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Lecture : 51
• Social cognition refers to a complex set of mental abilities
underlying social stimulus perception, processing, interpretation,
and response.

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• Social cognition is the cognitive processes that influence social
behavior.
• Together, these abilities support the development of adequate
social competence and adaptation.
• Social cognition has a protracted development through infancy to

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adulthood.
• Social stimuli require individuals to acquire and fine-tune a large
range of abilities over the course of development allowing them
to perceive, recognize, process, interpret, and respond to often
subtle, multiple, contradictory, and changing social cues.
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• Together, the refinement of these diverse abilities contributes to
an individual's social competence across the lifespan.
• Smooth and adaptive social interactions depend on the recruitment
of virtually all core cognitive functions (e.g., perception, attention,
language, memory, executive functions) as well as more specific mental
abilities referred to as “social cognition.”.

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• Social cognition is an umbrella term defined as “the ability to
recognize, manipulate and behave with respect to socially relevant
information (… and) requires neural systems that process
perception of social signals and that connect such perception to
motivation, emotion, and adaptive behavior.” (Adolphs , 2001).

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• Social cognition includes relatively basic abilities, such as face
processing and joint attention, and more complex ones, such as
theory of mind, moral reasoning, and social decision-making
(Kilford et al., 2016).
• Some conceptualizations of social cognition further distinguish
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between abilities involved in affective (“hot”; e.g., facial expression
processing) vs cognitive (“cold”; e.g., understanding cognitive mental states
such as beliefs and intentions) processing (Etchepare & Prouteau, 2017).
• What Is Social Cognition?
• Social cognition refers to the different psychological
processes that influence how people process, interpret,
and respond to social signals.

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• These processes allow people to understand social
behavior and respond in ways that are appropriate and
beneficial.
• Social cognition encompasses a range of processes.

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• The processes involved in perceiving other people and how
we learn about the people in the world around us.
• The study of the mental processes involved in perceiving,
remembering, thinking about, and attending to the other
people in our social world.
• The reasons we attend to certain information about the
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social world, how it is stored in memory, and how it is used
to interact with other people.
• Social schemas refer to people's mental
representations of social patterns and norms.
• These representations can include information about
societal roles and the expectations of different

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individuals within a group.
• Using a social-cognitive perspective, researchers can
study a wide range of topics, including:
• Attitudes
• Person perception

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• Prejudice
• Stereotypes
• Self-concept
• Discrimination
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• Persuasion
• Decision-making
• Development of Social Cognition
• Social cognition develops in childhood and adolescence.
• As children grow, they become more aware not only of their own

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feelings, thoughts, and motives but also of the emotions and mental
states of others.
• Children become more adept at understanding how others feel,
learning how to respond in social situations, engaging in prosocial
behaviors, and taking the perspective of others.
• According to Piaget, a child's cognitive development goes through

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several stages.
• During the earliest stages of development, children are very
egocentric.
• They see the world from their own perspective and struggle to think
about how other people may view the world.
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• As children grow older, children become increasingly adept at
perspective-taking and have an increased ability to think about how
and why people act the way they do in social situations.
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Lecture : 52
• Recently, research has provided evidence that children develop
the ability to think about other people's perspectives at an
earlier age;

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• One of the most important developments in the early
emergence of social cognition is the growth of a theory of mind.
• A theory of mind refers to a person's ability to understand and
think about the mental states of other people.
• It is the emergence of a theory of mind that is critical to being

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able to consider the thoughts, motives, desires, needs, feelings,
and experiences that other people may have.
• Being able to think about how these mental states can influence
how people act is critical to forming social impressions and
explaining how and why people do the things that they do.
• Cultural Differences in Social Cognition-
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• Social psychologists have also found that there are often
important cultural differences in social cognition.
• When looking at a social situation, any two people may have
wildly different interpretations.
• Each person brings a unique background of experiences,

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knowledge, social influences, feelings, and cultural variations.
• Collective cultural influences can also affect how people
interpret social situations.
• The same social behavior in one cultural setting might have a
very different meaning and interpretation if it were to occur or
be observed in another culture.

