7

Level Measurement
Introduction
level mcasurement is one of the oldest
is of measurements.
Industrial process level The
parameters great measurement of
field. level of liquids may affect
The
and out of the tank Or vessel;
importancein the industrial
both the pressure and the rate of flow in
hence, the quality may be affected. In this
chapter, different methods of level
their merits and demerits. measurement have been discussed with
12 Methods of Liquid Level
Measurement
Generally, there are two methods used in industries for
Jcvel. These are: measuring liquid
(i) Direct methods
(i) Indirect methods
7.3 Direct Methods
This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this method, the
level of liquid is measured directly by means of the following level indica
tors:

(i) Hook-type Level Indicator

(ii) Sight Glass
(ii) Float-type
1.4 Hook-Type Level Indicator
When the level of liquid in an open tank is measured directly on a scale (the
read the
Scale may be in the liquid or outside it), it is sometimes difficult to
type of level
ievel accurately because of parallax error. In this case a hook
indicator is used.
7.4.1 Construction
corrosion resisting alloy
Hook-type level indicator consists of a wire of
bent into U-shape
(such as stainless steel) about in (0.063 mm) diameter,
4
shown in Fig. 7.1. The shorter arm is
Witn one arm Jonger than the other, as
is attached to a slider having a
pointed with a 60° taper, whilethe longer one
main scale and indicates the level.
Cnier Scale, which moves over the
 226 industrial Instrumentatlon and Control wa
tan
the
si
Scale graduated in mm th
no
Vernier a

Clamping screw

60° taper point

Fig. 7.1 Hook-type Level Indicator.

7.4.2 Working
In hook-type of level indicator, the hook is
liquid whose level is to be measured and graduallypushed below the surface of
just about to break through the surface. It is raised until the point is
then clamped, and the level is
read on the scale. This principle is further
in the measuring point utilised
manometer in which the
measuring point consists of a steel point fixed with
the point upwards
underneath the
An eyepiece is fixed to view this waterat surface.
der water so that in addition to point 45° un
the
seen, the image of the point by total point being
flection is also seen, as shown in Fig.internal
7.2. Now,
re
the water level is adjusted until the
tip
age touches the tip of the point and of the im
read on the scale. Since the point is the level is Fig.7.2 Measuring Point
water, the trouble due to the surface always under Manometer
the point is above the tension, when
water, is not experienced.
7.5 Sight Glass
A sight glass (also
called a gauge glass) is another
measurement. used for the continuous indication ofmethod of liquid level
tank or vessel.
It is
liguid level within a
7.5.1 Construction and Working
A sight glass
instrument
which is connected consists of a
to the interior of graduated tube of toughened glass
the tank at the
bottom in which the
 is
Level Mesuremert
# a l elevel
s
r
required.
which the
liquid igure .3 shows a 227
lank.As the level oflevel in the sight
in
ank simpBe stght glass for an
glass
glass also rises and iquid in the tank risesmatehes the level of liqu
the pen
sight falls and falls, the
neccSsaryto use the liquidaccordi
in thengltank
y.
sighiglass,the level
level of Thus, by in *
the levelthin
the
got canbe used,
is
same liquid as in he tneasuted. mesauri ng giass, it
fn sight
also tank. Any other desired iquid
Sight-glass Tube
Open tank
Liquid 20 Scaie
10
0

Fig. 7.3 Sight Glass for an

Open Tank.
When it is desired to measure a liquid level with
the liquid under pressure
vacuum, the
S1ght glass must be connected to the tank at the top as well as
t the bottom, otherwise the pressure difference between the tank and the
sight glass would cause false reading. In this case, the glass tube is enclosed
in a protective housing, and two valves are provided for isolating the gauge
from the tank in case of breakage of the sight glass. The smaller valve at the
hottom is provided for blowing out the gauge for cleaning purposes. Figure
14shows a high pressure sight glass in which measurement is made by
reading the position of the liquid level on the calibrated scale. This type of
sight glass in high pressure tanks is used with appropriate safety precautions.
wall.
The glass tube must have a small inside diameter and a thick
High-pressure tank
High-pressure piping
Protective housing
Valve
Liquid level
Scale
Sight-glass

