INTRODUCTION

Weathering is the process by which rocks break down or alter due to exposure to Earth's
surface conditions. It occurs in two main forms: mechanical weathering, where rocks are
physically broken into smaller pieces without changing their composition, and chemical
weathering, where the minerals in rocks undergo chemical changes to form new compounds.
These processes play a crucial role in shaping landscapes and are vital for the creation of soil.

Soil forms from weathered rock mixed with organic material and serves as a critical
interface between Earth's crust and the atmosphere. It supports plant life, regulates water flow,
and cycles essential nutrients. The formation and composition of soil depend on various factors,
such as climate, topography, parent material, organisms, and time. However, human activities
like deforestation, overgrazing, and industrial development can lead to soil erosion and
degradation, threatening this vital resource.

6.1 WEATHERING

● Weathering and Its Role in Earth's Surface Transformation

Earth's surface is in a constant state of change, where rock is disintegrated and
decomposed, often moved to lower elevations by gravity and transported by natural forces such
as water, wind, and ice. This ongoing process sculpts Earth’s physical landscape, and
weathering marks the initial phase in this transformative cycle. Weathering is responsible for the
breakdown and alteration of rocks at or near Earth’s surface, a fundamental step in the rock
cycle and a crucial process within the broader Earth system. The significance of weathering
extends beyond geology, affecting humans directly by releasing life-sustaining minerals and
elements into the soil, which are vital for agriculture and, ultimately, human nutrition.

● Defining Weathering
Weathering refers to the physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rocks. Despite
its slow and often subtle nature, it plays a major role in shaping Earth's landscapes. Weathering
is typically categorized into two primary forms: mechanical (or physical) weathering and
chemical weathering.

1. Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering involves the physical forces that break rocks into smaller pieces
without altering their chemical composition. This process is akin to splitting a log into
smaller pieces; the material remains the same but is broken into smaller fragments. It is
a crucial process because it increases the surface area of rocks, making them more
susceptible to chemical weathering.
2. Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering, in contrast, involves the transformation of rock minerals into one
or more new chemical compounds. This process is similar to setting a log on fire and
burning it, which chemically alters the log into ash and gases. Chemical weathering is
responsible for decomposing rocks and forming new minerals, many of which contribute
to the richness of soils, enabling plant growth and influencing ecosystems.
● Examples of Weathering
 Weathering contributes not only to landscape formation but also to environmental
and human-made structures. The same processes that shape Earth's most spectacular
scenery also cause the deterioration of buildings, monuments, and infrastructure.
Human activity, such as construction, deforestation, and pollution, can exacerbate
weathering processes, accelerating the degradation of both natural landscapes and
urban environments.

6.2 MECHANICAL WEATHERING

Mechanical Weathering
- refers to the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces without altering their
chemical composition
- end result is many small pieces from a single large one.
- increases the amount of surface area available for chemical weathering

4 Examples of Mechanical Weathering

1. Frost Wedging
- Occurs when water seeps
into cracks in rocks, freezes,
and expands, breaking the
rock apart
- Liquid water expands about
9% upon freezing
- Occurs in areas with
frequent freezing and
thawing cycles.

Frost heave
- another way of frost
wedging
 - when most soils freeze, they expand due to growth of ice lenses (masses of ice)
which grow larger by attracting water from nearby unfrozen areas through liquid
thin films
- Ice lenses also grow within the cracks of rocks, gets larger by attracting liquid
water from surrounding pores, gradually weakening the rock and causing it to
fracture.

2. Salt Crystal Growth

- Occurs when sea spray penetrates crevices
and pore spaces, evaporates, forming salt
crystals which gradually grows larger and
weakens rock.
- Commonly found in rocky shorelines and
arid regions

3. Sheeting
- Occurs when large igneous
rocks, such as granite are
exposed to Earth’s surface,
expands, and concentric
slabs begin to fall,
generating onion-like layers
- Unloading refers to the
reduction of pressure on a
rock as overlying materials
are removed through
erosion which causes the
rock to expand.

