Dr. Eng.

Essam Ghanem
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 Webster: a branch of applied
mathematics concerned with the
determination of the size and shape of the
earth and the exact positions of points on
its surface and with the description of
variations of its gravity field

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 Vertical Datums
The Geoid
Gravity: Local Attraction
Unfortunately, the density of the earth‟s crust is not uniformly
the same. Heavy rock, such as an iron ore deposit, will have a
stronger attraction than lighter materials. Therefore, the geoid
(or any equipotential surface) will not be a simple mathematical
surface.

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 Vertical Datums
The Geoid
What is the GEOID?
• “The equipotential surface of the
Earth‟s gravity field which best fits, in
the least squares sense, global mean
sea level.”
• Can‟t see the surface or measure it
directly.
• Modeled from gravity data.

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Vertical Datums
The Geoid

Equipotential Surfaces

Topography

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 An ellipsoid of So
revolution
we squash is the
the figure
spherewhich
to would be
obtained by rotating an ellipse
fit better at the about
poles. its shorter axis.
The GRS80 ellipsoid is used for the Globe.
Close Fit At The Equator This creates a spheroid

b = 6,356,752.31414 m
But The Poles Are Out

a = 6,378,137.00000 m

GRS80 fits geoid to

about +/- 300’
a= 6378137.00000 meters
b= 6356752.31414 meters
f= 1/(a-b)/a =
298.2572220972 5/27
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 A point, line, or
surface used as a
reference, as in
surveying, mapping,
or geology .

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 Geodetic Datum
• Geodetic datum – The
information that ties a geoid
model to an ellipsoid model,
and to a real point on (or in)
the Earth by a coordinate
system
 What are Geodetic Datum?
`Geodetic Datum„ is the process of fixing an ellipsoid
of a particular orientation and position with respect
to the Earth.
To fix the ellipsoid to the mean earth, basically, we
need to know the relationship between the chosen
ellipsoid and the earth in terms of position and
orientation. It is defined by seven parameters.

GRS80-WGS84 HELMERT1906

Earth Mass Shift bet. ellip.

Center Center & Earth CG

GEOID
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 What are Geodetic Datum?
The 7 parameters that define the Geodetic Datum:
• Two parameters for the size and shape of the ellipsoid
• Three parameters for the distances of the ellipsoid
center from the center of the earth
• One parameters for the directions of the rotation axis
with the mean rotation of the earth
• One parameters for the direction of 0 longitude with
the earth‟s international 0 longitude

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 Geodetic Datum
 Two types: horizontal and vertical
datum
 horizontaldatum - forms the basis
for the computations of horizontal
control surveys in which the
curvature of the earth is considered
 vertical
datum – elevations are
referred

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 Local Horizontal Datum

Components
• Parameters of the
ellipsoid
– axis length
– flattening value
• Parameters that tie
the ellipsoid to the
origin point (known
place on the Earth)

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 The Ellipsoid
The 7 parameters that define the Geodetic Datum:
• The ellipsoid is an ellipse of revolution rotating around
its minor axis. Its size and shape are chosen to best fit
the geoid in the area of interest thus allowing as many
ellipsoids as you care to define.
• It is this figure however that terrestrial observations
must be reduced and to which geodetic coordinates
refer. Z
• The ellipsoid is an ellipse of
revolution rotating around its
minor axis. Its size and shape b
are chosen to best fit the geoid
in the area of interest thus a Y
allowing as many ellipsoids as a O
you care to define.
X

Rotational axis
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 The Geometry of Ellipsoid
Reference ellipsoids are identified by a name and often by a year
like Helmert1906 and defined by either:
•semi-major and semi-minor axes, or the relationship
between the semi-major axis and the flattening of
the ellipsoid (expressed as its eccentricity).