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• As people interpret behavior, extract meaning from the
interaction, and then act based upon their beliefs about the
situation, they are then further reinforcing and reproducing the
cultural norms that influence their social cognitions.
• Our perceptions of others play such an important role in how
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we forge relationships, how we interact with others, how we
treat others, and how others treat us.
• Focusing on the collective and interactive aspects of human
thought may provide a better understanding of how people
think about and understand social behavior.
• Learning more about this perspective offers insights into

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how other people shape our behaviors and choices.
• It also plays a role in understanding how individual
cognitions affect how we perceive and respond to others.
• Social psychologists & researchers have put these questions:
• How do we develop attitudes? What role do these attitudes

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play in our social lives?
• How do we interpret other people's feelings and emotions?
How do we figure out what they are thinking or feeling? What
cues or indicators do we use to make these assumptions?
• How is self-concept formed and how does it influence our
relationships with others?
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• What influence do our thoughts have on our feelings?
• What mental processes influence person perception, or how
we form impressions of other people?
• How We Learn From the Behavior of Others ?
• Social Cognitive Theory-
• Social cognitive theory is a learning theory developed by the
renowned Stanford psychology professor Albert Bandura.

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• The theory provides a framework for understanding how
people actively shape and are shaped by their environment.
• The theory details the processes of observational learning
and modeling, and the influence of self-efficacy on the
production of behavior.

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• The theory views people as active agents who both
influence and are influenced by their environment.
• A major component is observational learning: the process of
learning desirable and undesirable behaviors by observing
others, then reproducing learned behaviors in order to
maximize rewards.
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• Individuals' beliefs in their own self-efficacy influences
whether or not they will reproduce an observed behavior.
• One assumption of social learning is that we learn new
behaviors by observing the behavior of others and the
consequences of their behavior.
• If the behavior is rewarded (positive or negative

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reinforcement) we are likely to imitate it however if the
behavior is punished imitation is less likely.
• Social cognitive theory has been used to explain a wide range
of human behavior, ranging from positive to negative social
behaviors such as aggression, substance abuse, and mental

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health problems.
• Social cognitive theory views people as active agents who
can both influence and are influenced by their environment.
• The theory is an extension of social learning that includes the
effects of cognitive processes — such as conceptions,
judgment, and motivation — on an individual’s behavior and
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on the environment that influences them.
• It argues that people actively influence their learning by
interpreting the outcomes of their action, which, in turn,
affects their environments and personal factors, informing
and altering subsequent behavior (Schunk, 2012).

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• Bandura highlights the role of observational learning and
imitation in human behavior;
• The central tenet of Bandura’s social-cognitive theory is that
people seek to develop a sense of agency and exert control
over the important events in their lives.

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• This sense of agency and control is affected by factors such
as self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, and self-
evaluation (Schunk, 2012).
• Bandura’s perspective has been applied to a wide range of
topics, such as personality development and functioning, the
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understanding and treatment of psychological disorders,
organizational training programs, education, health
promotion strategies, advertising and marketing, and more.
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Lecture : 53
• Observational Learning
• A major component of social cognitive theory is observational
learning.
• Bandura claimed that observational learning, through which

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people observe and imitate models they encounter in their
environment, enables people to acquire information much
more quickly.
• Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four
processes:

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• Attentional processes account for the information that is
selected for observation in the environment.
• People might select to observe real-life models or models they
encounter via media.
• The person must first pay attention to the model.
• Retention processes involve remembering the observed
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information so it can be successfully recalled and
reconstructed later.
• The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed.
• One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
• Production processes reconstruct the memories of the observations so

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what was learned can be applied in appropriate situations.
• This is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated.
• The observer has to be able to replicate the action,
• Often the observer will replicate the observed action , will modify the
behavior to produce a variation that fits the context.

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• Motivational processes determine whether or not an observed
behavior is performed based on whether that behavior was observed
to result in desired or adverse outcomes for the model.
• If an observed behavior was rewarded, the observer will be more
motivated to reproduce it later.
• However, if a behavior was punished in some way, the observer
would be less motivated to reproduce it.
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• Thus, social cognitive theory cautions that people don’t perform every
behavior they learn through modeling.
• Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through
modeling;
• Much research indicate that children become more
aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent

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models.
• Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by
observation and modeling.
• This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong
which can in part, develop through modeling.

