthy, while others claim that increases in GNP will always trickle down to the part of
the population living at the subsistence level.

C. Concentrated collective poverty

In many industrialized, relatively affluent countries, particular demographic groups are
vulnerable to long-term poverty. In city ghettos, in regions bypassed or abandoned by industry,
and in areas where agriculture or industry is inefficient and cannot compete profitably, there are
found victims of concentrated collective poverty. These people, like those afflicted with
generalized poverty, have higher mortality rates, poor health, low educational levels, and so forth
when compared with the more affluent segments of society. Their chief economic traits are
unemployment and underemployment, unskilled occupations, and job instability. Efforts at

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amelioration focus on ways to bring the deprived groups into the mainstream of economic life by
attracting new industry, promoting small business, introducing improved agricultural methods,
and raising the level of skills of the employable members of the society.

Case poverty

Similar to collective poverty in relative permanence but different from it in terms of distribution,
case poverty refers to the inability of an individual or family to secure basic needs even in social
surroundings of general prosperity. This inability is generally related to the lack of some basic
attribute that would permit the individual to maintain himself or herself. Such persons may, for
example, be blind, physically or emotionally disabled, or chronically ill. Physical and mental
handicaps are usually regarded sympathetically, as being beyond the control of the people who
suffer from them. Efforts to ameliorate poverty due to physical causes focus on education,
sheltered employment, and, if needed, economic maintenance.

4.3. Manifestations of poverty

Global poverty is nothing new, but some of its causes might be commonly overlooked or
forgotten. Though there are many reasons for the manifestation of poverty, there are five largely
important causes that need more attention from those who can make a difference.
1. Inadequate education is a highly agreed upon cause of poverty, both in first world nations as
well as poverty stricken developing countries. Commonly, education quality differs between
urban and rural areas, as well as between wealthy neighborhoods and poorer parts of cities.
According to Project Partner of China, rural children are more likely to attend deteriorating
school facilities and face insufficient materials. Meanwhile, urban children typically have
outstanding educational experiences that allow them to prosper throughout their lives. Without a
proper education, the cycle of poverty often continues. Children born into poverty have a
difficult time receiving an education that will support them throughout life and pull them out of
poverty.
2. Healthcare access varies around the world, but in a majority of poverty stricken countries
little to no healthcare is provided, especially to those in extreme poverty. Inverse care, where
those better off have more access to healthcare but fewer needs for it, benefits the wealthy and
worsens conditions for the poor. Global Issues reported that “2.2 million children died each year
because they are not immunized” due to lack of healthcare.

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3. Disease goes hand in hand with healthcare, or lack thereof, and that makes it all the more
obvious why healthcare is critical. Diseases quickly spread through areas that lack proper health
education and offer little healthcare. As these diseases spread, it becomes more difficult for
families to take care of themselves, much less thrive. According to Global Issues, “40 million
people are living with HIV/AIDS, [resulting in] 3 million deaths in 2004,” leaving 15 million
children orphaned. Though HIV/AIDS causes an extremely high number of fatalities, there are
350-500 million cases of malaria each year, with 1 million of those ending fatally. Notably, 90
percent of deaths from malaria are found in Africa alone. While prevention is desirable, a cure is
needed to truly make a lasting difference.

4. Dependency is possibly the most overlooked issue on this list. Dependency is often associated
with laziness or the concept that those dependent cannot support themselves, but it goes much
deeper than that. First-world countries have created a system that keeps poverty riddled countries
from being able to provide for themselves. That, however, does not mean the system was
intended to push third-world countries further into poverty. Rather, the truck loads of
secondhand items that are continuously shipped into third-world countries have crippled their
industries, and thus made them dependent on aid. By investing in these countries to help them
rebuild an economy that can flourish, more developed countries will no longer be handing them
momentary help, but making a lasting impact on their livelihood.

5. Ignorance and apathy, though two different notions, result in similar outcomes. Lacking the
knowledge to care or to make a difference is a sad reality among many people in the world.
Apathy, on the other hand, is not wanting to gain the knowledge to improve the lives of others. It
is often easiest to live a life of ignorance, so many do. Occasionally donating to your local food
drive or clothing shelter are great ways to start improving the lives of others, but going the
distance to educate yourself and learning how to permanently aid those less fortunate will make a
lasting difference. All of the manifestations of poverty cannot simply be numbered to five, but
these causes play a large role in the sad reality. Gaining education over what needs to be done to
help the human race is the perfect place to start and improve the conditions of those in need.

To end poverty and hunger, achieve the SDGs related to health, education and access to decent
work, and build the capacity to address environmental challenges, the economies of low-income
and lower-middle-income countries need to grow much more rapidly than their populations,

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requiring greatly expanded investments in infrastructure as well as increased access to affordable
energy and modern technology in all sectors. Wealthy countries and the international community
can help to ensure that these countries receive the necessary technical and financial assistance so
that their economies can grow using technologies that will minimize future greenhouse gas
emissions.