Liquid

Valve
Sight Glass.
Fig. 7.4 High PresSure

900 mm
7.5.2 Ranges
to go in for a glass tube of more than
is not more sight
Ihe standard practice of the tank is more than 900 mm, two or gauge is
length. In case the heightprovided at different levels. This type of
glass ievel gauges are
 228

mde ts withstand
252*C te
7.5.3 Advantages
Tohwng are the sdantages of sight glase level instrument:
} Direet reading is c«ihle
) SCial designs are available for use upto 6 °C and 10,0O0 Dsi
i) Glassiess designs are available in numerotus materials for
resistance corrsion
7.5.4 Disodavntages
The disadvantages of the sight glass instrument are:
Ä) It is read only where the tank is located, which is not always conve
nient.
) Since sight glasses are locatedon the outside of the tanks, the liquid in
the sight glass may freeze in cold weather even though the liquid inside
the tank does not. and thus, it may cause error in the reading.
(11) Heavy. viscous liquids or liquids containing material which fall out of
solution and clog the tube cannot be measured satisfactorily by a sight
glass.
() Overlapping gauges are needed for long level spans.
(V) Accuracy and readability depend on the cleanliness of glass and fluid.
7.6 Float-Type Level Indicator
Float operated level indicator is used to measure liquid levels in a
which a float rests on the surface of liquid and follows the tank in
liquid. The movement of the float is transmitted to a changing level of
suitable mechanism which indicates the level on a pointer through a
types of floats are used such as hollow mnetal spheres, calibrated scale. Various
floats and disc-shaped floats. cylindrical-shaped
7.6.1 Construction and Working
Figure 7.5 shows the simplest form of float
operated mechanism for the
continuous liquid level measurement. In this case,
is transmitted to the pointer by the movement of the float
cable wound around a pulley, andstainless
the
steel or phosphor-bronze flexible
tank. The float is made of çorrosion pointer indicates liquid level in the
steel) and rests on liquid level surface resisting material (such as stainless
to turbulence. With this type of
between two grids to avoid errOr due
to 60, TE. (1.52 m) can be easily instrument, liquid level from ft. (152 mm)
measured.
With float operated type of mechanism,
O adistant place using a the liquid level can be transmitted
hydraulic transmission systems, as shown in ig.
7.6. It consists of four bellows
D) and two in the elements, two in the transmitter side (C and
receiver side (A and B) that are fixed at the
Bellows B,C and A,D are hydraulically connected outer ends.
through pipes
down according to change infilled
an oil. When the float moves up or wiin
level, 1S
 229

Counter Welght

Liquid
phelp
Float Tank

Fig. 7.5 Float-operated Liquld Level indicator.

Scale

5 104 15
Transmitting End Bellows 20
Compensating Link
D

Receiving End Bellows Tank

Float
B Pipe Filed with Oil

Liquid
Indication.
Transmission System for Level
Fig. 7.6 Hydraulic
When
lower arm to the bellows assembly A-B.
position is transmitted by a pipe
compressed andA expands, thus causing oil in the that the
the level rises, B is from D to A. The bellows are balanced so
and receiv
toflow from B to C, end is reproduced in reverse mode at the
transmitter The
movement at the
and D is compressed as the liquid level rises.
ing end, i.e. C expands the
pointer, in
compensating link pivoted on the the level
twobellows C and D act on proportion to
and will rotate the pointer in both
the same directions
ambient temperature affects both the bellows, i.e.
value. Any change in Therefore level transmission at the pointer is not
expand or contract. instruments, level transmission upto 250 ft(6.35m)
affected. With this type of
can be achieved.
 retotonandCotrof
230 mstrkat rnstn