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• Bandura identified three basic models of observational
learning:
• A live model, which involves an actual individual
demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
• A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional
characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television
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programs, or online media.
• A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions
and explanations of a behavior.
• Cognitive social learning theory was adopted from social
cognitive theory.
• Bandura (2001b) indicates that human behavior is explained
generally by unidirectional view such as by environmental

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influences or by internal dispositions.
• Social cognitive theory, however, follows triadic reciprocal
causation for human functioning.
• In this transactional point of view, personal, behavioral, and
environmental determinants operate bi-directionally (Fig. 1).

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• Reciprocal determinism is one of the key terms of
social learning in which our behavior, personal

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factors, and environmental factors all influence
each other.
• In contrast to environmental determinism, behavior
is the result of interaction results between prior
learning and present environmental conditions.

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• According to social cognitive approach, society and
personal interactions have influences on behavior as
well as social learning.
• Bandura assigns people has an active role rather than
passive recipients throughout self-reinforcement
mechanisms of learning.
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• People are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and
self-regulating organisms rather than being shaped only by
intrinsic and extrinsic forces.

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• Symbolizing capability, self-regulatory capability, self-
reflective capability, and vicarious capability of people
together enable social learning and modeling via complex
cognitive mechanisms.
• Bandura’s modeling process is operated by four sub-

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processes. attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation (reinforcement).
• Social Cognitive Theory posits that people are not simply
shaped by that environment; they are active participants in
their environment.
• Social learning theory emphasizes that behavior, personal
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factors, and environmental factors are all equal, interlocking
determinants of each other (Bandura,1977a).
• Effects of modeling on behavior:
• Modeling teaches new behaviors.
• Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.

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• Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
• Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors.
• Self efficacy:
• People are more likely to engage in certain behaviors when they
believe they are capable of executing those behaviors successfully.

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• This means that they will have high self-efficacy.
• In layman's terms self-efficacy could be looked as self confidence
towards learning.
• Mediating cognitive factors are internal mental processes that lie
between the stimulus and response.
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• In Social Learning Theory, these are the factors that affect whether
learners identify with models, imitate them and how they respond
to reinforcement.
• Cognitive factors in Social learning:
• Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist
factors (actually operant factors).
• 1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction

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between learning through observation and the actual imitation
of what has been learned.
• 2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists
contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.
• 3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form

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expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are
likely to bring.
• They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and
others to bring punishment.
• The learner needs to be aware however, of the response
reinforcements and response punishment.
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• Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is
aware of that connection;
• 4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can
influence both the environment and the person.
• In fact each of these three variables, the person, the behavior,
and the environment can have an influence on each other.

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• 5. Modeling: There are different types of models.
• There is the live model, and actual person demonstrating the
behavior.
• There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or
action portrayed in some other medium, , such as television,

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videotape, computer programs.
• The goal of Social Cognitive Theory/SCT is to explain how people
regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to
achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time;
• Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT; refers
to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person (individual
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with a set of learned experiences), environment (external social
context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals).
• Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to
perform a behavior through essential knowledge and skills.
• In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know
what to do and how to do it.

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• People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also
affects the environment in which they live.
• Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and
observe a behavior conducted by others, and then reproduce those
actions.
• This is often exhibited through "modeling" of behaviors.

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• If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can
also complete the behavior successfully.
• Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses
to a person's behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or
discontinuing the behavior.
• Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the environment, and
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reinforcements can be positive or negative.
• This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal
relationship between behavior and environment.
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Lecture : 54
• Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a
person's behavior.
• Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-
related.

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• People anticipate the consequences of their actions before
engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences
can influence successful completion of the behavior.
• Expectations derive largely from previous experience.
• Expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome

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and are subjective to the individual.
• Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in
his or her ability to successfully perform a behavior.
• Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have
added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of
Planned Behavior.
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• Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific capabilities and
other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors
(barriers and facilitators).
• Mental States Are Important to Learning-
• External, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor
to influence learning and behavior.
• Reinforcement does not always come from outside sources.

