WESTERN MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Teacher Education

Normal Rd., Baliwasan, Zamboanga City
Bachelor of Elementary Education Department

PED 102

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

INTRODUCTION
You’ve probably heard someone say, “Everyone is unique.” Though it sounds really like a cliché, one
cannot ignore the truth in it. As a facilitator of learning, the teacher is tasked to consider the individual
differences among the students in planning for effective instruction.
Individual differences are the fascinating and inherent variations that exist among people. Each
person possesses a distinctive combination of qualities, abilities, preferences, and experiences that shape
their unique identity. These differences encompass a wide range of aspects, including cognitive abilities,
personality traits, learning styles, cultural backgrounds, and socio-economic status.
Understanding and appreciating individual differences is essential in various domains, including
education, psychology, and sociology. By recognizing and embracing these differences, we can foster
inclusivity, promote personal growth, and create a more harmonious and understanding society. In this
discussion, we will explore the significance of individual differences, their impact on various aspects of life,
and the importance of embracing diversity in our interactions and institutions. Let us embark on a journey to
celebrate and appreciate the rich tapestry of individuality that makes our world so vibrant and diverse.

OBJECTIVE
In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:
 Identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the classroom.
 Demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element in the learning
environment.
 Come up with teaching strategies that consider student diversity.

ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY: YOUR UNIQUENESS!
DIRECTIONS: List down five (5) of your unique characteristics and describe yourself in one sentence.

ANALYSIS
1. Based on our activity, in what ways are you and your classmates similar?
2. Based on our activity, in what ways are you and your classmates different?
3. Are you glad you have similarities? Differences?
4. Based on our activity, what did you realize?
ABSTRACTION
DIVERSITY
Diversity is any dimension that can be used to differentiate groups and people from one another.
Diversity is all about empowering people by respecting and appreciating what makes them different, in
terms of age, gender, ethnicity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, education, and national origin.

FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT STUDENT DIVERSITY

In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in some ways different from
them. Recall how these differences were shown in your class tally gender and racial, ethnic or cultural
background (nationality, province, language). This diversity also comes from other factors like the
Following:
1. SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS:
Socioeconomic status refers to an individual or family's economic and social position in relation to
others, based on income, education, and occupation. For students, this could greatly impact their educational
experiences. Children from high-income families often have access to more resources (such as private
tutoring, educational gadgets, and books), better nutrition, and more opportunities for cultural exposure. On
the other hand, students from lower-income families might face challenges such as lack of access to
educational resources, less stable home environments, or the need to balance school with part-time work.
These differences can result in a diversity of experiences, perspectives, and even academic performance
within the same classroom.
2. THINKING/LEARNING STYLE:
Everyone has a unique way of processing information. Some students g visual learners, meaning they
comprehend and remember information better when it is presented visually, such as through diagrams or
videos. Auditory learners, on the other hand, learn best through listening, for example, to lectures or audio
recordings. Kinesthetic learners prefer a more hands-on approach, learning effectively through physical
activities or manipulatives. Understanding and addressing these diverse learning styles in a classroom can
help ensure that each student has the opportunity to learn in the way that suits them best.
3. EXCEPTIONALITIES:
Exceptionalities refer to individuals who differ from societal or community standards and norms.
This could include students with learning disabilities, physical disabilities, or those who are exceptionally
gifted. For instance, a student with a language comprehension issue might need additional support, such as
speech therapy or extra time on tests. A student with a physical disability might require certain
accommodations, such as assistive technology or modified physical education programs. On the other end of
the spectrum, gifted students might need advanced coursework or other opportunities for enrichment to stay
engaged and challenged. Recognizing and accommodating these exceptionalities contributes to the diversity
of a classroom and ensures an inclusive learning environment.

HOW STUDENT DIVERSITY ENRICHES THE LEARNING ENVIROMENT

Student diversity significantly enriches the learning environment, making it more vibrant and
comprehensive. One key aspect where diversity plays a crucial role is in fostering a more inclusive and
globally aware perspective among students.
 1. STUDENTS’ SELF-AWARENESS IS ENHANCED BY DIVERSITY
Enhanced Self-Awareness through Diversity; When students are exposed to a diverse group of peers,
they are given the opportunity to reflect on their own beliefs, values, and biases. They start to understand
how their own experiences and backgrounds shape their perspectives and behavior. This can lead to a deeper
understanding of themselves – their strengths, weaknesses, and unique qualities.

 Exposure to Different Perspectives:

When students interact with peers from diverse backgrounds, they are exposed to a wide
range of perspectives, beliefs, and values. This exposure challenges their own preconceived notions
and encourages them to critically examine their own beliefs. By engaging in conversations and
discussions with individuals who have different viewpoints, students develop a deeper understanding
of themselves and their own values.

 Increased Cultural Awareness:

Diversity in the student population exposes students to different cultures, traditions, and
customs. This exposure helps students develop a greater appreciation for the richness and diversity of
the world. They learn to value and respect different cultural practices, which in turn enhances their
own self-awareness by recognizing their own cultural identity and heritage.

 Building Empathy and Understanding:

Interacting with individuals from diverse backgrounds fosters empathy and understanding.
Students learn to put themselves in someone else's shoes and understand their experiences and
challenges. This empathy not only helps students develop stronger interpersonal skills but also
enhances their self-awareness by reflecting on their own biases and assumptions.