7.6.2 Advantages following advantages:

indicaters offer the tank fron the ground level
Float type level liquíd levels in a
() It is possible to read thebelow the ground level.
even ifthe tank is keptreliable lesigns,
(ii) lts cost is lowN and has tempetature range.
(1) It operates over alarge to make these.
-res0stan materials
(iv) There is a choicc of corrosion-

7.6.3 Disadvantages indicators:

of float type level
Following are the disadvantages moderate pressures.
(} They are normally limited to
(ii) They are tailored to tank geometry.

7.7 Displacer Level Detectors which

displacer-type level detectors work on the Archimedes' principleup by a
Ihe immersed in fluid, 1s buoyed
States that a body, wholly or partially the fluid displaced. If the cross-seç
force which is equal to the weight of of the liquid are constant, then a
displacer and the density
tionalarea of the reproducible unit change in the displacer
unitchange in level will result in a
the immersed displacer, the
weight. By detecting the apparent weight of
level of the fluid is measured.
type consists of a displacer
The simplest level measuring device of this from a spring scale.
that is heavier than the process liquid and is suspended the full weight
When the liquid level is belowthe displacer, the scale shows displacer
of the displacer. As the level rises the apparent weight of the
decreases, thereby yielding a linear and proportional relationship between
100 per
the spring tension and level. The spring scale can be calibrated 0 to
cent, or in other level units. But this simple device is limited to theapplica
tions in open tanks. In actual industrial liquid level measurement, the basic
problem is to seal the process from the spring scale or other force detecting
mechanism. This seal has to be frictionless and useful over a wide range of
pressures, temperatures, and corrosion conditions.
The various types of displacer level detectors are defined, based on the
variations in the design of the seal which are listed below.
(i) Magnetically-coupled switch type
(ii) Torque tube type
(iii) Diaphragm and force bar type
(iv) Spring balanced type
(v) Flexible disc type
(vi) Flexible shaft type
Allof the above types operate on Archimedes' principle, but are different
as far as their scales are concerned. All of them can detect liquid-vapour
interface, liquid-liquid interface and if level is constant, they can be used to
detect density changes.
A torque-tube type displacer for liquid level measurement is shown in
Fig. 7.7. It consists of acylindrical displacer which can be furnished in à
 ievefMesterTYn! 231

Torque Tuthe Fianga

Torque Tube
Torque Arm

Limit Stop Nozzle

Flapper
Knife Edge Torque Arm Block
Displacer

Fig. 7.7 Torque Tube Displacer Type Llquid Level Detector

of plastic and alloy materials. Although any length displacer
wide length obtained, the most common lengths used are0.3,
0.8, 1.2 and
3m can be the
upto
volume of the standard displacer is 1638 cc and consequently
T'sm. The increases. A hollow torsion tube (or
torque
reduced as the length
diameter is
support the displacer, which is always heavier than the
nube) is used to both a frictionless pressure seal. This makes it pos
nrocess fluid, and to provide through
changes in the apparent weight of the displacerdisplacer
sible to transfer the vessel into a suitable measuringdevice. The
the wallof the pressure by the help of a torque arm which
absorbs
torque tube support
is connected to the minimized by use of a knife-edge bearing prevent
lateral forces. Friction is
Fig.7.7. A limit stop is attached with the torque arm to motion
as shown in torque tube by limiting the downward
accidental over-stressing of the tube which is attached
placed in the torque
torque rod is tube
of the torque arm. A assembly. The angular displacement of the torqueflange
with a flapper-nozzle same at the knife-edge end of the tube. At the torque
and torque arm are the at all because it is solidly held, but theangular
rotate
end, the tube does not amount as it did at the knife
edge. The
rod is free to rotate the same
degrees, is linearly proportional to ap
to 6
displacement, which is about 5 thus liquid level.
displacer and devices can be mounted
parent weight of the liquid level measuring
used on
Torque tube displacer type vessel or tank. Internal displacers are requires
internally or externally to thecan be drained when the level detector
applications where the tank where the vessel or tank cannot be depressur the
maintenance. For installations perform maintenance on the displacer,
order to outside the
ized and drained in installed in an external chamber mounted
displacer should be valves.
isolated from the process, by means of isolating
tank,
7.7.1 Advantages
displacer level detectors:
Following are the advantages of
(i) They have high accuracy.
 (HÈCntrol
232 AAstrt frstrn grontotoY}