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• Your own mental state and motivation play an important role
in determining whether a behavior is learned or not.
• Intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards, such as
pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.
• In many cases, learning can be seen immediately when the

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new behavior is displayed.
• But sometimes we are able to learn things even though that
learning might not be immediately obvious.
• Observational learning demonstrates that people can learn
new information without demonstrating new behaviors.
• Social learning theory has had important implications in the
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field of education, such as role modeling, mentoring, coaching,
counselling, guidance etc.
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• Combining Cognitive and Social Processes during Learning in Digital
Environments-
• Social constructivist theory (Vygotsky 1978) assumes that knowledge is
mainly formed in social interactions and a specific socio-cultural

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environment.
• Social processes triggered by social cues mediate the cognitive processing of
information when learning with digital materials( Cognitive-Affective-Social
Theory on digital Learning Environments ,CASTLE; see Fig. 1 above).
• Based on these theories, learning can be defined as all social interactions

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leading to the acquirement of experience (Vygotsky and Kozulin 1989).
• According to Bandura’s theory, digital learning environments can function as
this environmental factor influencing learning processes affecting learners.
• According to the socially situated cognition theory learning cannot be
studied by focusing only on the isolated cognitive functions, such as
attention and perception, mental model building, or memorization, but on
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the interplay between own behavior, the behavior of others, and
environmental resources (Semin et al. 2012).
• Individual learning can be influenced by social cues in digital
technologies leading to the following hypothesis:
• Activation Hypothesis: Social cues activate social schemata and
trigger social processes.

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• Social Cue Strength Hypothesis: The strength of social cues to activate
social schemata is moderated by the modality of the learning
material, the temporal changeability of information, as well as the
degree of interactivity of a learning material.
• Cognitive Influence Hypothesis: Social processes influence how
information is selected, organized, integrated, and retrieved.

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• Interaction Hypothesis: Social processes influence and are influenced
by motivational, emotional, and metacognitive processes.
• Schema Influence Hypothesis: How strong and fast social schemata
are activated depends on the strength and number of the social cue
as well as the degree of development of the social schemata.
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• Social mediation hypothesis: Social processes triggered by social cues
mediate the cognitive processing of information when learning with
digital materials.
• An increased perception of social presence can lead to an increased
task performance in multimedia learning environments—a
phenomenon called social facilitation (Seitchik et al. 2017).
• Not only the interaction between humans but also the interaction

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between humans and digitally presented learning materials is
primarily social.
• The social reactions of learners to digitally presented learning
materials are not only common but also unavoidable(Lee and Nass
2003).

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• In learning contexts, feedback is defined as all information provided
to learners related to their actual state of learning and/or their
learning outcome (Narciss, 2008) and, thus, affect not only the
cognitive processing of information but also a learner’s self-
concept.
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• Piaget’s conception of cognitive conflict views information
inconsistent with an individual’s cognitive structures as an initiator
for assimilation and accommodation processes (Piaget 1977).
• When the information is assigned to a (digital) social entity, the
perceived conflict may have a social as well as a cognitive
component and thus be socio-cognitive in nature , which may trigger
various forms of conflict regulation (e.g., epistemic, competitive-
relational, protective-relational; Butera et al. 2019) and learning-

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relevant processes according to the CASTLE.
• Social Processes by Interacting with Dynamic Learning Materials-
• Recent research stated that stronger (para-)social processes lead to
higher learning outcomes when learning with instructional videos
(Beege et al. 2019).