4.3. Definition, Features and Causes of Underdevelopment

Definition of Underdevelopment
In more recent times, the phenomenon of underdevelopment has gained momentum in both national and
international discourse. Maybe because, as the global wealth continues to increase in this age of
globalization, only very few nations are gaining and progressing from such expansion, while others, many
of whom are found in the Third World, have continued to experience underdevelopment. Despite the
billions of dollars that annually go into the eradication of underdevelopment, it the under-utilization of
their human and material resources, or a combination of both factors. Underdevelopment depicts an
appalling situation where the human and socio-economic potentials of a given society have either been
externally exploited to the detriment of its inhabitants, or have not been fully or optimally harnessed by
the government for a better and quality living of its citizens.

Underdevelopment makes sense only as a parameter for comparing levels of development across the
globe. Every society has developed in one way or another. Some societies have developed more by being
able to master science and technology and deploy such superior knowledge in the production of tools with
which they meet their needs, and even exploit, subjugate and dominate other societies that have “lesser”
knowledge of science and technology, and this, directly or indirectly stagnates development process of
the latter while accelerating the development of the former.

Underdevelopment is a consequence of Industrial Revolution. Many countries of the world have been
experiencing underdevelopment for more than 250 years – since the Industrial Revolution. Before then,
the level of development in all societies across the globe was relatively equal though there were little
variations in some cases. Every society before then, have developed in one way or another at its own
pace, and to address its own peculiarities. There was no naked exploitation of one country by another as
such before then. Precisely, for centuries, great empires like those of China, India and what is today
known as the Arab nations were the leaders in wealth and technology. But their technological innovations
did not take off to become a revolution in the production of goods and services.

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However, the Industrial Revolution took the globe like a storm and altered development equations across
the world. The Industrial Revolution led to the use of machines in production, and this led to mass
production which generated surplus value, and this led to capitalism which created the quest for profit
maximization, and this led to imperialism (subjugation of other nations in search for raw material, cheap
labour and markets for finished goods) which led to colonialism, and this led to neo-colonialism which is
said to cause underdevelopment in the periphery. The transformation of production, thus embarked on,
has helped the West stay the leader in new technological development. While the exploiting powers or the
industrialized capitalist states (example, USA, Britain, France, Germany, Japan, etc) are described as
“developed” or “core” or “metropole” or “centre of the periphery” or “rich” societies, the socio-
economically exploited societies are described as “undeveloped” or “poor” or “periphery” or “satellite” or
seems the problem instead of reducing, is increasing.

Underdevelopment is not absence of development, nor the absence of human and natural resources. It
means the inadequate or insufficient level of development in the Third World as a result of the
exploitation or “underdeveloped” or “Third world” or most recently, “developing” countries. The term
“underdeveloped” is fast disappearing in international lexicon because it is considered derogatory, and it
is being replaced with “developing” which is considered to be more polite and courteous.

However, the term underdeveloped is still closely associated with the Dependency School who believe
that in the global economy, there are centrifugal forces at work, strengthening the already rich core, while
keeping the periphery poor, and in a state of permanent underdevelopment.

The underdeveloped countries are found mostly in Africa, Asia and Latin-America (though with few
exceptions following the recent socio-economic development in Brazil, China, India and Asian Tigers –
Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea and Thailand). Underdevelopment depicts the poor socio-economic
conditions of the developing countries.

In his work - The Political Economy of Growth, Paul Baran argued that it was the search for the external
outlet to invest economic surplus that indirectly led to underdevelopment. He defined economic surplus as
the difference between society’s actual current output and its actual current consumption. Economic
surplus can be saved and invested, but it can only be generated if a country produces more than it
consumes. By producing more and consuming less, the industrialized capitalist nations generated and
saved a lot of economic surplus, but without corresponding internal outlets for investing the accumulated
surplus.

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This compelled them to search for and create external outlets for the investment of the economic surplus.
This led to imperialism and later, colonialism and neo-colonialism. That was why the ex-colonies
(satellite states) were created and designed to serve as avenues for investments, and most importantly, as
markets for finished goods from the colonizing powers (the metropole). Manufacturing which would later
shape and define global economy was never encouraged in the satellite states. All these, individually, and
in combination led to the underdevelopment of the productive forces which have continued to undermine
development process in the Third World.