(i) Thev are reliatble in clean iquids externally

(ii) They can be tmounted internally oF
disconnccted frotm the
c be
(iv) Extetnally mounted units Cn proCess for
maintenance. measurement.
() They are adaptable liquid interface
7.7.2 Disadvantages
the disadvantages of displacer level detectors:
() Theseareinstruments
rolowing have linited ranges: devices excecding 12 min
Iength are bulky and difficult to handle.
(ii) Thc cost of these devices increases appreciably for externally mounter
units as pressure ratings increase.
(m) External units mav reguire heating to avoid treezing
(V) External units may be in error because of temperature differences he
tween the vessel fluid and the level chamber fluid.
(V) Internal units may require stilling chambers.
7.8 Indirect Methods
Following are the indirect methods of liquid level measurement generally
used in industries:
(i) Hydrostatic pressure type
(ii) Electrical methods
7.9 Hydrostatic Pressure Type
A liquid in a tank at rest exerts a force on the walls of the tank. This force in
a liquid at rest, is known as "hydrostatic pressure", and is proportional to the
depth (or height) of liquid in the tank. Hydrostatic pressure methods used for
liquid level measurement are listed below:
(1) Pressure gauge method
(ii) Air bellows
(iii) Air purge system
(iv) Liquid purge system
7.10 Pressure Gauge Method
This is the simplest method used for liquid level measurement in an open
tank. Hydrostatic pressure of any liquid in an open tank is given by the
equaton:
P=pxhx S, (7.1)
Or,
P
h= (7.2)
px S
where, P= pressure in psi or N/m
p= the water density
S, = specific gravity
h= height of liquid (often called head) in inch or
metre.
 Hydrostati preseure of
equatinn,
P (prh S,}+ extetnal
Therefore.the oresaure
theaited at the
esute un
density and tnn f tatk an
df known specifie gtavity is
levelof liquidin the tak. This priciple directty
is tilizedin
mentfor liquid level presute
meaurement,
7.10.1 Construction and
gauge level
Working
The pressure indicato consists f a
the lowestlevel of the tank. The level at which presure zug
wn as the reference level and the static theprevsure
presre zauze is fitted.
aatt8e Ís ameasure of the height of liquid uslurnn abxve themeaIred by the
and hance the liquid level. Aliquid seal is
refeseme levei
tank including a shut-off valve connected with the Paping mthe
while measuríng corTInÍVe or highiy viscss
liaujds. This liquid seal consists of a fluidwith which the meauring syuem
is filled. This filling liquid transmits the pressure head of the
rmezvsted
liquid. The free surface of the filling liquid is kept in indirect contact with
the measured liquid. These two liquids must not mix or reat chemically.
Figure7.8 shows an open tank pressure indicator for measuring hquid levei.
Maxámum Level Pressure gauge mourtes
Tank on same ievel as the
mininm tank leve
Liquid Liquid Seal

Valve
Minimum Level (Datum Point)
Filling Liquid Vatve

Fig.7.8 Open Tank Pressure Indicator

The location of the pressure gauge should be chosenofcarefully, since any
difference in elevation above or below the lowest level the tank will affect
the reading.
7.10.2 Disadvantages
as the minimum icvel in the
The instrument must be mounted at same level
be located at certain height
tank. This is often inconvenient, as a tank mayindicator in the control room
above the control room. In this case, the level
the tank from the control
Would show an error equivalent to the height of
rOom.
 234 industrical Instrumentation and Controf

7.11 Air Bellows

Air bellows are used for liquid level measurement where an indicator
be conveniently located at the specified datum line. Figure 7.9
principle of the air bellows. il ustratcaniot
es the
Pressure indicator

Liquid Level
Bellows Element
Air
Tank

Fig. 7.9 Flexible Air Bellows.