- Exfoliation domes
- Etymology: ex = off, folium = leaf
- Rounded, dome-shaped rock formations
- Created due to the slabs separating and peeling off completely
- Examples: Stone Mountain, Georgia, and Half Dome and Liberty Cap in
Yosemite National Park.
Stone Mountain, Georgia Half Dome, Yosemite National Park

- Fractures can also be caused by different

processes like the contraction of magma
as it crystallizes or tectonic forces during
mountain building
- These fractures form joints, which allow
water to penetrate and start the process of
weathering long before the rock is
exposed.

4. Biological Activity
- When organisms contribute to mechanical
weathering by physically breaking rocks
- Examples:
- Plant roots: In search of nutrients
and water, roots grow into cracks,
expanding and breaking the rock.
- Burrowing animals: Fresh
materials are moved to the surface
and become vulnerable to physical
and chemical processes.
- Human activities: Mining and
construction can cause rocks to be
displaced

6.3 CHEMICAL WEATHERING (ERYCKA)

Chemical Weathering
- refers to the breakdown of rocks and minerals through chemical processes, transforming
them into more stable forms or releasing their components.
- involves the conversion of original rock materials into new materials or solutes, with
water playing a crucial role

Water
- most important agent of chemical weathering due to its ability to dissolve various
minerals and enhance chemical reactions.

Major Processes of Chemical Weathering

Dissolution
- occurs when minerals dissolve in water, especially in
the presence of acids
- For example,
Halite (common salt)
- one of the most water-soluble minerals
- Composed of sodium and chloride ions

- even a weak acid dramatically increases water's

ability to dissolve minerals
- For example,
Carbonic Acid
- formed by the reaction of water and
carbon dioxide
- helps dissolve minerals such as calcite in limestone
Calcite (CaCO3)
- composes the common building stones marble and limestone

- Soluble ions are retained in our underground water supply, causing "hard water"

Oxidation
- Occurs when elements such as iron lose
electrons and combine with oxygen, forming
oxides like hematite or rust
- Water accelerates the process
- important in decomposing ferromagnesian
minerals
- Oxides formed:
- Hematite (Fe2O3): reddish-brown
iron oxide
- Limonite [FeO(OH)]: yellowish-
colored rust
 - Responsible for the rusty color on dark igneous rocks
- Cementing and coloring agents in sedimentary rocks
- Acid mine drainage
- Environmental hazard caused by oxidation of sulfide minerals like pyrite
- Makes its way to steams, killing and degrading aquatic life and habitats

Hydrolysis
- Occurs when water reacts with minerals, particularly silicates, causing them to break
down
- Etymology: hydro = water, lysis = a loosening
- involves water molecules splitting into hydrogen (H⁺) and hydroxyl (OH⁻) ions
- Hydrogen ions (H+) replace other positive ions in the mineral's structure, which disrupts
the crystal arrangement, leading to the mineral's decomposition.

Hydrolysis in the Presence of Acids

● Water often contains substances like carbon dioxide (CO₂), which forms carbonic
acid (H₂CO₃) and adds hydrogen ions (H⁺) that speed up the breakdown of minerals.
● For example,
○ Granite, made up of quartz and potassium feldspar, weathers through hydrolysis

Products of Silicate-Mineral Weathering

● Clay minerals
- Kaolinite is the most abundant product of silicate mineral weathering, particularly
from potassium feldspar
- In general, clay minerals are end products of weathering and are very stable
under surface conditions

● Silica (SiO₂)
- removed from the feldspar structure and carried away by groundwater.
- Can precipitate and form nodules of chert or flint
- Can fill the pore spaces between sediments
- Can be transported to the ocean, where organisms use it to build their hard
shells

● Soluble Salts
- Potassium feldspar,also produces soluble salts like potassium bicarbonate
(KHCO₃), which can be carried away in solution or used by plants

● Quartz Grains
- Quartz is a common silicate mineral
- Highly resistant to chemical weathering
- Remains mostly unchanged but some are transported to beaches,
contributing to sand formation
Spheroidal Weathering
- A process where chemical weathering works inward from the exposed surfaces of rocks,
causing angular rock masses to gradually round off into spherical shapes
- Corners and edges are attacked from multiple sides
- Results in a rounded or spherical shape over time