Features of Underdevelopment
Underdevelopment is a feature of underdeveloped states. These states have certain characteristics that
mark them out from the developed nations of the world. These include the following:
• Imperialism, Slave Trade, Colonialism, Exploitation and Dependency
• Export of Primary Commodities (such as cotton, rubber, cocoa, groundnut, palm oil, crude oil etc)
• Low Manufacturing Activities
• Corruption and Bad Governance
• Political and Social Instability
• Inadequate social infrastructure (such as electricity, potable water, good roads, well equipped schools
and functional hospitals, etc)
• Weak Economy
• Weak Institutions
• Obsolete Technologies
• Low per Capital Income
• Low Standard of Living
• Low Life Expectancy
• High Poverty Rate
• High Unemployment Rate
• High Crime Rate
• Insecurity
• Living on Charity
All these above stated problems are common to all countries of the world that are presently experiencing
underdevelopment though their magnitudes vary from one country to another. At one point or another of
their history, the underdeveloped countries were all annexed, enslaved, colonized and exploited by the
industrialized capitalist states. Their economies were designed to be dependent; hence they could only
produce primary products whose prices are often unjustly determined by the industrialized capitalist

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nations. This, combined with corruption and bad governance that later ensued, resulted in the non-
provision of the basic amenities of life.

All these factors collectively weakened their economies, and the inequality and wars. Today, most of
these countries depend largely on charity to eke out a living, or to even survive.

CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that imperialism, slave trade, colonialism and neocolonialism have been largely
responsible for underdevelopment in the Third World, and internal factors such as corruption, bad
governance, and political instability are also integral part of the problem and therefore, should always be
taken into cognizance in the analysis of underdevelopment anywhere in the world.

Generally to create sustainable development generally all countries and specifically developing countries
should decrease the degree of underdevelopment and poverty, as well as spread the face of infrastructure,
invest more on domestic product, encourage export, and create mutual benefit on foreign trade.

CHAPTER FIVE

The environment and sustainable development

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5.1. The environment-Definition and functions
Environment is defined as the total planetary inheritance and the totality of all resources. It
includes all the biotic and abiotic factors that influence each other. While all living elements the
birds, animals and plants, forests, fisheries etc. are biotic elements, abiotic elements include air,
water, land etc. Rocks and sunlight are examples of abiotic elements of the environment. A study
of the environment then calls for a study of the inter-relationship between these biotic and abiotic
components of the environment.

Functions of the Environment: The environment performs four vital functions

(i) It supplies resources: resources here include both renewable and non-renewable
resources. Renewable resources are those which can be used without the possibility of the
resource becoming depleted or exhausted. That is, a continuous supply of the resource
remains available. Examples of renewable resources are the trees in the forests and the
fishes in the ocean. Non-renewable resources, on the other hand, are those which get
exhausted with extraction and use, for example, fossil fuel.
(ii) It assimilates waste

(iii) It sustains life by providing genetic and bio diversity and

(iv) It also provides aesthetic services like scenery etc.

The environment is able to perform these functions without any interruption as long as the demand on
these functions is within its carrying capacity. This implies that the resource extraction is not above the
rate of regeneration of the resource and the wastes generated are within the assimilating capacity of the
environment. When this is not so, the environment fails to perform its third and vital function of life
sustenance and this results in an environmental crisis. This is the situation today all over the world. The
rising population of the developing countries and the affluent consumption and production standards of
the developed world have placed a huge stress on the environment in terms of its first two functions.
Many resources have become extinct and the wastes generated are beyond the absorptive capacity of the
environment. Absorptive capacity means the ability of the environment to absorb degradation. The result
— we are today at the threshold of environmental crisis. The past development has polluted and dried up
rivers and other aquifers making water an economic good. Besides, the intensive and extensive extraction
of both renewable and non-renewable resources has exhausted some of these vital resources and we are
compelled to spend huge amounts on technology and research to explore new resources. Added to these
are the health costs of degraded environmental quality — decline in air and water quality (seventy per

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cent of water in India is polluted) have resulted in increased incidence of respiratory and water-borne
diseases. Hence the expenditure on health is also rising. To make matters worse, global environmental
issues such as global warming and ozone depletion also contribute to increased financial commitments for
the government.

Thus, it is clear that the opportunity costs of negative environmental impacts are high. The biggest
question that arises is: are environmental problems new to this century? If so, why? The answer to this
question requires some elaboration. In the early days when civilization just began, or before this
phenomenal increase in population, and before countries took to industrialization, the demand for
environmental resources and services was much less than their supply. This meant that pollution was
within the absorptive capacity of the environment and the rate of resource extraction was less than the rate
of regeneration of these resources. Hence environmental problems did not arise.

But with population explosion and with the advent of industrial revolution to meet the growing needs of
the expanding population, things changed. The result was that the demand for resources for both
production and consumption went beyond the rate of regeneration of the resources; the pressure on the
absorptive capacity of the environment increased tremendously — this trend continues even today. Thus
what has happened is a reversal of supply-demand relationship for environmental quality — we are now
faced with increased demand for environmental resources and services but their supply is limited due to
overuse and misuse. Hence the environmental issues of waste generation and pollution have become
critical today.