2. STUDENT DIVERSITY CONTRIBUTES TO COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.

Cognitive Development through Student Diversity; When students are part of a diverse learning
environment, they are exposed to a variety of perspectives, ideas, and ways of thinking. This exposure can
stimulate cognitive development in several ways.
 CRITICAL THINKING: Engaging with diverse viewpoints can challenge students’ preconceived
notions and encourage them to think critically. They learn to evaluate different arguments, identify
biases, and develop reasoned responses. This process enhances their critical thinking skills, which
are crucial for cognitive development.

 PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS: In a diverse classroom, students often encounter different

approaches to problem-solving, as their peers may draw on varied experiences and cultural
backgrounds. This exposure can help students understand that there are multiple ways to tackle a
problem, enhancing their problem-solving skills and cognitive flexibility.

 CREATIVITY: They learn to think outside the box and come up with novel ideas or solutions. This
can enhance their cognitive development by fostering innovative thinking.
3. STUDENT DIVERSITY PREPARES LEARNERS FOR THEIR ROLE AS RESPONSIBLE
MEMBERS SOCIETY.
Student diversity plays a crucial role in preparing learners to be responsible members of society.
 PREPARING FOR A DIVERSE SOCIETY: Today’s society is increasingly diverse. By
interacting with a diverse group of peers, students are better prepared to navigate and contribute to
this diverse society. They learn to communicate effectively with people from different backgrounds,
to respect different cultures and viewpoints, and to value diversity.

 PROMOTING EMPATHY AND UNDERSTANDING: Exposure to student diversity can foster

empathy and understanding. Students learn to see the world from different perspectives, which can
help them develop empathy for others’ experiences and challenges. This empathy is crucial for
building a compassionate and inclusive society.

4. STUDENT DIVERSITY CAN PROMOTE HARMONY:

When student diversity is integrated into the classroom teaching and learning process, it can become
a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations. Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse
students can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another on learning tasks that emphasize
unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of backgrounds.
Promoting Harmony through Student Diversity; When students from diverse backgrounds study and
interact together, they have the opportunity to learn about each other’s cultures, traditions, beliefs, and
perspectives. This exposure can foster mutual understanding and respect, which are key to promoting
harmony.
 UNDERSTANDING AND RESPECT: As students learn about their peers’ cultures and
experiences, they start to understand the value of diversity. They learn to respect differences and
appreciate the unique contribution each person brings to the community. This respect and
appreciation can foster a sense of unity and harmony.

 BREAKING DOWN STEREOTYPES: Diversity in the classroom can help break down
stereotypes and prejudices. As students interact with each other, they often realize that their
preconceived notions about certain groups may not be accurate. This can lead to more open-minded
attitudes and less bias, promoting harmony.

STRATEGIES FOR EMBRACING THE BEAUTIFUL TAPESTRY OF STUDENT DIVERSITY

1. ENCOURAGE LEARNERS TO SHARE ABOUT THEIR PERSONAL HISTORY AND

EXPERIENCES.
Sharing personal history and experiences in a learning environment can be incredibly beneficial. It
allows students to bring their unique perspectives into the classroom, fostering a sense of inclusion and
respect for diversity. This can be done in many ways, such as encouraging students to share stories from
their culture, or discussing historical events from their country’s perspective.
 2. INTEGRATE LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND ACTIVITIES WHICH PROMOTE
STUDENTS’ MULTICULTURAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS.
Promoting multicultural and cross-cultural awareness, this can be achieved by integrating learning
experiences and activities that expose students to different cultures and perspectives. This might include
studying literature from various cultures, exploring global current events, or even inviting guest speakers
from diverse backgrounds to share their experiences.

3. ASIDE FROM HIGHLIGHTING DIVERSITY, IDENTIFY PATTERNS OF UNITY THAT

TRANSCEND GROUP DIFFERENCE.
While celebrating diversity is crucial, it’s equally important to highlight the common threads that unite us
all, transcending our differences. This can help to foster a sense of belonging and community in a diverse
group.

4. COMMUNICATE HIGH EXPECTATION TO STUDENTS TO ALL SUBGROUPS.

Setting high expectations for all students, regardless of their backgrounds or subgroups, is a vital part of
effective teaching. This communicates a belief in every student’s potential and encourages them to strive for
excellence.

5. USE VARIED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS TO ACCOMMODATE STUDENT

DIVERSITY IN LEARNING STYLES.
Using a variety of instructional methods to cater to diverse learning styles is essential in a multicultural
classroom..

6. VARY THE EXAMPLES YOU USE TO ILLUSTRATE CONCEPTS IN ORDER TO

PROVIDE MULTIPLE CONTEXTS THAT ARE RELEVANT TO STUDENTS FROM
DIVERSE BACKGROUNDS.
Using varied examples to illustrate concepts is a wonderful way to make learning more inclusive and
relevant for students from diverse backgrounds. .

7. ADAPT TO THE STUDENT DIVERSE BACKGROUNDS AND LEARNING STYLES BY

ALLOWING THEM PERSONAL CHOICE AND DECISION-MAKING OPPORTUNITIES
CONCERNING WHAT THEY WILL LEARN AND HOW THEY WILL LEARN IT.
Providing students with personal choice and decision-making opportunities is a fantastic way to cater to
their diverse backgrounds and learning styles.