An ellipse is a mathematical figure

which can be defined by:
– Semi-Major Axis (a)
– Semi-Minor Axis (b)
It is more common in practice to define
the ellipse with the semi-major axis and
the flattening factor of the ellipse.
Flattening ratio, f = (a-b)/a
First Squares Eccentricity=
e2 = 1 − b2/a2 = 2f − f2
Cannot be sensed by instruments
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 The Types of Ellipsoid
Different nations and international agencies use different
geodetic datums as the basis for coordinate systems
• The reference system can be divided into two groups:
• Global systems can refer to positions over much of
the Earth.
• Regional systems have been defined for many
countries.
N N
Topography

N. America Europe

O1

O2

S. America Africa

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 Basic Geodesy
Local vs. Global Reference Ellipsoid
HELMERT1906
GRS80-WGS84

Earth Mass Approximately

Center 636 meters

GEOID
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 Basic Geodesy
EGYPT
ELLIPSOID DEFINITIONS
HELMERT1906 :
a = 6,378,200 m 1/f = 298.3

WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984 - (WGS 84)

a = 6,378,137 m 1/f = 298.257223563

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The World

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The Greenwich Meridian

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 The Greenwich Meridian
Meridians are great circles that pass through the Polar
axis of the Earth. In 1884, the International Meridian
Conference established the meridian passing through the
transit instrument at the Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, England as the prime meridian. The prime
meridian is also known as the Greenwich Meridian, and
has a longitude of 0°.
• Meridians to the west of
Greenwich are assigned
values of 0° to 180° West
longitude. Meridians to
the east of Greenwich are
assigned East longitudes.
• positive in the eastern
hemisphere
• negative (-) in the western
hemisphere
• longitudes are
traditionally designated
by the Greek letter λ. 20/27
The Equator

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The Equator

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The Equator & Parallel of Latitude
Parallels of Latitude are approximately same distance apart
and run in a north-south direction. The are defined as the
arc distance in the plane of the meridian from the
equatorial plane to the prime vertical.
Due to earth flattening, 1° of latitude is approx. 69.4 mi
near poles and 68.7 mi. near
equator.
Latitude are considered
• positive in the northern
hemisphere
• negative (-) in the
southern hemisphere
• latitudes are traditionally
designated by the Greek
letter φ.

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The Centre of the World

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P

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 The Coordinate Systems
The coordinate system, in general, is a reference
frame in which any point can be defined either in
two or three dimensions.
The coordinates of any point are necessary to be
known in order to:
• Define the horizontal and/or the vertical position.
• Deal with different points on the earth’s surface.
• Obtain any geometric relation between different points.
• Plot easily and accurately any point on the map plane

The 3-D coordinate systems: ,

In this system, the coordinates of any point may be defined
either by three geodetic curvilinear coordinates (, , h) or
three Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z),

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 The 3D Geodetic Curvilinear Coordinate
Geodetic latitude  : is the angle measured form the equator to the point on the
meridian plane of that point.  varies from zero to 90 north or south.
Geodetic longitude  : is the angle measured from Greenwich meridian to the
point on the geodetic equator anti-clockwise direction.  varies from 0 to 360
east or form 0º to 180º east and form 0º to 180º west.
Geodetic height h: is the distance between the point and the sphere measured on
the ellipsoid normal direction.

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 Complications
• Ellipsoid does not possess a constant radius of
curvature.
• Radii of curvature are dependent on latitude only.
• Two radii are of interest
– Meridian
– Prime Vertical

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 Complications
The radius used for the longitude is called the
"Radius of Curvature in the prime vertical".
The radius used for the latitude change to North
distance is called the "RM Radius of Curvature in
the meridian.
“RN is the radius of a
circle that is tangent to
the ellipsoid at the
latitude and has the
same curvature as the
ellipsoid in the north-
south direction there.
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 The Radii of Ellipsoid
Merdians : Meridians are great circles on the circumference
of the ellipsoid which pass through the north and south
poles. Any plane containing a meridian and the polar axis is
a meridian plane.
Radii of Ellipsoid : Because
the Earth is approximated by
an ellipsoid and not a sphere,
the great circle that defines
the prime vertical at P has a
radius RN that is different
than the radius RM in the
meridian at P. The lengths of
these two radii, which are
collinear at any point, are
used in many geodetic
computations. 30/27
 The Radii of Ellipsoid

The Mean radius of a great circle:

R= RM * RN
Additionally, the radius of a great circle Rα
at any azimuth α to the meridian :

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Example:
Using the GRS80 ellipsoidal parameters, what are the radii for the
meridian and prime vertical for a point of latitude 41°18’15.0132” N
What is the radius of the great circle that is at an azimuth of 142°14’36”
at this point?

