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All modern versions of the Periodic Table are based on the one put forward by

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Mendeleev. An example is given in the image below. -

In the Periodic Table:

group
the elements are arranged in order of increasing proton number (atomic number)
the vertical columns of elements with similar properties are called groups
the horizontal rows are called periods. >
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The main distinction in the table is between metals and non-metals. Metals are clearly
separated from non- metals. The non-metals are grouped into the top right- hand
region of the table, above the thick stepped line in Figure 3.2. One of the first uses of
the Periodic Table now becomes clear. Although we may never have seen a sample of
the element hafnium (Hf), we know from a glance at the table that it is a metal. We
may also be able to predict some of its properties.

Metals and non-metals

There are 94 naturally occurring elements. Some are very rare, Francium, for instance,
has never been seen. The radioactive metals neptunium and plutonium, which we make
artificially in quite large amounts, occur only in very small (trace) quantities naturally.
Most of the elements (70) can be classified as metals. Together they form a group of
elements whose structures are held together by a particular type of bonding between
the atoms. The metals have a number of physical properties that are broadly the same
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type of bonding present in their compounds. The distinction is therefore a very
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The Periodic Table does not list substances such as steel, bronze and brass, which in
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everyday terms we call metals and which share the properties listed for metals. They
are not elements! They are in fact alloys, mixtures of elements (usually metals)
designed to have properties that are useful for a particular purpose.
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Non-metals are a less uniform group of

elements. They show a much wider range of
properties. This reflects the wider differences
in the types of structure shown by non-metals.

The change from metallic to non-metallic

properties in the elements is not as clear-cut
as suggested by drawing the line between
the two regions of the Periodic Table. The
elements close to the line show properties
that lie between these extremes. These
elements are now often referred to as
metalloids (or semi-metals). Such elements
- -

have some of the properties of metals and

-

others that are more characteristic of non-

metals. There are eight elements that are called metalloids. They often look like metals,
but are brittle like non-metals. They are neither conductors nor insulators, but make
excellent semiconductors. The prime example of this type of element is silicon.
metalloid
Groups and periods in the Periodic Table
The Periodic Table allows us to make even more useful subdivisions of elements than
simply deciding which are metals and which are non-metals. The elements present in
Groups I to VIII / 0 of the table are sometimes known as the main-group elements.
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These vertical groups show most clearly how elements within the same group have
similar chemical and physical properties. Some of these groups have particular names
as well as numbers.

Between Groups II and III of these main groups of elements is a block of metals known
as the transition elements (or transition metals). The first row of these elements occurs
in Period 4. This row includes such important metals as iron, copper and zinc.

The noble gasses, in Group VIII / 0 on the right- hand side of the table, are the least
reactive elements in the table. However, the group next to them, Group VII which are
also known as the halogens, and the group on the left-hand side of the table, Group I
or the alkali metals, are the most reactive elements. The more unreactive elements,
whether metals or non-metals, are in the centre of the table.

Electron arrangement and the Periodic Table

When the first attempts were made to construct a Periodic Table, nobody knew about
the structure of the atom. We can now directly link the properties of an element with
its position in the table and its electron arrangement. The number of outer electrons in
the atoms of each element has been found. Elements in the same group have the same
number of outer electrons. We also know that, as you move across a period in the
table, a shell of electrons is being filled.

There is a clear relationship between electron arrangement and position in the

-
Periodic Table for the main-group elements. The elements in Group II have two outer
electrons. The-elements in Period 3 have three shells of electrons. A magnesium atom
has two electrons in its third, outer, shell, and is in Group II. An argon atom has an
outer shell containing eight electrons - a very stable arrangement - and is in Group
VIII/0. A potassium atom has one electron in its fourth, outer shell, and is in Group I
and Period 4.

It is the outer electrons of an atom that are mainly responsible for the chemical
properties of any element. Therefore, elements in the same group will have similar
properties.

The electron arrangements of atoms are linked to position in the Periodic Table.
 Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell.
For the main-group elements, the number of the group is the number of electrons in the
outer shell.
The periods also have numbers. This number shows us how many shells of electrons the
atom has.

Certain electron arrangements are found to be more stable than others. This makes them
more difficult to break up. The most stable arrangements are those of the noble gasses, and
this fits in with the fact that they are so unreactive.

There are links between the organisation of particles in the atom and the regular variation
in properties of the elements in the Periodic Table. This means that we can see certain
broad trends in the table. These trends become most obvious if we leave aside the noble
gasses in Group VIII / 0. Individual groups show certain 'group characteristics. These
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Trends in groups
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Group I-the alkali metals
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The metals in Group I are often called the alkali metals. They are soft solids with relatively
low melting points and low densities. They are highly reactive and are stored in oil to
prevent them reacting with the oxygen and water vapour in the air. When freshly cut with a
knife, all these metals have a light- grey, silvery surface, which quickly tarnishes (becomes
dull). Reactivity increases as we go down the group. All Group I metals react with water to
form hydrogen and an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide.