8. DIVERSIFY YOUR METHODS OF ASSESSING AND EVALUATING STUDENT

LEARNING.
Diversifying assessment methods is crucial to cater to different learning styles and provide a more
holistic view of student learning..

9. PURPOSELY, FORM SMALL-DISCUSSION GROUPS OF STUDENTS FROM DIVERSE

BACKGROUNDS. YOU CAN FORM GROUP OF STUDENTS WITH DIFFERENT
LEARNING STYLES, DIFFERENT CULTURAL BACKGROUND AND ETC.
Forming small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds is a fantastic strategy for promoting
inclusivity, fostering understanding, and enhancing learning. .

APPLICATION
ACTIVITY: WE ARE UNIQUE!
Directions: The class will be divided into three groups. Each group are given 10 minutes to compost an
original song or yell with the theme “ we are unique “.
 EXTEND BY RESEARCHING

INTRODUCTION RESEARCH

The student diversity in today’s science classrooms A narrative inquiry approach was adopted to study four
presents challenges as well as learning opportunities science teachers’ experiences of teaching science,
for students and teachers. This research examines considering teachers’ pPCK as an accumulation of
experience. Narrative data was collected through
topic-specific personal pedagogical content knowledge
interview conversations with these teachers about their
(pPCK) of high school teachers as it relates to experiences of conceptualizing and teaching force and
addressing student diversity in their science motion topics to diverse groups of students in their
classrooms. science classrooms.

Addressing Student Diversity in Science Classroom: Exploring Topic-Specific Personal Pedagogical Content
Knowledge of High School Teachers. Saiqa Azam, JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS
AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION DOI: 10.31756/jrsmte.333

FINDINGS CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS

To provide inclusive science education, the science

teachers address diverse backgrounds of students while
The findings revealed that topic-specific pPCK of trying to help them understand specific science content,
participant teachers was sourced in student diversity force and motion topics in this case. This, in turn,
present in their science classroom, and its development informs their knowledge base of teaching (force and
underpins various processes to connect different types motion topics) as well as knowledge about addressing
of knowledge. This research suggests considering student diversity in their classrooms. This topic-
teachers’ knowledge of student diversity and how this specific knowledge base contributes to their pPCK
impacts their planning and teaching of specific science related to student diversity. To help pre-service science
content as an aspect of their topic-specific pPCK teachers develop topic-specific pPCK, they need to
indulge in teaching and reflecting on teaching science
topics. Similarly, to develop science PCK related to
student diversity, they need to have those science
teaching experiences with students from diverse
backgrounds.
 LEARNING/ THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

INTRODUCTION
One factor that brings about diversity is thinking/learning styles. Individuals think and learn in
distinct ways. In any group of learners there will always be different learning characteristics, particularly in
the learner’s manner of processing information. Some would absorb the lesson better when they work with
their hands than when they just listen. Others would prefer to watch a video about a topic. Students,
likewise, have preferred ways of expressing their thoughts, feelings and ideas. Some would prefer to write
others would draw or even dance and sing. These preferences involve thinking/learning and multiple
intelligences.

OBJECTIVES
In this module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:
 Describe the different learning/thinking style and multiple intelligences.
 Pinpoint your own learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences.
 Plan learning activities that match learner’s learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences.

ABSTRACTION
Learning/Thinking Styles
Learning/thinking styles refers to the preferred way an individual process information. They describe
a person’s typical mode pf thinking, remembering or problem solving.
There are several perspectives about learning/thinking styles. We shall focus on sensory preferences
and the global-analytic continuum.

Sensory preference. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and maintain a
dominance in one of the following types:
Visual learner. These learners must see their teacher’s action and facial expressions to fully
understand the lesson. They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids, including: diagrams,
illustrated text book, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and hand-outs during discussion.
 Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such
as film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning. They usually have good
“picture memory” or “iconic imagery”
 Visual symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract
symbolism such as mathematical formula or the written word.

Auditory learners. They learn through verbal lectures., discussion, talking things through and
listening to what others have to say.
 Auditory learners also fall into two categories:
 The learners
 The talkers

Tactile/kinaesthetic learners. Those preferring this form of input move toward active, sensorimotor
learning. They tend to prefer “learning by doing” preferring the use of psychomotor skills to, say, abstract
thinking skills.

Global-Analytic Continuum

 Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step processes of learning. “Tree
seers”
 Global. Global thinkers tend toward non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern
rather than the particle elements. They are the “forest seers”

Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left-brain /right brain continuum. In
accord with Roger Sperry’s model. Left-brained dominant individual is portrayed as the linear (analytic),
verbal, mathematical thinker while the right-brained person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear, and
holistic in thought preferences.