Some of the factors responsible for land degradation are (i) loss of vegetation occurring due to
deforestation (ii) unsustainable fuel wood and fodder extraction (iii) shifting cultivation (iv)
encroachment into forest lands (v) forest fires and over grazing (vi) non-adoption of adequate soil
conservation measures (vii) improper crop rotation (viii) indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals such as
fertilizers and pesticides (ix) improper planning and management of irrigation systems (x) extraction of
ground water in excess of the recharge capacity (xi) open access resource and (xii) poverty of the
agriculture-dependent people. India supports approximately 17 per cent of the world’s human and 20 per
cent of livestock population on a mere 2.5 per cent of the world’s geographical area. The high density of
population and livestock and the competing uses of land for forestry, agriculture, pastures, human
settlements and industries exert an enormous pressure on the country’s finite land resources.

Environment and economy are interdependent and need each other. Hence, development that ignores its
repercussions on the environment will destroy the environment that sustains life forms. What is needed is

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sustainable development: development that will allow all future generations to have a potential average
quality of life that is at least as high as that which is being enjoyed by the current generation. The concept
of sustainable development was emphasized by the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), which defined it as: ‘Development that meets the need of the present generation
without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs’. Read the definition
again. You will notice that the term ‘need’ and the phrase ‘future generations’ in the definition are the
catch phrases. The use of the concept ‘needs’ in the definition is linked to distribution of resources. The
seminal report—Our Common Future—that gave the above definition explained sustainable development
as ‘meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a
better life’. Meeting the needs of all requires redistributing resources and is hence a moral issue. Edward
Barbier defined sustainable development as one which is directly concerned with increasing the material
standard of living of the poor at the grass root level — this can be quantitatively measured in terms of
increased income, real income, educational services, health care, sanitation, water supply etc. In more
specific terms, sustainable development aims at decreasing the absolute poverty of the poor by providing
lasting and secure livelihoods that minimize resource depletion, environmental degradation, cultural
disruption and social instability. Sustainable development is, in this sense, a development that meets the
basic needs of all, particularly the poor majority, for employment, food, energy, water, housing, and
ensures growth of agriculture, manufacturing, power and services to meet these needs.

The Brundtland Commission emphasizes on protecting the future generation. This is in line with the
argument of the environmentalists who emphasize that we have a moral obligation to hand over the
planet earth in good order to the future generation; that is, the present generation should bequeath a
better environment to the future generation. At least we should leave to the next generation a stock of
‘quality of life’ assets no less than what we have inherited.

The present generation can promote development that enhances the natural and built environment in
ways that are compatible with (i) conservation of natural assets (ii) preservation of the regenerative
capacity of the world’s natural ecological system (iii) avoiding the imposition of added costs or risks on
future generations.

According to Herman Daly, a leading environmental economist, to achieve sustainable development, the
following needs to be done (i) limiting the human population to a level within the carrying capacity of the
environment. The carrying capacity of the environment is like a‘plimsoll line’ of the ship which is its load

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limit mark. In the absence of the plimsoll line for the economy, human scale grows beyond the carrying
capacity of the earth and deviates from sustainable development (ii) technological progress should be
input efficient and not input consuming (iii) renewable resources should be extracted on a sustainable
basis, that is, rate of extraction should not exceed rate of regeneration (iv) for non-renewable resources
rate of depletion should not exceed the rate of creation of renewable substitutes and (v) inefficiencies
arising from pollution should be corrected. In 2015, the UN formulated 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) intended to be achieved by the year 2030. Collect the details of those goals and discuss
them in the context of India.

5.2. Natural resources and sustainable development

The term of natural resources includes “all resources” that exist in natural state and all systems that are or
can be useful to the man in the actual technological, economic and social circumstances (Flavin, 2002).
Frequently, into the economic specialty literature and not only the term of “resources” was associated
with the one of “reserves” that indicate well defined resources that are known to exist. Nevertheless, the
data concerning the reserves are subdue to frequent changes and, supplementary, seem to support a high
level of uncertainty. Therefore, the term of reserves is the most frequently mentioned in the connections
with the non-renewable reserves (e.g. fossil fuels, iron and non-iron ores, deposits of stones, marble,
uranium).

The most used classification of natural resources is that which divides them into renewable resources (i.e.
solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, agricultural lands, forests, air and waters) and non-renewable
resources (i.e. mineral substances and fossil fuels). The renewable attribute of the natural resources
depends more times of the proper use of some unrestrictive administrative methods, as the case of
agricultural lands and proper storage of wastes, because some changes in the system of natural resources
can be proven to be irreversible.

The supplementation of stocks of natural resources is generated as a result of discoveries by explorations.