6.2 Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering is the process of physically breaking down rocks into smaller
fragments without changing their chemical composition. As rocks are broken into smaller
pieces, the total surface area exposed to the environment increases, which facilitates further
weathering, particularly chemical weathering. The main result of mechanical weathering is that a
single large rock can fragment into many smaller pieces through various natural processes.
Here are four key examples of mechanical weathering:

Frost Wedging
Frost wedging occurs when water seeps into cracks in rocks, then freezes and expands,
exerting pressure on the rock and causing it to break apart. As water freezes, it expands by
approximately 9%, making frost wedging particularly effective in areas with frequent cycles of
freezing and thawing. A related phenomenon, known as frost heave, happens when frozen soils
expand due to the formation of ice lenses—masses of ice that grow by attracting water from
unfrozen soil areas. These ice lenses can also form within the cracks of rocks, gradually
enlarging and weakening them until they fracture.

Salt Crystal Growth

 Salt crystal growth happens when sea spray or salty water penetrates cracks and pores
in rocks, then evaporates, leaving behind salt crystals. As these crystals grow, they exert
pressure on the rock, causing it to weaken and eventually break apart. This process is
commonly observed in coastal areas and arid regions where salt deposits are prevalent.

Sheeting
Sheeting is a form of mechanical weathering that occurs when large igneous rocks, such
as granite, are exposed at the Earth's surface. As the pressure on the rock is reduced due to
the removal of overlying material (unloading), the rock expands, causing concentric slabs to
separate and fall away, creating layers that resemble the layers of an onion. This process can
lead to the formation of exfoliation domes, which are rounded, dome-shaped rock formations
created by the peeling off of these slabs. Famous examples of exfoliation domes include Stone
Mountain in Georgia and Half Dome in Yosemite National Park. Additionally, fractures may also
form due to the contraction of magma as it crystallizes or tectonic forces during mountain
building, creating joints that allow water to penetrate and promote weathering before the rock is
fully exposed.

Biological Activity
Living organisms can contribute to mechanical weathering by physically breaking rocks.
For instance, plant roots searching for nutrients and water can grow into rock cracks, exerting
pressure as they expand and causing the rock to break. Similarly, burrowing animals can
expose fresh rock material to the surface, making it more vulnerable to weathering processes.
Human activities, such as mining and construction,

6.3 Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering refers to the breakdown of rocks and minerals through chemical
processes, resulting in more stable forms or the release of their components. This
transformation often involves the conversion of original rock materials into new materials or
solutes. Water plays a crucial role in this process, as it is the most important agent of chemical
weathering due to its ability to dissolve various minerals and enhance chemical reactions. The
primary processes involved in chemical weathering include dissolution, oxidation, and
hydrolysis.

Dissolution
Dissolution occurs when minerals dissolve in water, especially in the presence of acids.
For example, halite (common salt), composed of sodium and chloride ions, dissolves readily in
water. In nature, even a weak acid like carbonic acid, which forms when carbon dioxide reacts
with water, increases the water’s ability to dissolve minerals such as calcite found in limestone.
As the minerals dissolve, their ions are released into groundwater, leading to the phenomenon
of hard water, which contains high levels of dissolved minerals.

Oxidation
Oxidation is the process where elements, particularly iron, lose electrons and react with
oxygen to form oxides like hematite or rust. This reaction is significantly accelerated by water
and is critical in the decomposition of ferromagnesian minerals. Oxidation produces iron oxides
such as hematite (Fe₂O₃), which gives rocks a reddish-brown color, and limonite [FeO(OH)],
responsible for the yellowish rust on weathered surfaces. The oxidation of pyrite (iron sulfide)
can also lead to acid mine drainage, an environmental hazard where sulfuric acid contaminates
water sources, damaging aquatic ecosystems.

Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of minerals, especially silicates, through their
reaction with water. This process involves the replacement of positive ions in the mineral
structure by hydrogen ions (H⁺), disrupting the crystal lattice and leading to mineral
decomposition. Hydrolysis is often accelerated by the presence of acids, such as carbonic acid
formed from the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water. An example of hydrolysis is the
weathering of granite, composed of quartz and potassium feldspar, where feldspar is converted
into kaolinite, a stable clay mineral. Other products of hydrolysis include silica (SiO₂), which can
be carried away by water and precipitated as chert or flint, and soluble salts such as potassium
bicarbonate (KHCO₃).

Spheroidal Weathering
Spheroidal weathering is a process where chemical weathering acts inward from the
exposed surfaces of rocks, gradually rounding them. Over time, angular rock masses are
transformed into spherical shapes as the edges and corners are attacked from multiple sides.
This process leads to the formation of rounded boulders and is commonly observed in
weathered rock formations.

6.4 RATES OF WEATHERING

Generally, when rocks are split or broken into smaller pieces, their rate of weathering increases
as there is more surface area that is exposed to weathering. In simpler terms, the smaller the
rock, the less it is to resist weathering.

However, different factors also influence the type and rate

of rock weathering, namely rock characteristics and
climate.

Rock characteristics are essentially all of the chemical traits

of rocks, including mineral composition and solubility.
Any physical features, such as joints, help rocks break
down more easily when water or other things get inside
them, causing them to be more prone to weathering.

Mineral constituents mainly

contribute to the rate of weathering of minerals. For example,
tombstones or headstones made up of granite are significantly
more resistant to weathering than those made of weaker
materials such as Marble.
Marble, composed of calcium carbonate, readily dissolves even in weaker acidic solutions.
Making it vulnerable to chemical weathering
The silicates, the most abundant mineral group, chemically weather in essentially the same
order in which they crystallize. you can see that olivine crystallizes first and is therefore least
resistant to chemical weathering, whereas quartz, which crystallizes last, is the most resistant.

Climate factors such as the freeze-thaw cycle are crucial in the rate of rock weathering. This
cycle affects the amount of frost wedging (an important type of mechanical weathering) in
rocks. Temperature and moisture strongly influence chemical weathering rates and determine
vegetation type and amount.The ideal environment for chemical weathering is warm with
abundant moisture. In polar regions, it's limited due to frozen moisture, and in arid regions,
due to insufficient moisture.

This rock formation, named Shiprock in

New Mexico is a durable volcanic neck
that protrudes high above the surrounding
terrain. This introduces us to
phenomenon called Differential
Weathering. Along with subsequent
erosion, these two phenomenon are
responsible for creating unusual and eye
catching formations and landforms.

Masses of rock do not weather uniformly.

More resistant rock protrudes as ridges or
pinnacles, or as steeper cliffs on an
irregular hillside

6.5 SOIL

“ Science, in recent years, has focused more and more on the Earth as a planet, one that for all
we know is unique—where a thin blanket of air, a thinner film of water, and the thinnest veneer
of soil combine to support a web of life of wondrous diversity in continuous change. “ - David
Attenborough.
Plants carry out the intermediary role of assimilating the necessary elements and making them
available to animals, including humans. Essentially, “Soil is the
bridge between life and the inanimate world”.

As earth is considered a system, soil is the interface of it all.Soil

forms at the intersection of the geosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere. It is a substance shaped by intricate interactions between various
components of the Earth's system.
Soil is dynamic and sensitive to its surroundings. When it’s environment changes, it responds
by adapting and changing as well until equilibrium is reached

Earth’s land surface is covered by regolith, a layer of rock and mineral fragments produced by
weathering.

By definition, Soil is composed of a mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air. It
represents the portion of the regolith that supports plant growth.

About half of the total volume of high-quality surface soil

is made up of broken-down rock (mineral matter) and
humus, which is the decayed remains of plants and
animals (organic matter). The other half is made up of
spaces between the solid particles, where air and water
move through.
Humus helps soil hold onto water, which is essential for
plants to survive. Since plants need both air and water
to grow, the pore spaces in the soil that allow air and water to flow are just as important as the
solid parts of the soil itself.