Left brain (analytic) Right brain (Global)

Successive hemispheric style Simultaneous hemispheric style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Respond to word meaning 2. Respond to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Process information linearly 4 process information in valid order
5. Responds to logic 5 respond to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6 impulsive
7. Recalls people’s name 7 recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8 gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9 Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10 prefers sound/music background while
studying
11. Prefers bright light while studying 11 prefers frequent mobility while studying

Multiple intelligences
 This theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in frames of mind
(1983).
 He defines intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or
fashion a product that is valued on one or more cultures”
 he believes that different intelligences may be independent abilities –

In order to facilitate learning effectively, teacher should use strategies that match these kinds of
intelligences. The nine kinds are:
 Visual/spatial intelligence (picture smart) – learning visually and organizing ideas spatially.
 Verbal/linguistic (word smart) – learning through spoken and written words.
 Mathematical/logical (number smart/logic smart) – learning through reasoning and problem
solving.
 Bodily/kinaesthetic (body smart) – learning through interaction with one’s environment
  Musical (music smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms and music.
 Intrapersonal (self-smart) – learning through feelings, values, and attitude.
 Interpersonal (people smart) – learning through interaction with others.
 Naturalist (nature smart) – learning through classification, categories, and hierarchies.
 Existential (spirit smart) – learning by seeing “big picture” “why are we here?” “What is my role
in the world?” “What is my place in my family, and school community?”
APPLICATION
For the application, I will be giving a paper ball to the student in front (right side) and let a music
play. As music plays, the students should pass the ball to their classmate in their left side, and when the
music stopped, the person has the ball will pick a piece of crumpled paper inside a small jar that has a
question related to our topic. I will be putting at least 10 questions.
 EXTEND BY RESEARCHING

PROBLEM RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

Tekiner (2005) searched the relationship

between multiple intelligences and perceptual and The research design used in this study was
social learning styles of university students in the quantitative. A scientific approach that is closely
Turkish context. It was found that there were positive related to numbers and statistics is called quantitative
relations between logical-mathematical intelligence research (Dörnyei, 2007). The goal of a quantitative
and individual learning style; intrapersonal intelligence research design is to categorize, quantify, and build
and individual learning style; Interpersonal intelligence statistical models to try and explain what is observed.
and group learning style; linguistic intelligence and Target concepts can be measured and analyzed more
individual learning style; and interpersonal intelligence effectively with quantitative data. The primary
and kinesthetic learning style. Sarıcaoğlu and Arıkan methodology employed in this study was the survey
(2009) also carried out a research study with university method, which is widely used to gather information on
students. attitudes and opinions from a significant lot of people
taking part.

An Investigation between Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles Source: John, D., Greenwood. (2015). A
Source: Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 6, No. 2; February 2018 ISSN 2324-805X E-ISSN 2324-
8068 Published by Red fame Publishing URL: http://jets.redfame.com

FINDINGS CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS

The results showed that the students had

Firstly, the learning style of the students were almost all these types of learning styles. Mostly they
determined. It was the students had almost all these were found to be tactile and auditory learners, and
types of learning styles. Mostly, they were found to be three intelligence groups: Naturalistic, Visual and
tactile and auditory learners. The result can be seen in Kinesthetic intelligences types received the highest
table 2. score. The participants of the study were adolescents
and they lived in a village. For these reasons, the
Secondly, the learning styles and gender results were expected to be found.
differences were determined and it was found that male This study gives a perspective on future
and female students enjoy from varying types of implications of being aware of multiple intelligences
learning styles by varying degrees. In both of the and learning styles on designing lessons, materials, and
learning style groups, female students and outnumber learning environment. Teachers can take steps to
male students. Tactile, auditory and kinesthetic improve their students’ learning styles and intelligence
learning types of the females have higher means score through different techniques. They can, for instance,
than males. employ easier tasks and practices so that students can
LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES
be more satisfied with their educational attainment.
 LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

INTRODUCTION
One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning is the presence of
exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities as people who are different in some way from
the "normal" or "average". The term "exceptional learners" includes those with special needs related to cognitive
abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness.
Navigating the education of these learners demands a heightened level of understanding, patience, and the provision of
special education and related services to facilitate their optimal developmental potential.

OBJECTIVE
In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

● describe the basic categories of exceptional learners.

● define and distinguish the terms disability and handicap
● demonstrate "people first" language when referring to exceptional learners and advocate for its use.

ACTIVITY
“FLICK & THINK”
Instruction:
The class will dive into the 3-minute video on learners with exceptions by UNICEF. Students must engage their minds
and jot down their insights.
After watching the video, choose 2-3 students to share their thoughts and reflections with the class. (2 minutes for
sharing.)

ANALYSIS

● What struck you the most after watching the video?

● As future educators, why do you think it is important that we need to be well equipped and aware in
dealing with our learners, especially learners with exceptionalities?
● In what ways can educators advocate for the inclusion of learners with exceptionalities in
mainstream educational settings?

ABSTRACTION
WHO ARE LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES?

● Any individuals whose physical, mental or behavior performance is so different from the norm -
either higher or lower – that additional services to meet the individuals’ needs.
● They are students with disabilities and students who are gifted.
● Categorizing students with exceptionalities is widespread and controversial. Categories include
mental retardation, learning disabilities, behavior disorders, communication disorders, visual
disabilities, and hearing disabilities. Students from cultural minorities are disproportionately
categorized as having learning problems.
Let us begin by differentiating "Disability" from "Handicap"

● Disability - disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that "interferes with a person's ability,
for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition"
(Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
● Handicap - a handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The
degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by
both the person and his environment.
Categories of Exceptionalities
There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special education practitioners would have
varying terms and categories: For this short introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories found in
Omrod's Educational Psychology (2000).
Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties:

1. Learning Disabilities- Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like
perception, language, memory or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like mental
retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments. Examples of learning
disabilities include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia (writing).
2. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - ADHD is manifested in either or both of these: (1)
difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
3. Speech and Communication Disorder - There is difficulty in spoken language including voice
disorders, inability to produce the sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language
comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.

Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties:

1. Autism- Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with autism usually have an
intense need for routine and a predictable environment.
2. Mental Retardation - Mental retardation refers to significant sub- average intelligence and deficits in
adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting
themselves appropriately in social situations.
3. Emotional/Conduct Disorders - This involves the presence of emotional states like depression and
aggression over a considerable amount of time that notably disturb learning and performance in
school.
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments:

1. Physical and health impairment - This involves physical or medical conditions (usually long-term)
including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental alertness, and/or
(3) little muscle control.
2. Severe and Multiple Disabilities - This refers to the presence of two or more different types of
disability, at times at a profound level. The combination of disabilities makes it necessary to make
specific adaptations and have more specialized educational programs.
Sensory Impairments:

1. Visual Impairments - These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes of optic nerves that
prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.
 2. Hearing Impairments - These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinder
perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.
3. Giftedness - This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is unusually
high ability or aptitude in one or more of the aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in academic
subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership.
People - First Language
What is People-First Language?
Just as the term would imply, this language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g., a person
with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people's first language tells us what conditions people have, not what
they are (Schiefelbusch lestitute, 1996). This is similar to saying "person with AIDS other than "AIDS victim".
Other suggestions for referring to those with disabilities include:

● avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to mentally retarded);
● emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferable to confined to a
wheelchair);
● avoiding euphemisms (such as physically challenged) which are regarded as condescending and
avoid the real issues that result from a disability: and
● avoid implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a polio victim, and has multiple
sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis).

APPLICATION
“ROLL & TELL “
Mechanics:

● As the song is played, students must pass the dice to the next person.
● When the music stops, the student holding it must throw or roll the dice to get a number.
● The number obtained has a corresponding question that must be answered.

Questions:

1. A measurable impairment or limitation that "interferes with a person's ability, for example, to walk,
lift, hear, or learn.
2. This language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability.
3. There are four (4) suggestions when referring to those with disabilities, give 2.
4. A disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage is
often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his environment.
5. Give the three examples under the category of Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties.
6. Give the three examples under the category of Sensory Impairments.
 EXTEND BY RESEARCHING

PROBLEM RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
The problem identified in this research is the
potential negative impact of inadequate training and
resources on regular classroom teachers, particularly Qualitative methodology was selected to
those supporting students with special education needs. conduct this study because the primary research
The study aims to explore the social and emotional purpose was to gain an in-depth understanding of
experiences of these teachers, focusing on elements teachers’ perceptions of their experience in their own
words. It is necessary for researchers to apply a
within their professional roles that may contribute to
qualitative perspective to understand better the
thriving, burnout, or compassion fatigue. The research experience of teachers working with exceptional
seeks to understand how occupational demands, such learners in inclusive classrooms and the factors that
as heavy workload and insufficient resources, may teachers report contribute to their social and emotional
affect the well-being and mental health of teachers experiences
working with exceptional learners in regular
classrooms.

Compassion Fatigue: The Experiences of Teachers Working with Students with Exceptionalities
Source: Ziaian-Ghafari, Newsha; Berg, Derek H.Exceptionality Education International, v29 n1 p32-53 2019

FINDINGS CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS

The researcher conducted manual qualitative The constructs of thriving, burnout, and
analysis, employing an emergent design and a mix of compassion fatigue are interrelated yet independent
inductive and deductive approaches. The study aimed elements of social-emotional experience. Considering
to explore teachers' experiences with exceptional the root of burnout as being workload conditions and
learners, focusing on social and emotional aspects compassion fatigue as being social-emotional
through thriving, burnout, and compassion fatigue. The relationship with clients, it is possible that compassion
analysis revealed major themes: fatigue and burnout are two parallel trajectories of
1. Psychological Wellness (Thriving) psychological distress. Although the data from this
2. Psychological Distress (Burnout) study did not suggest that participants were
The study highlighted the dynamic interplay between experiencing burnout or compassion fatigue, elements
psychological wellness and distress, emphasizing the of the two constructs did emerge as relevant to the
importance of factors such as teacher thriving, student social-emotional experiences of the teachers. A
thriving, vitality, learning, and the challenges related to possible explanation for the limited psychological
burnout and compassion fatigue in the context of distress is that four of the five participants were not
working with exceptional learners in regular current in-service teachers, and had left the profession
classroom. to pursue graduate studies.
 BEHAVIORISM: PAVLOV, THORNDLIKE, WATSON, SKINNER

INTRODUCTION
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It emphasizes
that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement ( rewards and punishment). It does
not give much attention to the mind and possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.
Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike
and Skinner.

OBJECTIVES
In this module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:
• explain the basic principles of behaviorism.
• make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning.
• determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively.