From this reason the process of exploration is highly linked with the administration of natural resources.
The renewable resources possesses proper rate of increasing or regeneration. Generally, the explorations
supply information concerning the reserves of resources. Sometimes these information’s are precise, with
a high level of certainty, but, other times the information can be no more than probable and so subdue to a
certain error. Besides, the explorations against the existent stocks are not free but expensive and the
information that are supplied must be treated as a ‚poor input’ in the production process of goods from
natural resources. In these conditions, the stocks or reserves indicate that are known to be available in the

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future while the dynamic of goods and services constitutes an indicator of the current usefulness. It must
be underlined the fact that, in the case of in situ utilization, the distinction is not so clear, because the
stock is formed by the itself system of natural resource (e.g. 1000 m2 of mature oak forest), while the
dynamic of services can consist of the interaction with other natural systems or people (e.g. wild life or
usual pleasure or advertising activities).

- The use of natural resources into the productive technological processes means the direct consumption
of resources for satisfaction of needs of products and services. The exploitation of natural resources can
be performed into a complex, coordinated manner, through the simultaneous satisfaction of more
consumption demands. The actual generation evidently supports the degradation and sometimes
decreasing of natural resources because of the past generations. The future generation will support not
only the actual cost of environment degradation, of natural resources diminishing but also the cost of
accumulation into the environment of atmospheric pollutants and toxic heavy metals, of losing the
tropical forests and biodiversity. For this reason it is necessary the actual consideration of the needs for
the future generation, even if that implies supplementary charges for political institutions that are obliged
to satisfy only the economic, social and environmental demands and needs for the actual generation.

5.3. Environmental degradation and its major causes

Environmental degradation occurs when ecosystems are destroyed, wildlife is wiped out and natural
resources like air, water and soil are depleted. This concept encompasses any environmental change or
disturbance that is seen as harmful or undesirable. The environment can be harmed in a broad range of
ways, including pollution, ecological destruction, loss of fresh water supplies and loss of arable land.
Environmental degradation is brought on by erosion and a decline in the quality of the natural
environment. Human actions that extract resources from the environment faster than they can be replaced
have a direct or indirect impact on it. The ecosystem might degrade in a number of ways. When common
resources are exhausted or ecosystems are destroyed, the environment is perceived as corrupted and
ruined.

Types Degradation
Degradation of soil and land: Poor agricultural practices, overuse of pesticides and fertilizers, landfill
leaks, and other factors all contribute to the loss of soil quality.

Water degradation: Degradation of water involves dumping garbage into the ocean, dumping without
permission, dumping a lot of industrial waste in nearby rivers or lakes, etc.

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Atmospheric degradation: Atmospheric degradation includes deterioration of the air, particle pollution,
and depletion of the ozone layer, among other things.

Several other types of pollution: Along with the deterioration of the land, water, and atmosphere, there
are several additional forms of pollution that harm the ecosystem. Examples include noise pollution and
light pollution.

Causes Environmental degradation

Environmental deterioration is a result of a variety of elements, such as social, economic,
environmental, political, and administrative ones. Social factors includes:

• Population-The primary ways that population impacts the environment are through the use of natural
resources and the creation of garbage. Additionally, it is subject to a number of environmental pressures
like declining biodiversity, deteriorating air and water quality, and rising demand for arable land.

• Poverty-When people lack the essentials for survival, it is thought that poverty is both a cause and a
result of environmental deterioration. For instance, they could be in a life-or-death situation without
access to clean water, enough housing, appropriate clothing, or medications.

• Urbanization-Poor families are migrating to cities in ever increasing numbers as a result of the
ecological issues and the lack of opportunities for productive work in rural areas.

 Economic factors includes:

• Market failure-Environmental degradation is mostly caused by a lack of or a dysfunctional market for
environmental products and services.

• Economic development-Environmental problems can take on different forms depending on the rate and
distribution of economic expansion. Economic development, especially industrialization-based economic
development, is a cause of environmental degradation.
• Impact on agricultural development- Agricultural developments has an adverse effect on nutrient
loss, land salinization, and soil erosion. Leaching from the extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides can
harm water sources. Intensive farming and irrigation also contribute to land deterioration.

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• Transport activities- Air pollution, noise from traffic, and oil spills from marine transportation are just
a few of the ways that transportation activities have an impact on the environment.

Political and administrative factors includes:

Administrative and political reasons, such as a lack of visionary leadership, politicians' traditional role in
crafting policy, and improper execution of environmental legislation, all contribute to environmental
deterioration.

Environmental factors includes:

• Whole ecosystems might be wiped out by some of the long term environmental effects of habitat
fragmentation. Habitats become fragmented when development completely destroys large, stable land
areas. One example is a road that passes through a forest, or a route that meanders through a prairie.
Although it might not appear unpleasant at first glance, there are serious consequences.