Soil texture refers to the mix of different particle sizes and is important because it affects how
well soil holds and moves water and air—both critical for plant growth. Sandy soils drain too
quickly and dry out fast, while clay-rich soils can have such small pores that they prevent
drainage, causing puddles. In soils with too much clay or silt, plant roots may struggle to grow.

Soils typically contain a mix of different particle sizes, so categories have been created based
on the amounts of clay, silt, and sand. The U.S. Department of Agriculture uses a triangular
chart to classify soils. For example, a soil with 10% silt, 40% clay, and 50% sand is called a
sandy clay. Loam soils, which have a balanced mix of all three particle types, are ideal for plant
growth because they hold water and nutrients well. Soil particles often stick together to form
clumps, called peds, which give the soil its structure.

4 basic solid structures

● Platy
● Prismatic
● Blocky
● Spheroidal
6.6 CONTROLS OF SOIL FORMATION

1. Parent Material:

The geological material from which soil develops, providing the initial mineral
composition. It dictates the soil's mineral content and can be altered by weathering
processes over time.

*When the parent material is bedrock, the soils are termed residual soils.
*While those that are formed in an unconsolidated sediment are termed transported
soils.

2. Climate:

The prevailing weather conditions, including temperature and precipitation, that

influence soil formation. It affects weathering rates, nutrient cycling, and soil fertility,
interacting with other factors like erosion.

*the amount of precipitation influences the degree at which various materials are
removed from the soil by percolating water, therby affecting soil fertility is called the
process of leaching.

3. Plants and Animals:

Living organisms that contribute to soil formation through decomposition and nutrient
cycling. Plants add organic matter, while animal activity enhances soil structure and
aeration, influenced by climate conditions.

4. Time:

The duration of soil formation, which affects the degree of weathering and organic matter
accumulation. Older soils typically have more developed profiles and greater nutrient
content, with interactions among all factors over time.

5. Topography:

The shape and slope of the land that influence water distribution, erosion, and soil
development. Steep areas may erode more, while flat regions can accumulate organic
matter, interacting with climate conditions.
6.7 DESCRIBING AND CLASSIFYING SOILS

1. Alfisols (9.65%)
Alfisols, covering about 9.65% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are moderately weathered soils
rich in iron and aluminum. They have a clay-rich subsurface layer formed through leaching in
moist environments. These soils typically develop under boreal or broadleaf deciduous forests.

2. Andisols (0.7%)
Andisols, a relatively rare soil type covering only 0.7% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are young
soils primarily composed of volcanic ash and cinders. They form from recent volcanic activity
where volcanic materials are deposited.

3. Aridisols (12.02%)
Aridisols, covering about 12.02% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are dry soils with low organic
content and often contain calcium carbonate, gypsum, or salt. They develop in arid regions with
insufficient water to remove soluble minerals, leading to mineral accumulation.

4. Entisols (16.16%)
Entisols, covering a significant 16.16% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are young soils with
limited development, reflecting their parent material. They form in various environments, from
recent river deposits to shifting sand or rocky slopes.

5. Gelisols (8.61%)
Gelisols, covering about 8.61% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are young soils with limited
profile development found in permafrost regions. They form in cold climates with low
temperatures and frozen conditions, slowing down soil development.

6. Histosols (1.17%)
Histosols, covering only about 1.17% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are organic soils rich in
partially decomposed organic matter (peat). They form in areas where organic debris
accumulates, such as bogs, where decomposition is slow.

7. Inceptisols (9.81%)
Inceptisols, covering about 9.81% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are weakly developed young
soils showing the beginning of profile development. They form in humid climates but can be
found in various environments, from the arctic to the tropics.

8. Mollisols (6.89%)
Mollisols, covering about 6.89% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are dark, soft soils with high
fertility, rich in calcium and magnesium. They develop under grass vegetation, typically found in
prairie areas, where organic matter accumulates.