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• The Special Case of Pedagogical Agent-
• Pedagogical agents are computer-generated or designed characters
that serve instructional purposes in educational settings (Martha and
Santoso 2019).
• According to Schroeder and Gotch (2015), pedagogical agents can
demonstrate tasks, can coach the learner during knowledge
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acquisition, can be an information source, and/or can act as a test
administrator.
• Thus, there are various potential influences of agents on learning.
• Feedback can be seen as a social cue triggering social comparison
processes and also have an impact on, for example, self-awareness and
self-schemata ;
• Elaborated feedback let learners experience digital agents as a more

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authentic and credible learning companion (Lin et al. 2013);
• This activates learners’ social schema and promotes an interaction with
the computer environment and learning process.
• Social cues may not only focus learners’ attention but help them model
favorable behavior by imitation.
• Perceived social cues about other learners’ behavioral patterns and/or

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recommendations within digital social learning environments can
potentially foster indirect or direct social navigation .
• Even very simple social cues can lead to social processes being
activated in digital learning materials.
• Thus, the creation of learning material can be supported and the
knowledge of human learning processes deepened;
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• Introduction is of central importance that the influence of social
processes while learning with digital materials
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Lecture : 55
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Fig. 2 Examples of social cues according to the type of media used in the
digital learning environment
• Self- Efficacy:
• Self-efficacy is a person's belief in their ability to complete a
task or achieve a goal.
• It encompasses a person's confidence in themselves to

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control their behavior, exert an influence over their
environment, and stay motivated in the pursuit of their goal.
• People can have self-efficacy in different situations and
domains, such as school, work, relationships, and other
important areas.
• The concept of self-efficacy is central to Albert Bandura’s

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social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of
observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal
determinism in personality development.
• According to Bandura, self-efficacy is part of the self-system
comprised of a person’s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive
skills.
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• This system plays a major role in how we perceive and
respond to different situations.
• Our belief in our own ability to succeed plays a role in how we
think, how we act, and how we feel about our place in the world.
• Individual’s self-efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks,
and challenges are approached.

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• People with a strong sense of self-efficacy:
• Develop a deeper interest in the activities in which they
participate
• Form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and

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activities
• Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments
• View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered
• Self-Efficacy vs. Self-Esteem vs. Self-Confidence:
• What is the difference between self-efficacy and self-esteem?
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• Is self-efficacy the same as self-confidence?
• Self-efficacy refers to how we feel about our ability to succeed in
different situations, while self-esteem refers to our respect for our
own value and worth.
• Self-confidence is more general and refers to a person's overall

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belief in themselves in all contexts.
• Self-efficacy is more specific and context-dependent.
• A person can have high self-efficacy in one area (such as in
academics) and low self-efficacy in other areas (such as in sports).

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• Research suggests that self-efficacy predicts self-esteem.
• People with high self-efficacy also tend to have high self-esteem
and vice versa.
• We begin to form our sense of self-efficacy in early childhood by
dealing with various experiences, tasks, and situations.
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• The growth of self-efficacy continues to evolve throughout life as
people acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding.
• Bandura identified four major sources of self-efficacy.
• Mastery Experiences
• The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is

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through mastery experiences;
• Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy;
• Social Modeling
• Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another
important source of self-efficacy.
• Social Persuasion

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• People could be persuaded to believe that they have the skills and
capabilities to succeed.
• Psychological Responses
• Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an
important role in self-efficacy.
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• Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all
impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a particular
situation.
• By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing
difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of self-
efficacy.

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• Individuals with high self-efficacy look at difficulties as challenges
rather than threats, they tend to be more intrinsically interested in
the tasks they pursue.
• Learned helplessness is the opposite of self-efficacy.
• It can occur when people feel they have no power to control what

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happens in a situation.
• Instead of looking for opportunities to change the outcome, they
give up and behave passively.
• Self-efficacy is a psychological skill that we can foster and strengthen
by celebrating our success, observing others’ achievements, seeking
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positive affirmations from friends, and looking for ways to manage
our thoughts and emotions about what we are trying to accomplish.
• There are three key sources of self-efficacy.
• The most powerful determinant of self-efficacy is enactive self-
mastery, followed by role-modelling, and then verbal persuasion.

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• Enactive self-mastery is achieved when people experience
success at performing at least portions of a task.
• Role-modelling occurs when people observe others perform a
task that they are attempting to learn or visualize themselves
performing successfully.