• Sadly, the major causes of environmental decline are air and water pollution. Pollutants have the power
to damage or even destroy some plant and animal species by bringing contaminants into the environment.
• Acid rain is caused when moisture in the air reacts with streams, acidifying and contaminating the water.
Similar impacts are seen on the soil.

• Destruction of ozone layer.

Effects of environmental degradation

Impact on human health: Human health is significantly harmed by environmental degradation. Each
year, poor water quality kills millions of people and sickens billions more people worldwide.
Environmental degradation has two effects they are lack of water and a decrease in food quality.

Atmospheric changes: The water cycle and regular animal and plant activities are only a few of the
naturally occurring processes that might be altered by environmental degradation. Additional
environmental degradation processes that destroy the natural land cover include mining and deforestation.
Scarcity of natural resources: A lack of resources, such as arable land, water, genetic resources,
medicinal plants, and food crops, can be brought about by environmental deterioration. Overuse of natural
resources, pollution, and deforestation are a few of these problems. ( African Journal of Geography and
Regional Planning ISSN 2736-1586 Vol. 9 (3), pp. 001-002, September, 2022. Available Online at
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals).

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5.4. The link between environmental degradation and poverty

Poverty is a major cause of environmental degradation

Many international reports claim that poverty is a major cause of environmental degradation, including
the World Commission on Environment and Development’s report, Our Common Future70 and UNEP’s
Geo 2000.

There is very little evidence that this is actually the case on a global scale either in rural areas or in urban
areas. In urban areas, it is overwhelmingly the consumption patterns of non-poor groups (especially high
income groups) and the production and distribution systems that serve them that are responsible for most
environmental degradation. The urban poor contribute very little to environmental degradation because
they use so few resources and generate so few wastes.

There is a strong association between environmental health problems and urban poverty and the
confusion between ‘environmental health risk’ and ‘environmental degradation’ may explain why urban
poverty is thought to contribute to environmental degradation. But the two should not be confused. Most
environmental health risks pose no threats to environmental degradation.

Environmental degradation is usually understood in terms of high use of scarce non-renewable resources,
damage or destruction of key renewable resources (such as soils and forests) and the generation of wastes
that are not easily assimilated or broken down by natural processes. So let’s consider the role of urban
poverty in each of these.

 In regard to non-renewable resource use, most of the houses in which low income groups live (and
often build for themselves) use recycled or reclaimed materials and little use of cement and other
materials with a high energy input. Low income households have too few capital goods to represent
much of a draw on the world’s finite reserves of metals and other non-renewable resources. Most low
income groups in urban areas rely on public transport (or they walk or bicycle) which means low
average figures for oil consumption per person. On average, they have low levels of electricity
consumption on average, not only because those who are connected use less but also because a high
proportion of low income households have no electricity supply. So they are responsible for very little
of the fossil fuel use that arises from oil, coal or gas fuel led power stations (and most electricity is
derived from such power stations).
 In regard to the use of renewable resources, low-income urban dwellers have much lower levels of
consumption than middle and upper income groups. They use much less freshwater, although this is
more due to inconvenient and/or expensive supplies than need or choice. They occupy much less land

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 per person than middle and upper income groups – in extreme cases, the poorest 30-50 percent of a
city’s population live on only 3-5 percent of the city’s land area. Low income groups consume less
food and generally have diets that are less energy and land intensive than higher income groups.
There are cases of low income populations depleting renewable resources - for instance where low
income settlements have developed around reservoirs into which they dump wastes or where low
income settlements have developed on slopes which, when cleared for housing, contribute to serious
soil erosion (and the clogging of drains) - but these are problems caused more by the failure of urban
authorities to ensure lower income groups can find safer residential sites. In many low income
countries, many urban dwellers use fuel wood or charcoal for cooking (and where needed heating)
and this may contribute to deforestation - although these fears have often proved to be without
foundation.
 In regard to waste generation, low-income groups generate much less per person than middle and
upper income groups and the urban poor generally have an ecologically positive role as they are the
main reclaimers, re-users and recyclers of wastes from industries, workshops and wealthier
households. It is likely to be middle and upper income groups who consume most of the goods whose
fabrication generates most toxic or otherwise hazardous wastes or persistent chemicals whose rising
concentration within the environment has worrying ecological and health implications. There are
small-scale urban enterprises (including illegal or informal enterprises) which cause serious local
environmental problems - for instance contaminating local water sources - but their contribution to
city-wide pollution problems relative to other groups is usually small. In addition, one cannot ascribe
the pollution caused by small scale enterprises to the urban poor when many such enterprises are
owned by middle or upper income groups.
 In regard to greenhouse gas emissions, on average, low-income groups generate much lower levels
per person than middle and upper income groups as their total use of fossil fuels, of electricity derived
from fossil fuel led power stations and of goods or services with high fossil-fuel inputs in their
fabrication and use is so much lower. The only exception may be for some low income households in
urban areas where there is a need for space heating for parts of the year and they use biomass fuels or
coal in inefficient stoves or fires. Such households may have above average per capita contributions
to carbon dioxide emissions (and also to urban air pollution) but these are exceptional cases.

