• Subject / Code: Communication Theory/19ECE214

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Introduction
• The purpose of a communication system is to transmit
an information bearing signal from a source to a user
destination through a communication channel.
• Analog communication : The information bearing
signal is continuously varying in both time and
amplitude.
• Digital communication : The information bearing
signal is processed to represent the signal as a
sequence of discrete messages

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Introduction
• Analog & digital amplitude modulation

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Why Digital Communication?

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Regenerative Repeater in
Digital Communication

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Digital communication system

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A/D Converter

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A/D Converter

• Sampling
1.Ideal Sampling
2.Natural Sampling
3.Flat top Sampling
• Quantization
• Encoding

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Sampling and Reconstruction
Sampling Theorem : If a finite energy signal x(t)
contain no frequencies higher than W Hz, then x(t)
may be completely recovered from its samples spaced
1/2W seconds apart.
Proof : x(t) is finite energy and infinite duration analog
signal which is continuous both in time and amplitude.
x(t) is sampled at every Ts seconds to get xδ (t).Then

x (t ) = x(t )   (t − nTs )
n = −
-------------------- (1)
where  (t − nTs ) is Dirac delta
function.
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By using shifting property of the impulse

x(t) δ(t-to) = x(to) δ(t-to)

We can write expression (1) as


x (t ) =  x(nT )  (t − nT )
n = −
s s --------- (2)

Applying Fourier transform on both the sides


X  ( f ) = X ( f )  F {   (t − nTs )} ---------- (3)
Where n = −

  ----------(4)
1 n
F{   (t − nTs )} =  ( f − )
n = − Ts n = − Ts
------------ (5)
1  n
X  ( f ) = X ( f )    ( f − )or
Ts n=− Ts
1  n
X ( f ) = 
Ts n = −
X ( f −
Ts
) ------------- (6)
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• This shows that X  ( f ) which is the Fourier transform
of the impulsed sampled signal is periodic repetition
of the Fourier transform of the original signal with
period 1/Ts

• If fs =2W, the adjoint spectral replicates just touch

each other, and by using an ideal low pass filter having
bandwidth B=W, it is possible to recover the message
signal x(t).

• If fs >2W, known as oversampling, spectral replicates

have larger separation between them known as guard
bands. Filtering processing is easier and effective.
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• When fs < 2W, known as under sampling. The spectral
replicates overlap each other and the filtered signal
will be distorted. This distortion is called aliasing.
Aliasing can be avoided if fs ≥ 2W

• The minimum sampling frequency fs =2W is called

Nyquist rate or Nyquist frequency.

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 Aliasing :
It ca be avoided in two ways by using antialiasing
filter.
• Prefiltering: The analog signal is filtered prior to
sampling, to a new maximum frequency which is
less than or equal to fs/2.

• Postfiltering: Filtering is done after sampling using

digital filter to remove aliased component. This will
result in loss of some signal information. This is
done when the signal structure is well known.

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Sampling & Reconstruction

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Sampling Contd…

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 QUANTIZATION

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So far discussed
• Sampling
• Aliasing
• Interpolation
• After sampling we are left with a discrete-time
signal with values at integer multiples of Ts
• Amplitudes of these signals are still continuous.

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• The conversion of an analog sample of the signal into
discrete form is called quantizing process.

• The peak-to-peak range of input sample values is

subdivided into a finite set of decision levels or
decision thresholds aligned with the risers of the
staircase.

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• The output is a discrete value selected from a finite set
of representation levels or reconstruction values
aligned with the treads of the staircase..

• The separation between the decision levels which is

same as the separation between the representation
levels is known as step size

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• Over load level: It is the absolute value of the one
half of the peak-to-peak range of the input sample
values.
• Number of representation levels is equal to twice the
value of the over load level divided by the step size.

• Quantization Error : It is the difference between the

output and input values of the quantizer.
• The maximum instantaneous value of quantization
error is half of one step size, and the range of variation
is from minus half a step to plus half a step.

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[-∞,a1]—(-7 Δ /2); [a1,a2]—(-5 Δ /2); [a2,a3] —(-3 Δ /2); [a3,a4] —(- Δ /2);
[a4,a5] — Δ /2; [a5,a6] —3 Δ /2; [a6,a7] —5 Δ /2; [a7, ∞] —7 Δ /2

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• Find the quantization and decision levels for a 8-
level quantizer, quantizing a signal ranging
between[-4,4].

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Find the quantization and decision levels for a 8-level quantizer, quantizing a
signal ranging between[-4,4].
• In encoding process a sequence of bits are assigned to
different quantization values.
• Since there are a total of N=2ν quantization levels, ν
bits are sufficient for encoding.
• There are ν bits corresponding to each sample.
• Since the sampling rate is fs samples per second, we
will have a total bit rate of R= νfs bits per second.

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 PULSE CODE MODULATION
• Pulse code modulation(PCM) is the oldest and
simplest waveform coding scheme.
• Pulse code modulation (PCM) is the name given to the
class of baseband signals obtained from sampled,
quantized signals by encoding each quantized sample
into a digital word.
• For baseband transmission, the codeword bits will be
transformed into pulse waveforms.

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 Basic elements of PCM system

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• The basic operations in the transmitter are sampling,
quantization and encoding which are done in same
circuit known as analog-to-digital converter.
• Regenerative repeaters will do the regeneration of
impaired signals at intermediate points along the
transmission path.
• The operations at the receiver are last stage of
regeneration, decoding and demodulation of train of
quantized samples.
• The operation of decoding and reconstruction are
performed in same circuit called a digital-to-analog
converter.