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• Verbal persuasion builds self-efficacy when respected
managers/teachers encourage and praise individuals/students for
their competence and ability to improve their effectiveness.
• Positive self-talk can also raise self-efficacy.
• Self-regulation-refers to an individual’s “self-generated thoughts,
feelings, and actions that are systematically designed to affect
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one’s learning” (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007)
• Self-efficacy and motivation are deeply entwined, but are two
separate constructs.
• Self-efficacy is based on an individual’s belief in their own
capacity to achieve, while motivation is based on the

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individual’s desire to achieve.
• Those with high self-efficacy often have high motivation and
vice versa;
• Those with a high level of self-efficacy are not only more likely
to succeed, but they are also more likely to bounce back and

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recover from failure.
• This is the ability at the heart of resilience, and it is greatly
impacted by self-efficacy.
• Self-efficacy and confidence can work in a positive cycle;
• The more confident a person is in his abilities, the more likely
he is to succeed, which provides him with experiences to
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develop his self-efficacy.
• Measuring self-efficacy with scales and questionnaires -
General/Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)
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• Social Perception
• It is the ability of people to create an impression about
others or form a judgment about other individuals or
groups.

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• Drawing conclusions about a person from certain
observations can also come under social perception.
• It relates to the way people think and give meaning to
other people: how they form impressions, draw
conclusions and try to explain the behavior of others,

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sometimes called social cognition.
• It is the study of how people form impressions and make
inferences about other people as sovereign personalities,
where they learn about the feelings and emotions of others
by collecting the information they gather from physical
appearance, verbal and non-verbal communication.
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• Facial expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures, and body
position or movement are just a few examples of ways that
people communicate without words.
• There are four main components: observation, attribution,
integration, and confirmation.
• Observation
• Observations serve as raw data of social perception, an

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interaction of three sources: people, situations and behavior,
these sources are used as evidence to support a person’s
impression or inference about others, in order to gather
supporting evidence an initial impression.
• People – physical influence

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• Although society tries to train people not to judge others for
their physical traits, as social perceivers, we cannot help being
influenced by hair, skin color, height, weight, style of clothing,
tone of voice, etc., making a first impression.
• People have a tendency to judge others by associating certain
facial features with specific personality types .
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• Example, studies indicate that people are perceived as stronger, more assertive, and
competent if they have small eyes, low eyebrows, an angled chin, wrinkled skin, and
a small forehead. Whereas baby-faced people tend to be connected to helplessness
and harmlessness.
• Situations – context of experiences
• People are able to easily predict the sequences or outcomes of an event
based on the scope and depth of their past experiences with a similar
event.

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• The ability to anticipate the outcomes of a situation is also highly
influenced by an individual’s cultural background, as this inevitably
shapes the types of experiences.
• Situational observations lead humans to have pre-established notions
about certain events or to explain the causes of human behaviors.

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• Behaviors – non-verbal communication
• Non-verbal communication helps people express their emotions ,
attitudes and personalities, the most dominant form of non-verbal
communication is the use of facial expressions to channel different
emotions.
• Attribution
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• The idea of social perception rests primarily on the quality of attribution.
• It helps us in understanding how and why people behave the way they
do. Reasoning is the simplest form of attribution.
• People make attributions to understand the world
around them in order to look for reasons for the
particular behavior of an individual, they can make

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judgments about what was the cause or causes of a
certain behavior.
• It is to express the personality of an individual as the
source or cause of their behavior during an event or
situation, to fully understand the impact of personal or
situational attributions, social perceivers must integrate

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all available information into a unified impression.
• To finally confirm these impressions, people try to
understand, find, and create information in the form of
various biases, most importantly that social perception is
determined by an individual’s motivations , emotions,
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and cognitive carrying capacity.
• With the observations drawn from people, situations and
behaviors, the next step is to make inferences to identify
the internal dispositions of an individual.
• Integration
• Unless instant judgment is made by observing people, situations, or
behaviors, people integrate dispositions to form impressions.
• Information integration theory states that impressions are made from

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the personal dispositions of the perceiver and a weighted average of
the characteristics of the target individual (Anderson,1981).
• The differences between the perceivers are due to the fact that
people use themselves as a standard or frame of reference when
judging or evaluating others, they tend to see that their own abilities
and traits are favorable for others to have them as well, these