CHAPTER SIX
Education, health and sustainable development
“Education is a fundamental right and the basis for progress in every country. Parents need information
about health and nutrition if they are to give their children the start in life they deserve. Prosperous

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countries depend on skilled and educated workers. The challenges of conquering poverty, combatting
climate change and achieving truly sustainable development in the coming decades compel us to work
together. With partnership, leadership and wise investments in education, we can transform individual
lives, national economies and our world”.

6.1. The role of education for sustainable development

Education is seen as a big force; a force that not only contributes to national development, but also
sustainable development. It is a key to development, be it social, economic, political or environmental.
Education promotes development of knowledge and skills required to achieve sustainable development
(SD). It encourages promotion of economic well-being, social equity, democratic values and much more.
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) enables people and citizens to learn as to how to preserve
earth resources which are limited in availability. The ESD has the objective of empowering present and
future generations to meet their needs using a balanced and integrated approach to the economic, social
and environmental dimensions of SD.

Before we discuss the role of education in sustainable development, it is imperative to understand the
meaning and importance of role of education in sustainable development. Role is defined as “the function
assumed or part played by a person or thing in a particular situation’’. The definition of a role “is a part or
character someone performs or the function or position of a person”. An example of a role is the position
of the nurse in a hospital. Merrian-Webster defines role as a function or part performed, especially in a
particular operation or process.

Education is a process of developing the personality and creativity of the individuals so that they can in
turn help in promoting a healthy society. Education is actually a process, which influences individual
capabilities, social environment, economic development, ethical surroundings and above all cultural
adaptability. Education is expected to evolve principles, methodologies and guidelines for the application
of knowledge that could benefit society. It is also expected to provide knowledge and skills for addressing
the issues of development. It must also enable people and students to develop an understanding and a
perspective of the physical and social environment.

The importance of education can be interpreted from the reply to the question asked to Aristotle. The
question was ‘How much better educated men were than those who were uneducated’. Aristotle’s reply

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was, As much as the living are from the dead. ’Education thus is a process to shape the quality of life of
individuals and through them of the society and the world. It is an investment in the human resources. In
the present age of science and technology, it has been increasingly realized that one needs to be educated
not only to become a better human and social being, but also a creative and productive being. Looking at
the changes taking place around the world, it is being widely felt that the kind of world we will bequeath
to our children and grandchildren may not be a better one as a result of environmental degradation that
results from political and economic decisions made today. A matter of grave concern is that those who
reap the fruits of economic development today may be making future generations worse off by
excessively damaging and destroying the natural resources and polluting the earth’s environment.

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has been defined as “education that allows every human
being to acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values necessary to shape a sustainable future. In
other words, ‘the ESD is the process of equipping students with the knowledge, skills and attributes
needed to work and live in a way that safeguards environmental, social and economic well-being, both in
the present and for future generations’. The key ESD issues relate to climate change, disaster risk
reduction, biodiversity, poverty reduction, and sustainable consumption. Education for SD consequently
promotes competencies like critical thinking, imagining future scenarios and making decisions in a
collaborative way. Thus, education for SD requires far-reaching changes in the way education is often
practiced today. The ESD would be meaningful when it is linked with issues that the world is facing
today. It must be given a global outlook. Education thus plays an important and decisive role in
sustainable development.

Education for SD should include the following thrusts:

 Promotion and improvement of basic education related to SD;
 Reorientation of existing education at all levels- primary (basic), secondary, higher in order to
address SD.
 Development of public awareness and understanding of sustainability.
 Learning and development of training methods in the world of sustainable development. In this way,
SD depends upon the provision of specialized training programmes to ensure that all sectors of
society have the necessary skills to perform their work in a sustainable manner.

Education for sustainable development promotes research and provides information needed to
solve sustainable developmental problems arising out of human-made decisions. Education as an

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investment in human resources plays an important role among the factors, which contribute to
sustainable development.

ESD promotes and encourages sustainable society

Quality education is an important key and tool for achieving a more sustainable society. This was
vociferously emphasized at the UN World Summit in Johannesburg in 2002, where the reorientation
of current education systems was outlined as the key to SD. It may be noted that education for SD
promotes the development of the knowledge, skills, values and actions required to create a sustainable
society, which ensures environmental protection and conservation, promotes social equity and
encourages economic well-being.