The reactions range from vigorous in the case of lithium to explosive in the case of caesium.
You might predict that francium, at the bottom of Group I, would be the most reactive of all
the metals. However, it is highly radioactive and very rare because it decays with a half-
life of 5 minutes. It has been estimated that there are only 17 atoms of francium in existence
on Earth at any one moment in time.
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The physical properties of the alkali metals also change as we go down the group. The
melting points become lower while the density of the metals increases.

The alkali metals (Group I) are the most reactive metals that occur. They are known as the
alkali metals because they react vigorously with water to produce hydrogen and an

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Group VII - the halogens

The most reactive non-metals are the halogens in
Group VII of the table. In contrast with Group I,
here reactivity decreases down the group. For
example, fluorine is a dangerously reactive, pale
yellow gas at room temperature. There is a steady
increase in melting points and boiling points as we
go down the group, and the elements change from
gases to solids as the atomic number increases.
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Interestingly, the lowest element in this group is
also a highly radioactive and rare element,
astatine. The actual properties of astatine remain
a mystery to us, but we could make a good guess
astative
at some of them.

The halogen family found in Group VII of the

Periodic Table shows clearly the similarities of
elements in the group.

Common properties of the halogens

They are all poisonous and have a similar strong smell.
They are all non-metals.
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They all form diatomic molecules (for example Cl2, Br2, 12).

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They all have a valency (combining power) of 1 and form compounds with similar
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formulae, for example

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hydrogen chloride (HCI), hydrogen bromide (HBr), hydrogen
iodide-
(HI).
Their compounds with hydrogen are usually strong acids when dissolved in water,
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for example hydrochloric
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acid (HCI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydriodic acid (HI).
-
They each produce a series of compounds with other elements: chlorides, bromides
and iodides. Together these are known as halides.
The halogens themselves can react directly with metals to form metal halides (or
salts). -
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They all form negative ions carrying a single charge, for example chloride ions
-

(Cl-), bromide ions (Br), iodide ions (I).

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There are gradual changes in properties between the halogens. As you go down the
group, the boiling points increase. Also there is a change from gas to liquid to solid.
The intensity of the colour of the element also increases, from pale to dark. Following
these trends, it should not surprise you to know that fluorine is a pale yellow gas at
room temperature.

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The chemical reactivity of the halogens Fluorine and chlorine are very reactive. They
combine strongly with both metals and non-metals. A piece of Dutch metal foil - an
alloy of copper and zinc will burst into flames when placed in a gas jar of chlorine.
When chlorine is passed over heated aluminium, the metal glows white and forms
aluminium chloride:

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Aluminium also reacts strongly with bromine and iodine. The reaction between a dry
mixture of powdered aluminium and iodine can be triggered by adding just a few drops
of water. The reaction is highly exothermic and some of the iodine is given off as purple

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fumes before it has a chance to react.

Hydrogen will burn in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride. Carried out a different way,
the reaction can be explosive:

Chlorine dissolves in water to give an acidic solution. This mixture is called chlorine
water and contains two acids:

Chlorine water acts as an oxidising agent - hypochlorous acid can give up its oxygen to
other substances. It also acts as a bleach because some coloured substances lose their
colour when they are oxidised. This reaction is used as the chemical test for chlorine gas.
Damp litmus or Universal Indicator paper is bleached when held in the gas. The halogens
become steadily less reactive as you go down the group.

The displacement reactions shown in the image below demonstrate the order of
reactivity of the three major halogens. For example, if you add chlorine to a solution of
potassium bromide, the chlorine displaces bromine. Chlorine is more reactive than
bromine, so it replaces it and potassium chloride is formed. Potassium bromide solution is
colourless. It turns orange when chlorine is bubbled through it:
Chlorine will also displace iodine from potassium
iodide:

Group VIII/0- the noble gases

When Mendeleev first constructed his table, part
of his triumph was to predict the existence and
properties of some undiscovered elements.
However, there was no indication that a whole
group of elements (Group VIII/0) remained to be
discovered! Because of their lack of reactivity,
there was no clear sign of their existence.
However, analysis of the gases in air led to the
discovery of argon. There was no suitable place in the table for an individual element
with argon's properties. This pointed to the existence of an entirely new group! In the
1890s, helium, which had first been detected by spectroscopy of light from the Sun
during an eclipse, and the other noble gasses in the group (Group VIII / 0) were
isolated. The radioactive gas, radon, was the last to be purified, in 1908. One man,
William Ramsay, was involved in the isolation of all the elements in the group. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize for this major contribution. All the noble gases are present in
the Earth's atmosphere. Together they make up about 1% of the total, though argon is
the most common. These gases are particularly unreactive.