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Impressions formed on others can be influenced by the current and
temporary mood of the perceiver.
• A concept called, priming also affects a perceiver’s impressions of
others, priming is the tendency for newly perceived or implemented
concepts or words to become easy and influence the understanding
of new information.
• Trait information also affects people’s impressions of others, such as
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there are central traits that are those that exert a strong effect on
the general impressions of the perceiver.
• Accuracy of social perception
• The precision of social perception has been called sensitivity and empathy, if
this perception becomes imprecise, working and living together would be
difficult, to be successful in society, one’s social perception must be accurate.

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• Studies show that groups that make an accurate perception of social behavior
are more efficient than groups made up of members with a less precise
perception.
• Similarly, in a small group, the leader’s accurate perception of his co-workers
increases effectiveness, society gives greater acceptance to those who make
accurate and effective perceptions of individuals in society and their behavior.

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• If a person makes a wrong perception of people, society does not like it.
• Social perception comes from the study of social and interpersonal behavior
and is linked to effective social behavior.
• Competence in interpersonal behavior helps to participate more effectively in
group activity and discussion, when precisely perceived qualities of group
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members are relevant to activities only accurate social perception leads to an
increase in interpersonal relationship , competition and group efficiency.
• Our attitudes, judgments, and opinions connect
cognition, emotion, and action.
• The Johari Window Model to Practice Self-Awareness &
Achieve Success.

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• The Johari Window was developed by American
Psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955.
• The model is divided into 4 quadrants that represent
your self-awareness and awareness from others.
• 1) Arena

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• The Arena is the area which is known to all.
• You are open about your thoughts and feelings, you are
aware of your behaviors and have an understanding of
your skills can capabilities.
• Others that you are interacting with are aligned and
understand your thoughts and feelings that you are
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communicating, either verbally or non-verbally.
• They also have visibility and awareness around your skills
and capabilities or other knowledge or information.
• 2) Facade
• The Facade is the area that is known to yourself but is hidden
from others.
• There may be some things that you know or are thinking in your

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head, or you may feel a particular way, however you decide to
conceal this information and not share it with others.
• You may know that you have certain skills or abilities, but
choose to not show this to others.
• Those around you do not know what you are experiencing in

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terms of thoughts and feelings, and may not know or your
capabilities. It is hidden from them.
• 3) Blind Spot
• The Blind Spot is the area that is known to others but not to
yourself.
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• There may be behaviors that you are exhibiting or things that
you are communicating that are affecting others in a particular
way.
• You may be unaware or perceive yourself as not having the ability
to perform in a certain situation.
• However, those that you are interacting with can see exactly how
you feel or know from your behavior or prior experience that you

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do have skills and abilities to perform in a particular situation.
• 4) Unknown
• The Unknown is the area that is blind to both yourself and to
those around you.
• There may be things about yourself that you do not know, such as

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your own skills and abilities, even your own thoughts and feelings.
• Others around you might also have no visibility or knowledge of
these.
• Every single one of us acts and behaves within all four quadrants;
• We are all open and honest and aware of our skillsets and
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abilities, however we all hold back information from others as
well.
• There are always things that other people are aware of that we do not know.
• People react to things differently and people have different perspectives,
even when experiencing the same situation.
• We don’t know everything, and others that are more experienced can help us

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with our blind spots.
• We all have our ‘unknown’ areas.
• We don’t know what we don’t know, but we can certainly make choices to
test our limits and help us discover more about ourselves.
• 1. Identify Your Personal Characteristics –

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• Also, ask one or more of your colleagues to choose the adjectives that they
feel best describe you; draw a Johari Window diagram, and fill in the
quadrants as follows:
• Open Area: write the adjectives that both you and your colleagues chose.
• Hidden Area: write the adjectives that only you chose.
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• Blind Area: write the adjectives that only your colleagues chose.
• Unknown Area: write the adjectives that were not chosen by any of you, but
that you are prompted to consider as your self-awareness increases.
• The 55 Adjectives of the Johari Window

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2. Define Your Goal – look at your completed Johari Window, and
think about how you can increase your Open Area and reduce the
other quadrants.
For example, if you tend to be secretive, you may want to reduce the size of your Hidden
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Area. Or, if you're surprised by what your colleagues think about you, you might want to
minimize your Blind Area.
• 3. Open Up and Ask For Feedback – to
minimize your Hidden and Unknown
areas, you need to reveal more about
yourself.