ESD aims to develop knowledge about environment

The concept of ESD developed basically from environmental education, which has sought to develop
the knowledge, skills, values, and behavior in people to give more attention to protection of
environment. The aim of ESD is to enable people to make decisions and carry out actions, without
compromising the planet earth.

The ESD outlines integration of principles and practices of sustainable development

The goal of the decade (2005-2014), as outlined by UNESCO, is to integrate the principles, values
and practices of sustainable development into all aspects and dimensions of education. Thus, it aims
to encourage changes in behavior that will create a more sustainable future.

ESD focuses on environmental themes and concerns

The ESD offers a beautiful vision of future with the dominant focus on environmental concerns. It
also addresses themes such as poverty alleviation, citizenship, peace, ethics, governance, justice,
human rights, gender, equality, corporate responsibility, natural resources management and biological
diversity. It is generally recognized that certain characteristics carry values for the successful
implementation of ESD, reflecting the equal importance of both the learning process and the
outcomes of the education process (adapted from ‘UN Decade of Sustainable Development’, 2005-
2014).

Generally “Education is the most important single factor in achieving rapid economic development
and technological progress and increasing a social order founded on the values of freedom, social

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 justice and equal opportunity. Programmes of education lie at the base of the effort to forge the bonds
of common citizenship to harness the energies of the people and to develop the natural and human
resources of every part of the country.” In a word, education is regarded as the key to development
and the fundamental pre-requisite of social and economic justice, which are the twin pillars of the
Welfare State. In a world based on science and technology, it is education that determines the level of
prosperity, welfare and security of the people.

The primary concern of education for SD is the improvement of the quality of life of people without
damaging the environment. It offers a bold and beautiful vision of our shared future- a future in which
hundreds of millions of people no longer go to bed hungry every day, where poverty no longer harms
one in ten people, and where quality education and lifelong learning opportunities are available to all.
The heartbreaking reality is that we have failed to follow this roadmap. In other words, we are unable
to implement this vision of a better world.
6.2. Health, longevity and sustainable development

Great strides have been made in improving people’s health in recent years. 146 out of
200 countries or areas have already met or are on track to meet the SDG target on
under-5 mortality. Effective HIV treatment has cut global AIDS-related deaths by 52 per
cent since 2010 and at least one neglected tropical disease has been eliminated in 47
countries.

However, inequalities in health care access still persist. The COVID-19 pandemic and
other ongoing crises have impeded progress towards Goal 3. Childhood vaccinations
have experienced the largest decline in three decades, and tuberculosis and malaria
deaths have increased compared with pre-pandemic levels.

The Sustainable Development Goals make a bold commitment to end the epidemics of
AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and other communicable diseases by 2030. The aim is to
achieve universal health coverage, and provide access to safe and affordable
medicines and vaccines for all.

To overcome these setbacks and address long-standing health care shortcomings,

increased investment in health systems is needed to support countries in their recovery
and build resilience against future health threats.

Access to essential health services

A significant portion of the global population still lacks access to vital healthcare
services. To bridge this gap and ensure equitable healthcare provision, addressing

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disparities is critical. Various determinants of health, including environmental and
commercial factors, need attention to pave the way for achieving our common objective
of Health for All and achieving the Sustainable Development Goal targets.

How can we achieve these targets?

Ensuring healthy lives for all requires a strong commitment, but the benefits outweigh
the cost. Healthy people are the foundation for healthy economies. Countries worldwide
are urged to take immediate and decisive actions to predict and counteract health
challenges.

This becomes especially critical in safeguarding vulnerable population groups and

individuals residing in regions burdened by high disease prevalence. By doing so, we
can strengthen health systems and foster resilience in the face of health adversities.

Immunization is one of the world’s most successful and cost-effective health

interventions. However, the alarming decline in childhood vaccination – the largest
sustained decline in childhood vaccinations in approximately 30 years – is leaving
millions of children at risk from devastating but preventable diseases.

Does everyone have access to healthcare?

Universal health coverage (UHC) aims to ensure that everyone can access quality
health services without facing financial hardship. While efforts to combat infectious
diseases like HIV, TB and malaria led to significant expansions in service coverage
between 2000 and 2015, progress has since slowed.

Inequalities continue to be a fundamental challenge for UHC. Coverage of reproductive,

maternal, child and adolescent health services tends to be higher among those whoare
richer, more educated, and living in urban areas, especially in low-income countries.

What can I do to help?

You can start by promoting and protecting your own health and the health of those
around you, by making well-informed choices, practicing safe sex and vaccinating your
children.

You can raise awareness in your community about the importance of good health,
healthy lifestyles as well as people’s right to quality health care services, especially for
the most vulnerable such as women and children.

You can also hold your government, local leaders and other decision-makers
accountable to their commitments to improve people access to health and health care.

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