7.11.1 Construction and Working
Air bellows consists of the bellows element which is connected by the tubing
with the pressure indicator. Air is sealed in the cavity above the bellows and
inside the tubing to the pressure indicator. When the tank is empty, the
sealed air is uncompressed and corresponds to zero on the pressure indicator.
As the tank is filled with liquid, the head of liquid in the tank flexes the
bellows, which compresses the air above the bellows. The compression of
sealed air is transmitted to the indicator which is calibrated in terms of the
tank liquid level. Air bellows may be constructed for various applications
and ranges. Figure 7.10 shows an industrial application of air bellows in
Pressure Indicator

Tank Bellows Element

Liquid Seal

Valve
Minimum Tank Level
Filing Liquid

Drain Valve

Drain
Fig. 7.10 AClosed-box Air Bellows
Connected to the Pressure Fluid Tank.
 Level Measurement
235
which a closed-bOX air bellows is connected to the prOcCss fluid tank via a
seal, for liquid level measurement. Here, liquid seals arc used while measur
ing corroSionor viscous liquids level.
7.12 Air Purge System
Air purge (also known as bubbler tube) system is one of the most
popular
hydrostatic pressure type of liquid level measuring system which is suitable
for any liquid as shown in Fig. 7.11.

Pressure Indicator
Hollow Tube
To Recorder
Air Flow Control
Valve

Regutator l
Valve
Tank Bubbler
Air Supply

Liquid
8

Fig. 7.11 Air Purge System.

7.12.1 Construction
An air purge system consists of a hollow tube (known as bubbler tube)
inserted in the liquid of the tank. Tow connections are made with the bubbler
tube, one to the regulated air supply and the other to a pressure gauge,
calibrated in terms of liquid level. A bubbler is connected in the air supply
line which serves simply as a visual check to the flow of the supply ir. A
level recorder may be connected with the pressure gauge to keep the con
tinuous record of liquid level as shown in Fig. 7.11.
7.12.2 Working
When there is no liquid in the tank or the liquid level in the tank is belowthe
bottom end of the bubble tube, the air flows out of the bottom of the bubble
tube and the pressure gauge indicates zero. In other words, there is no back
pressure because the air escapes to the atmosphere. As the liquid level in the
tank increases, the air flow is restricted by the depth of liquid and the air
pressure acting against liquid head appears as back pressure to the pressure
gauge. This back pressure causes the pointer to move on a scale, calibrated
in terms of liquid level. The full range of head pressure can be registered as
level by keeping the air pressure fed to the tube, slightly above the maximum
head pressure in the tank. The range of the device is determined by the
length of the tube. Because air is continuously bubbling from the bottom of
the tube, the tank liquid does not enter the bubbler tube and hence, the tube
 Control
236 Industral Instrurmentatlon and
is aif, but, if air reacts with
IS Said to be purged. The common purging fluid nitrogen) are
the tank fluid or is absorbed, different gases (like carbon Of
chosen depending on liquid properties.
7.12.3 Advantages
Following are the advantages of air purge system:
or below the
() In this systen, the pressure gauge can be placed above from the tank
tank level and can be kept as far away as 500 ft (12.7m)
with the help of piping.
(i) This type of device is well-suited for measuring the level of corrosive
or abrasive liquids.