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• Self-disclosure is a give-and-take
process of sharing information with
other people.
• The more that you share your
thoughts, feelings and opinions, the

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more your Open Area expands
vertically and shrinks your Hidden
Area, and the more people will likely
trust you.
• To reduce the size of your Blind or
Unknown areas, you need to improve
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your self-awareness by seeking and
accepting feedback.
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• The Johari window’s primary function is to help individuals
develop an awareness of themselves, and it operates by using two
important processes: disclosure and feedback.
• Disclosure requires individuals to engage in self-disclosure of

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thoughts and feelings to a relational partner, but also to pursue
disclosure facilitation in their relational partner (such that the
relational partner feels safe enough to reveal their thoughts and
feelings).
• Feedback requires individuals to invite or solicit feedback from

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others in order to enhance self-knowledge, as well as to provide
feedback to others to enhance their knowledge too.
• This process of giving and receiving allows individuals within any
type of interpersonal relationship to identify blind spots and
support each other’s personal growth.
• Leaders with higher self-awareness tend to be more successful
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and achieve better outcomes, including performance metrics
(Ashley & Reiter-Palmon, 2012).
• Self-awareness and communication enjoy a symbiotic relationship,
where improvement in one often garners improvement in the other.
• Building self-awareness, Improving communication & Improving

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teamwork are the 3 major goals of Johari Window Model,
• Benefits of Social cognitive Learning
• Social cognition is essential for successful human interaction and
comprises processes relevant for understanding others’ emotions,
perspectives, and mental states in order to interpret, explain, and

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predict the behavior of others.
• Social learning (Conte & Paolucci ,2001) is a “phenomenon by means of
which a given agent (the learning agent) updates its own knowledge base
(adding to, or removing from it a given information, or modifying an existing
representation) by perceiving the positive or negative effects of any
given event undergone or actively produced by another agent on a
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state of the world which the learning agent has as a goal.”
• Specifically, there exist at least two types of social learning:
facilitation and imitation.
• Facilitation involves observing the features and behaviors of a
social conspecific and its environment to acquire novel

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information that can be used to update an observer's
knowledge base.
• Social learning theory considers how both environmental and
cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and
behavior.
• Behavior is learned from the environment through the process

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of observational learning.
• Bandura (1977) believes humans are active information
processors and think about the relationship between their
behavior and its consequences.
• Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive
processes were at work. These mental factors mediate/
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intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new
response is acquired.
• The social learning approach takes thought processes into account and
acknowledges the role that they play in deciding if a behavior is to be imitated
or not.
• It helps us understand how our environment and the people around us shape

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our behavior.
• It helps explain how individuals develop new skills and behaviors by paying
attention to the behavior of others and then trying to reproduce that behavior
themselves.

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• Social cognition, the mental activity that relates to social activities
and helps us meet the goal of understanding and predicting the
behavior of ourselves and others.
• A fundamental part of social cognition involves learning—the
relatively permanent change in knowledge that is acquired through

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experience.
• A good part of our learning and our judgments of other people
operates out of our awareness—we are profoundly affected by
things that we do not know are influencing us.
• But we also consciously think about and analyze our lives and our
relationships with others, seeking out the best ways to fulfill our

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goals and aspirations.
• The role of cognition is vital in our everyday life; we consider the
ways that people use their cognitive abilities to make good decisions
and to inform their behavior in a useful and accurate way.
• We have a general tendency to take shortcuts through the use
of cognitive heuristics: information-processing rules of thumb that
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enable us to think in ways that are quick and easy.
• Although our cognitive abilities are “good enough,” there are
definitely some things we could do better.
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Thank You

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