ACTIVITY
Engage 1.
1. Think of a teacher that's most unforgettable to you in elementary or high school.
2. Are there things that when you encounter at present ( see, hear, touch, small) make you "go back to
the past" and recall this teacher? What are these things?
3. What kinds of rewards and punishments did she/he apply in your class ? For what student behaviors
were the rewards and punishments for?
Student Behavior Reward/ Punishment
1.
2.
3.
4.

ANALYSIS
Explore
 What makes this teacher unforgettable for you?
 Why do your answers in no. 1 make you recall this teacher? Describe the connection these
things have on your past teacher.
 Were the rewards and punishments given effective? Please elaborate.

ABSTRACTION
 The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It
emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring
in the mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson,
Thorndike and Skinner.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
substitution. Pavlov's most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov
was measuring the dog's salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon
classical conditioning.
 Pavlov's Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response
from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog-initiated salivation
(unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was
presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone
produced salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning.

Pavlov also had the following findings:

 Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will
salivate at other similar sounds.
 Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to
the bell.
 Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but will
soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
 Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
 Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung.
Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

CONNECTIONISM THEORY
Edward Thorndike's Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral
psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was
the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli
(S) and responses (R). Such associations or habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and
frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain
responses came to be repeated more than others because of rewards.

 The main principle of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be
adequately explained without considering any unobservable internal states.
 Thorndike's theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when. a strong connection
or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:
 1. Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and
the response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this "law"
when he found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some
seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.

2. Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. "Practice makes perfect" seem to be associated with this. However, like the
law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without
feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.

3. Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not
made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says, "Okay we will
now watch the movie (stimulus) you've been waiting for." And suddenly the power goes off. The
students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were prevented
from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to stimuli and is asked to
respond, that also becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite,
and then the teacher asks the question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still
not ready. This will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say the
question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike's Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/ exercise)A series of S-R connections can
be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of readiness).
2. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
3. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov's ideas. He too was initially
involved in animal studies, then later became involved in human behavior research. He considered that
humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is
learned through stimulus-response John Watson associations through conditioning. He believed in the power
1878 1958 of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make them
into anything you want them to be, basically through making stimulus-response connections through
conditioning.

Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a
young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden
loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon
became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child's response was generalized to other small
animals. Now, he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then extinguished" or made the child "unlearn
fear by showing the rat without the loud noise. Surely, Watson's research methods would be questioned
today nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional
responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias and prejudices that people
develop.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-
response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on changes in observable
behavior, excluding any likelihood of any processes taking place in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book,
Walden Two, is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote Science and
Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function
in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education.
 Skinner's work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he studied operant
behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory came to be
known as Operant Conditioning.

 Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior.
Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a
math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the
individual is conditioned to respond.
 Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens
the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An example of
positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to children who behave well
during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cell phone for her son who gets good grades.
Still, other examples include verbal praises, star stamps and stickers.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is
withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment; in fact it is a reward. For instance, a
teacher announces that a student who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods will no longer
take the final examination. The negative reinforcer is "removing" the final exam, which we realize is a form
of reward for working hard and getting an average grade of 1.5.
A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because punishment is a consequence intended to
result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who always comes late is not allowed to join a
group work that has already begun (punishment) and, therefore, loses points for that activity. The
punishment was done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class late.

 Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced are not
likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student's misbehavior may extinguish that behavior.

Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a Lever
will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior rewarded until
the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may
be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing
against the lever, and finally for pressing the lever.
  Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal would
master each step-in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child being
taught to tie a shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire process of
tying the shoelace is learned.
 Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement
does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner
referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval
schedules and ratio schedules.
 Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed
since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 110
minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar.
 Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time that
must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different
intervals, not every ten minutes.
 Fixed Ratio Schedules A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may
recur. Example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) every time it presses the bar 5 times.
 Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times,
then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs
to press the bar before it gets food again.

Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of
response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that
they will eventually succeed. An example of this is why people continue to buy lotto tickets even when an
almost negligible percentage of people actually win. While it is true that very rarely there is a big winner,
but once in a while somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement). People cannot predict when the jackpot can
be gotten ( variable interval ) so they continue to buy tickets ( repetition of response ).

Implications of operant conditioning

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) answer (response) frames which expose the
student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a positive
reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
praise, prizes and good grades.
Principles Derived from Skinner's Operant Conditioning:
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly
effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping").
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ( "stimulus generalization") producing
secondary conditioning.
APPLICATION
I prepare 4 questions on what you have learn behaviorism by Pavlov Watson Thorndike and skinner.
ANSWER IT IN ORAL
1. What is the major contribution of behaviorism?
2. How has behaviorism changed over time?
 3. Is behaviorism teacher or student centered?
4. How has behaviorism influenced our lives?

EXTEND BY RESEARCHING

PROBLEM RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

Literature Review: A thorough review of

existing literature on behaviorism, cognitive science,
The study aimed to explore the intersection and related disciplines was conducted to identify
between behaviorism and the emerging field of commonalities, divergences, and potential areas for
cognitive science, investigating how insights from both integration.
domains could inform a more comprehensive
understanding of human behavior and mental Conceptual Analysis: Key concepts and
processes. theoretical frameworks from behaviorism and
cognitive science were compared and contrasted to
identify points of convergence and divergence.