They were sometimes referred to as the inert gases, meaning they did not react at all.
However, since the 1960s, some compounds of xenon and krypton have been made
and their name was changed to the noble gases. The uses of the noble gases depend
on this unreactivity. Helium is used in airships and balloons because it is both light and
unreactive. Argon is used to fill light bulbs because it will not react with the filament
even at high temperatures. The best known use of the noble gases is, perhaps, its use in
'neon' lights. The brightly coloured advertising lights work when an electric discharge
takes place in a tube containg a little of a noble gas. Different gases give different
colours.
The atoms of the noble gases do not combine with each other to form molecules or
any other form of structure. Their melting points and boiling points are extremely low.
Helium has the lowest melting point of any element, and cannot be solidified by
cooling alone (pressure is needed also). All these properties point to the atoms of the
noble gases being particularly stable.

The electron arrangements of the atoms of the noble gases are very stable.
This means that they do not react readily with other atoms.
In many situations where atoms of other elements bond or react chemically, they
are trying to achieve that stable arrangement of electrons found in the noble
gases.

The elements of Group VIII / 0 are between the two most reactive groups of elements
(Groups I and VII). Indeed, it is their closeness to this group with stable electron
arrangements that makes the alkali metals and the halogens so reactive. They can
fairly easily achieve a noble gas electron structure. The Group VII elements gain or
share electrons and the Group I elements lose electrons to reach a noble-gas electron
arrangement.

Trends across a period

The vertical groups of elements show similar properties, but following a period across
the table highlights the trend from metallic to non-metallic properties. This can be
explored by looking across a period. The first period of the table contains just two
elements, hydrogen and helium, both of which are distinctive in different ways. The
final period in the table is as yet incomplete. Each of the five remaining periods of
elements starts with a reactive alkali metal and finishes with an unreactive, non-
metallic, noble gas.

+ 0

In Period 3, for example, from sodium to argon, there appears to be a gradual change
in physical properties across the period. The change in properties seems to centre
around silicon; elements before this behave as metals and those after it as non-
metals.

The changeover in properties is emphasised if we look at Group IV as well. As we go

down this group, the change is from non-metal to metal. The metalloids, silicon and
germanium, are in the centre of the group.
The transition elements
If we look at Period 4 in the Periodic Table, we see that there is a whole 'block' of
elements in the centre of the table. This block of elements falls outside the main groups of
elements that we have talked about so far. They are best considered not as a vertical
group of elements but as a row or block. They are usually referred to as the transition
elements (or transition metals). Their properties make them among the most useful metallic
elements available to us. They are much less reactive than the metals in Groups I and II.
Many have excellent corrosion resistance, for example chromium. The very high melting
point of tungsten (3410°C) has led to its use in the filaments of light bulbs.

Many familiar objects are made from transition metals. The image with nails before shows
a range of these: steel nails, chrome bottle stopper, copper pipe joints, iron horseshoe
magnet, cupro-nickel coins (a mix of 75% copper, 25% nickel) and copper-plated steel
coins.

These general properties mean that the transition metals are useful in a number of
different ways. In addition, there are particular properties that make these metals
distinctive and useful for more specific purposes. One important feature of transition
metals is that their compounds are often coloured.

Transition metals (or transition elements) General features:

They are hard and strong.

They have high density.
They have high melting and boiling points.
Two of their distinctive properties:
Many of their compounds are coloured.
They often show more than one valency (variable oxidation state)- they form more
than one type of ion. For example, iron can form compounds containing iron(11) ions
(Fe2+) or iron(II) ions (Fe).

The position of hydrogen in the Periodic Table

Hydrogen is difficult to place in the Periodic Table. Different versions place it above
Group I or Group VII. More often, in modern tables, it is left by itself. This is because, as
the smallest atom of all, its properties are distinctive and unique. It does not fit easily into
the trends shown in any one group.
HSS - SCIENCE WEEK 6

EXERCISE 1
1. What is the name of the most reactive non-metal?

2 What is the similarity in the electron arrangement in the noble gases?

3. How many elements are there in Period 1?

4. Where, in the Periodic Table, will the largest atom be found?

of a non-metal.
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5. Sort the following properties into those characteristic of a metal, and those typical

6. What is the name of the alkali formed when potassium reacts with water?

7. Write a word equation for the reaction between lithium and water.
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8. Which halogen(s) will displace bromine from a solution of potassium bromide?

9. Give a use and a test for chlorine.

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10. In which direction does the change in element type run, when going across a
period from left to right?

11. Which metal has the highest melting point in Period 3?

12. Which metal is the softest and least dense in Period 3?

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13. What is the formula of chlorine?

14. Which of the elements in Period 3 has the highest melting point?
HSS - SCIENCE WEEK 6

15. Why is copper (11) sulfate blue?

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