9. Oxisols (7.5%)
Oxisols, covering about 7.5% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are heavily leached soils rich in
iron and aluminum oxides, with low fertility. They form on old land surfaces or from strongly
weathered parent materials, often found in tropical and subtropical regions.

10. Spodosols (2.56%)

Spodosols, covering about 2.56% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are soils with a distinctive light-
colored leached horizon beneath a dark upper horizon of weathered organic material. They form
in humid regions on sandy material, commonly found in northern coniferous forests and cool
humid forests.

11. Ultisols (8.45%)

Ultisols, covering about 8.45% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are soils with a concentration of
clay particles in the lower horizons, often with low fertility. They form in humid climates in
temperate and tropical regions, where extensive leaching occurs.

12. Vertisols (2.24%)

Vertisols, covering about 2.24% of the Earth's ice-free surface, are clay-rich soils that shrink
when dry and swell with the addition of water. They form in subhumid to arid climates, where
sufficient water is available for saturation after periods of drought.

6.8 THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON SOIL

Human activities like deforestation and agriculture have a harmful impact on soil, a vital
nonrenewable resource. Tropical rainforest clearing for farming and logging leads to soil
degradation, biodiversity loss, and increased erosion.

Thick red-orange soild (oxisols)

- naturally poor for farming

- heavy rainfall washes away nutrients.
 Most nutrients are stored in the trees, and when forests are cleared, the soil loses its fertility
and becomes vulnerable to erosion. To combat soil erosion, solutions include planting cover
crops, reforestation, terracing slopes, minimizing plowing (conservation tillage), and practicing
crop rotation to improve soil health.

Soil erosion, the removal of topsoil, is a significant environmental issue, though it may not be
obvious to many people. As human activities disturb more land, soil erosion worsens. While
erosion is a natural process in the rock cycle, human actions intensify it. Water and wind
dislodge soil particles, especially during rain, leading to sheet erosion, where soil is moved in
thin layers. Over time, small channels called rills form and can grow into larger gullies. These
dislodged particles are eventually carried to streams, where they become sediment, further
contributing to land degradation.
Rates soil erosion is the natural fate of most soils, but it used to happen more slowly due to
the protective cover of trees, grasses, and plants. Human activities like farming, logging, and
construction have sped up erosion by removing this natural cover, making the soil more
vulnerable to being swept away by wind or water.
Natural erosion rates vary based on factors like soil type, climate, slope, and vegetation. Before
humans, rivers carried about 9 billion metric tons of sediment to the ocean yearly. Now, this
amount has increased to 24 billion metric tons. In the U.S., two-thirds of erosion is caused by
water, with wind responsible for much of the rest, especially in dry conditions. Currently, topsoil
is eroding faster than it can regenerate on more than a third of the world's croplands, leading to
lower crop yields, poorer quality, reduced income, and a concerning future for agriculture.

Controlling Erosion, across all continents, unnecessary soil loss continues because effective
conservation measures are not being used. While soil erosion can't be completely stopped, soil
conservation programs can significantly reduce its impact.

One key factor in soil erosion is slope steepness. The steeper the slope, the faster water runs
off, leading to more erosion. Ideally, steep slopes should remain undisturbed. However, if
farming on steep slopes is necessary, terraces can be built. These flat, step-like surfaces slow
down water runoff, reducing erosion and allowing more water to absorb into the ground.
The 1930s Dust Bowl Case Study
The Dust Bowl of the 1930s serves as a historical example of the disastrous effects of poor land
management and soil erosion. This environmental disaster was caused by a combination of
drought and he conversion of grasslands into farmland, which left the soil vulnerable to wind
erosion. It resulted in massive dust storms, crop failures, and widespread economic hardship,
underscoring the need for better soil conservation practices.

STRATEGIES TO REDUCE SOIL EROSION

To reduce soil erosion is by using windbreaks like trees to slow down and deflect the wind,
which decreases the removal of top soil; installing grassed waterways; and plowing the land
along horizontal contour lines; and lastly, using terraces are all practices that have been shown
to reduce soil erosion.

CONCLUSION (JOE)