Behaviorism and the New Science of Cognition: Bridging the Gap

Source: Miller, L. (2019). Behaviorism and the New Science of Cognition: Bridging the Gap. Journal of Cognitive
Studies, 42(3), 315-332.

FINDINGS CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS

Complementary Perspectives: Behaviorism and

cognitive science offer complementary perspectives on The study concludes that bridging the gap
human behavior and cognition, with behaviorism between behaviorism and the new science of cognition
focusing on observable behaviors and cognitive science holds great promise for advancing our understanding of
delving into mental processes. human behavior and cognition. By integrating insights
from both disciplines, researchers can develop more
Integration Opportunities: The study identified robust theories, models, and interventions that capture
several opportunities for integrating behaviorist the complexity of human experience. Collaboration
principles, such as conditioning and reinforcement, and interdisciplinary dialogue are essential for realizing
with cognitive science theories, including information the full potential of this integration.
processing models and neural networks.
 NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOOLMAN AND BANDURA

INTRODUCTION
 It is represented by prominent psychologists Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura
 also known as cognitive behaviorism or cognitive-behavioral theory, is a psychological theory that
combines elements of behaviorism with cognitive psychology.
 It is represented by prominent psychologists Edward Toolman and Albert Bandura.
 Neo behaviorism acknowledges the importance of both external behaviors and internal mental
processes in understanding human behaviors.
 Neo behaviorism is a behavior that cannot be fully understood simply on term of observable stimuli
and reactions. Neo Behaviorism introduced mediating variables into the behaviorist stimulus
response scheme. It bridges the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theory learning.
 It recognizes that thoughts, beliefs and emotions play a significant role in influencing behavior.
 According to neo behaviorism, behavior is not solely determined by external stimuli and
reinforcement but it is also influenced by cognitive processes, such as perception, memory and
problem-solving.

NEO BEHAVIORISM

TOOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BANDURA SOCIAL-

BEHAVIORISM LEARNING THEORY
 Goal- Directedness  Principles
 Cognitive Maps  Modeling
 Latent Learning  Four Conditions for
 Intervening Variables Effective Modeling

OBJECTIVES

At the end of 60 minutes lesson, the students will be able to do the following with at least 80% level of
proficiency.
 Explain Toolman’s purposive behaviorism.
 Explain Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
 Give specific application for each theory.

(A) INTERACTIVE ACTIVITY

Engage 1: “Race aMAZE”

Instructions: The class will be divided into two (2) groups, and each group will be given a printed maze and
pen. The group who will finish the activity first should shout the animal’s name that they got and they will
be the winner.

Materials:
 Pen
 Printed Maze in a Bond Paper

Engage 2: “Read ME”

A. Read the following news article

Instructions: Group yourselves together with your previous group earlier (Race aMAZE) and number
yourselves from 1-10 only. You will be given 5 minutes to read and understand the article. The number that
I will be calling will be the one to represent the group. Clap thrice if you have an answer already.

10-Year-Old Boy in Texas Hangs Himself After Watching Saddam Execution

The Associated Press
HOUSTON Jan 4, 2007 (AP)

Police and family members said a 10-year-old boy who died by hanging himself from a bunk bed was
apparently mimicking the execution of former Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein.
Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his apartment bedroom in the Houston-area city of Webster,
said Webster police Lt. Tom Claunch. Pelico's mother told police he had previously watched a news report
on Saddam's death.

"It appears to be accidental," Claunch said. "Our gut reaction is that he was experimenting."
An autopsy of the fifth-grader's body was pending.
Julio Gustavo, Sergio's uncle, said the boy was a happy and curious child.

He said Sergio had watched TV news with another uncle on Saturday and asked the uncle about
Saddam's death.

"His uncle told him it was because Saddam was really bad," Gustavo said. "He (Sergio) said, 'OK.' And
that was it."
 Sergio's mother, Sara Pelico DeLeon, was at work Sunday while Sergio and other children were under
the care of an uncle, Gustavo said. One of the children found Sergio's body in his bedroom.
Police said the boy had tied a slipknot around his neck while on a bunk bed. Police investigators
learned that Sergio had been upset about not getting a Christmas gift from his father, but they don't believe
the boy intentionally killed himself.

A 9-year-old Pakistani boy also apparently hanged himself re-enacting Hussein's execution with the
help of elder sister by tying a rope to a ceiling fan and his neck in his home, Agence France-Presse
reported.
The boy's father said his children attempted to imitate the hanging while other family members thought
they were playing in another room.
Clinical psychologist Edward Bischof, of California, said children Sergio's age mimic risky behaviors
they see on TV — such as wrestling or extreme sports — without realizing the dangers. He said TV
appeared to be the stimulant in Sergio's case.

"I would think maybe this kid is trying something that he thinks fun to act out without having the emotional
and psychological maturity to think the thing through before he acts on it," Bischof said.
Family members held a memorial for the boy Wednesday in the apartment complex activity center.
Gustavo said the family is trying to put together enough money to send Sergio's body to Guatemala for
burial.

"I don't think he thought it was real," Gustavo said of Saddam's hanging. "They showed them putting the
noose around his neck and everything. Why show that on TV?"