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Two PCM systems are
1. Uniform PCM system : uses uniform quantizer
2. Non uniform PCM system : uses non uniform
quantizer

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• Uniform PCM System:
• In uniform PCM system the quantizer is uniform
quantizer.
• The range of input samples is [-xmax, +xmax]
• The number of quantization levels is N.
• The length of each quantization region is
2 xmax x
= = mvax
N 2 −1

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 SQNR
• In uniform PCM the quantized values are chosen to be
the midpoint of the quantization regions
• The quantization error is ~x = x − Q( x) is a random
variable taking values in the interval ( −  , +  )
2 2
• In ordinary PCM application the length of each
quantization region (Δ) is small.
• Under these assumptions, in each quantization region,
the error X~ = X − Q( X ) can be approximated by a
uniformly distributed random variable on ( −  , +  )
2 2
• Or
 1  ~ 
 − x
f ( ~x ) =   2 2
 0 otherwise
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• Therefore quantization noise is

+
~ 2
1 ~ 2 ~ 2 x 2 max x 2 max
E[ X 2 ] =   
x dx = =
12 3N 2
=
3  4v
−
2
where v is the number of bits per source sample.
• Then signal to quantization noise ratio is
PX 3  N 2 PX 3  4 v PX
SQNR = ~ 2 = 2
= 2
X x max x max
• Where PX is the power of the signal
• If X(t) is a wide-sense stationary process then PX can
be found using any of the following relations
 
PX = RX(τ)|τ=0 2
P = S ( f ) df
PX =  x f ( x ) dx X 
−
X
−
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• xmax is the maximum possible value of X.
• Therefore PX = E[X2] ≤ x2max
PX
• This means that x 2  1
max

• Hence upper bound to the SQNR in uniform quantizer

is 3N2 = 3X4v
• SQNR in uniform PCM decreases as the dynamic
range of the source increases because increase in the
dynamic range results in decrease in PX
2
x max
• Expressing SQNR in decibels we get

PX
SQNR / dB  10 log 10 2
+ 6 v + 4 .8
xmax
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• It can be seen that increase in v by one bit increases
the SQNR by 6dB. Using this we can achieve desired
SQNR.

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 Non Uniform PCM System:
• Uniform PCM works fine if the statistics of the input
signal are close to uniform distribution.
• some signals like speech, the input distribution is far
from uniform distribution.
• For speech signal there is higher probability for
smaller amplitudes and a lower probability for higher
amplitudes.
• It is sensible to design a quantizer with more
quantization regions at lower amplitudes and fewer
quantization region at larger amplitudes
• The resulting quantizer will be a non uniform quantizer
that has quantization regions of various sizes
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 Band width requirement of PCM system
• If the signal has bandwidth of W, then the minimum
number of samples required for perfect reconstruction
is 2W samples/sec.
• If some guard band is required then the number of
samples per second fs is more than 2W.
• If v bits are used then vfs bits per second are required
for transmission of PCM signal.
• The minimum bandwidth requirement for binary
transmission of R bit/sec is R .
2

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• Therefore the minimum bandwidth requirement of
a PCM system is
v fs
BWreq =
2
• Bandwidth requirement at Sampling with Nyquist rate
is
BWreq = vW

• This means that a PCM system expands the bandwidth

of the original signal by a factor of at least v

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 Line coding

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• Line code is needed for electrical representation of binary
sequence
• Different types of line codes
Unipolar nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) signaling
• In this line code, symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a
pulse of amplitude A for the duration of the symbol, and
symbol 0 is represented by switching off the pulse.
• This line code is also referred to as on-off signaling.
Disadvantages of on-off signaling are the waste of power
due to the transmitted DC level and the fact that the power
spectrum of the transmitted signal does not approach zero at
zero frequency.
• Polar nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) signaling
• In this second line code, symbols 1 and O are represented by
transmitting pulses of amplitudes + A and -A, respectively.
• This line code is relatively easy to generate but its
disadvantage is that the power spectrum of the signal is
large near zero frequency.
• Unipolar return-to-zero (RZ) signaling
• In this other line code, symbol 1 is represented by a
rectangular pulse of amplitude A and half-symbol width, and
symbol 0 is represented by transmitting no pulse.
• An attractive feature of this line code is the presence of delta
functions at f = 0, ±1/Tb in the power spectrum of the
transmitted signal, which can be used for bit timing recovery
at the receiver.
• However, its disadvantage is that it requires 3 dB more
power than polar return-to-zero signaling for the same
probability of symbol error
• Bipolar return-to-zero (BRZ) signaling
• This line code uses three amplitude levels .
• Specifically, positive and negative pulses of equal amplitude (i.e.,
+A and -A) are used alternately for symbol 1, with each pulse
having a half-symbol width; no pulse is used for symbol 0.
• A useful property of the BRZ signaling is that the power spectrum
of the transmitted signal has no DC component and relatively
insignificant low-frequency components for the case when
symbols 1 and 0 occur with equal probability.
• This line code is also called alternate mark inversion (AMI)
signaling.
• Split-phase (Manchester code)
• In this method of signaling, symbol 1 is represented by a positive
pulse of amplitude A followed by a negative pulse of amplitude -
A, with both pulses being half-symbol wide.
• For symbol 0, the polarities of these two pulses are reversed.
• The Manchester code suppresses the DC component and has
relatively insignificant low-frequency components, regardless of
the signal statistics.
a)NRZ Unipolar b)NRZ polar c) unipolar RZ d)RZ Bipolar
d)Manchester

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 Thank You

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