Solution
For the GRS80 ellipsoid, yields:

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 Meridian Convergence - ()
Angular convergence dependent on the distance between the meridians,
the latitude and the dimensions of the earth

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Different Types of Latitudes

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Geocentric Latitude

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Reduced Latitude

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 The 3D Cartesian Coordinate
ECEF X, Y, and Z Cartesian coordinates define three dimensional
positions with respect to the center of mass of the reference ellipsoid.
The Z-axis points from the center toward the North Pole.
The X-axis is the line at the intersection of the plane defined by the
prime meridian and the equatorial plane.
The Y-axis is defined by the intersection of a plane rotated 90o east
of the prime meridian and the equatorial plane.
.

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 The Geodetic to Cartesian Coordinates
It should be mentioned here; that any of the above two sets
of coordinates can be mathematically transformed to the
other set and vice versa.
Z

h
g
Where: N is the Prime Vertical Y
radius and is equal to: j
 X
Y
X

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The Cartesian to Geodetic Coordinates

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Greenwich Z Meridian of longitude
N
meridian Parallel of latitude
=0°
P  - Geographic longitude
•
j - Geographic latitude
R - Mean earth radius
W O j •
E
Y
 R
•
Equator =0°
•
X O - Geocenter

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 Length on Meridians and Parallels

(Lat, Long) = (, )

Length on a Meridian:
AB = Re  R
R D
(same for all latitudes)
C
Re  B
Length on a Parallel: Re
A
CD = R  = Re  Cos 
(varies with latitude)

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Example:
What is the length of a 1º increment along
on a meridian and on a parallel at 30N, 90W?
Radius of the earth = 6370 km.

Solution:
A 1º angle has first to be converted to radians
 radians = 180 º,
so 1º = /180 = 3.1416/180 = 0.0175 radians

• For the meridian, L = Re  = 6370 * 0.0175 = 111 km

• For the parallel, L = Re  Cos 

= 6370 * 0.0175 * Cos 30
= 96.5 km
• Parallels converge as poles are approached
Calculations on Sphere

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Calculations on Sphere
Calculations on Sphere
Calculations on Sphere
Napier's rules
 The Geodetic Height
P

Ellipsoid Heights h

are heights above

the ellipsoid Ellipsoidal heighth =

Heights determined
using GPS are
Ellipsoid
referenced to the
WGS 84 Ellipsoid

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 Vertical Datums
Ellipsoid vs. Geoid

• Ellipsoid
– Simple Mathematical Definition
– Described by Two Parameters
– Cannot Be 'Sensed' by
Instruments
• Geoid
– Complicated Physical
Definition
– Described by Infinite
Number of Parameters
– Can Be 'Sensed' by Instruments

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Vertical Datums
Ellipsoid vs. Geoid

High Density

ellipsoid Low Density

geoid
Earth’s surface

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Geoid Model

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 The Relation between the geoid
and the ellipsoid
h is the geodetic height, which is
defined as the distance from the
point to the ellipsoid surface
measured on the perpendicular line
to the ellipsoid at that point
H is the orthometric height, which is
defined as the distance from the
point to the geoid surface measured
on the perpendicular line to the geoid
at that point.
Orthometric heights H are ref. to a
Datum which is M.S.L.
M.S.L approximates the Geoid
N is the geodetic undulation, which is
the difference between the geodetic
height and the orthometric height.

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The Relation between the geoid
and the ellipsoid

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Vertical Datums

h =H+N

H is measured traditionally
h is measured with GPS Observations
N is modeled using Gravity Models
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