ANALYSIS

Engage 1: Questions
1. How did you solve the Maze A? What Strategy did you use? (Trial and Error or you examine the
maze before proceeding with your pen)
2. Was it easier to solve Maze B? Why?

Engage 2: Questions
1. When did Sergio hanged himself?
2. What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged himself?
3. What facts made them give this reason?
4. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist.
5. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young people (preschool to college)?

ABSTRACTION

Toolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

 Purposive Behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign learning theory and is often seen as the
link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Toolman’s theory was founded on two psychological
views: those of the Gestalt psychologist and those of John Watson, the behaviorist.
 Toolman believe that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and
obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful
and goal directed behavior.
 Toolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal and learning is
acquired through meaningful behavior.
 Toolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli rather than the stimulus-
response. Toolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with an already
 meaningful stimulus (the significate) through a series of pairings; there is no need for reinforcement
in order to establish learning.

Toolman’s Key Concepts

 Toolman asserted that Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He believes individuals do
more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they
strive toward goals. Toolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive.
 Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at random
starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had
the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from
their starting locations. The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than
the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific
sequence of turns. This is tendency to “learn location” signified that rats somehow formed cognitive
maps that helped them perform well on the maze. He also found out that organisms will select the
shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal. Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the
same route going to school every day, he acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So,
when the transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to school
the shortest or easiest way.
 Latent Learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is a
learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to toolman it can exist even without
reinforcement.
 The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen
but serve as determinants of behavior. Toolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by
expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or external variables.
 Reinforcement not essential for learning. Toolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential
for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

 Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that
people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation and
modelling.

General Principles of Social Learning Theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
3. Cognition plays role in learning.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
theorist and cognitive learning theories.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modelling

1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone
else.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn from
others produce satisfying or reinforcing results.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This is known as
vicarious enforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then the observer
shows an increase in that same response.

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effect on
learning.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that
has been learned.
 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promotes learning. Therefore,
attention pays a critical role in learning and attention is influenced by the expectation of
reinforcement.

Cognitive factors in social learning

Social Learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors. (actual operant factors)
1. Learning without performance. Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation
and the actual imitation of what has been learned.
2. Cognitive processing during learning. Social learning theorist contend that attention is a critical
factor in learning.
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that
future behaviors are likely to bring.
4. Reciprocal causation. The three variables which is the person, the behavior and the environment
can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling. There are different types of models. The live model, an actual person demonstrating the
behavior, there can also the symbolic model, which can be the person or the action portrayed in some
other medium, such as television, videotape and computer programs.

Behaviors can be learned through modeling.

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly through modeling. One example of this is the
aggression. Moral thinking and moral behavior are also influenced by observation and modeling. This
includes moral judgements regarding the right and wrong which can, in part, develop through modeling.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

1. Attention- The person must pay first attention to the model.
2. Retention- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way of
increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has
just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the actions.
4. Motivation- the final necessary ingredient for modelling to occur is motivation. The learners must
want to demonstrate what they have learned.

Effects of modeling on behavior:

1. Teaches new behavior.
2. Influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. May encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors.

Educational implications of social learning theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
 Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
 Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and
decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and
consequences of various behaviors.
 Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. To promote effective
modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention,
motor reproduction, and motivation.
 Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
 Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially important
to break down traditional stereotypes.

APPLICATION: Remember Me!

 Instructions: The students will still stay on their previous group. For each questions a member will give a
number and whoever the number land will be the representative that will choose and answer the question.

1. What is Neo Behaviorism and who is the two prominent psychologists?

2. What is Purposive Behaviorism 4 key concepts?
3. It has also been referred to as Sign learning theory and is often seen as the link between behaviorism
and cognitive theory.
4. Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a _________.
5. What are the three concepts of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory?

EXTEND BY RESEARCHING

PROBLEM RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

One of the main problems highlighted is the

adoption of a restrictive logical positivist account of
theory by neo behaviorists, which limited the The paper uses a qualitative design and
development of neo behaviorist theory. provides a conceptual history of psychology, focusing
on the development of neo behaviorism, radical
Another problem discussed is the eschewing of behaviorism, and the problems associated with
theories about the internal states of organisms in behaviorism.
radical behaviorism, which was developed by Burrhus
F. Skinner.

A Conceptual History of Psychology: Neo behaviorism, radical behaviorism, and problems of behaviorism
Source: John, D., Greenwood. (2015). A Conceptual History of Psychology: Neo behaviorism, radical
behaviorism, and problems of behaviorism. 410-453. Doi: 10.1017/CBO9781107414914.012

FINDINGS CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS

Neo behaviorism, represented by Clark L. Hull

and Edward C. Tolman explained, predict, and control
observable behavior while recognizing the legitimacy
of theoretical explanations of behavior in terms of
internal states of organisms, including mental states. The paper highlights the advancements and
limitations of neo behaviorism and radical behaviorism
However, neo behaviorists adopted a restrictive in psychology, shedding light on the theoretical and
logical positivist account of theory, which limited the conceptual challenges faced by behaviorist approaches
development of neo behaviorist theory.
Burrhus F. Skinner developed radical
behaviorism, which eschewed theories about the
internal states of organisms, exploiting the limitations