7.13 Liquid Purge System

When an air purge system is unsuitable, because air bubbling through liquid
may interfere with its crystalization, a liquid purge system is used. The
construction and working of liquid purge system is the same as an air purge
system, the only difference is that in place of air, water or light mineral oil is
Used as the purge liquid. The nature of the purging liquid must be such that
the introduction of small quantities of it into the plant will not affect the
product on process. It should be free flowing and not vaporize at the tem
perature of the pipe line. The purging liquid may be either soluble or in
soluble in the vessel liquid. The rate of flow of the purging liquid is normally
adjusted to about 1 gallon/hour. The supply liquid pressure is
determined by the range of liquid level to the monitored.
7.14 Electrical Methods
There are many electrical methods for measuring and indicating liquid level
in industries. Of these the following two are the most commonly used in
industries:
(i) Capacitance level indicators
(ii) Radiation level detectors

7.15 Capacitance Level Indicator

The principle of operation of capacitance level indicator is based upon the
familiar capacitance equation of a parallel plate capacitor given by:
A
C= K (7.4)
D
where, C=Capacitance, in farad
K= Dielectric constant
A= Area of plate, in m
D= Distance between twO plates, in m
Therefore, it is seen from the above equation that ifAand D are constant.
then the capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the
dielectri
constant, and this principle is utilized in the capacitance level indicator.
 the intstin

ef
liqeid in the tank

Electric Wires Capaeitares nes

inatruSt Caiheataet in
tnsuiated
Capacitance
Probe
Insulator

Liquid (as Dielectric)

Metal Tank

Fig. 7.12
When the level of liquid in the
Capacitance Level Indicator,
liguid level in the tank tank rises, the
crease and decrease in the
capacitance
decreases, the capacitance increases. When
also decreases. This in
indicator calibrated in termscapacitance is measured and is
of liquid level. displayed on the
7.15.2 Advantages
Following are the advantages of a capacitance level
(i) It is very useful in a small
system.
indicator:
(i) It is very sensitive.
(iii) There are no moving parts exposed to
(iv) It is suitable for continuous indication fluid.
and/or control.
(v) Remote adjustment of span and zero is
indicator.
in possible this type of level
(vi) It is good for use with slurries. Mu
(Vii) Prob materials for most corrosive fluids are available.
7.15.3 Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of a capacitance level indicator:
() The performance of acapacitance level indicator is severely affected
by dirt and other contaminants, because they change the dielectric
Constant
238 industrial instrumentatkon arnd Contro

(ii) Its sensitivity is adversely affected by changes in temperature.

(ii) Measured fluid must have proper dielectric qualities.
(iv) They usuallyrequire recalibration if measured material changes in com
position or moisture content.
(v) Prob length and mounting must suit the tank.
7.16 Radiation Level Detector
Radiation level detectors are used where other electrical methods would not
survive. Also, the most common reason for using a radiation level detector is
that it does not need to come in contact with the liquid being measured.
7.16.1 Construction and Working
Figure 7.13 shows a radiation level detector. It consists of gamma rays source
holder on one side of the tank and a gamma detector on the other side of the
tank. The gamma rays from the source are directed towards the detector in a
thin band of radiation. When the gamma rays penetrate the thick wall of the
tank, its energy level afterwards is greatly reduced. The radiation received at
the gamma detector is inversely proportional to the thickness of the tank
walls and the medium between the radiation source and the detector. That is,
the thicker the medium between source and detector, the less radiation re
ceived by the detector and vice versa.
Electric Wire
Source Holder
To Indicating
Instruments

Liquid Level

Tank Wall Operating Range

of Liquid Level

Detector
Fig. 7.13 Radiation Type Level Indicator.

When the tank is empty, the gamma rays pass only through the two tank
walls and the air or vapour in the empty tank. When liquid enters the
and its level rises, the radiation beam passes through apath in the liquid,tank
as
well as the tank wal<s. The liquid in the tank reduces the radiation
by the detector. The amount of radiation received is inversely received
the amount 0f iquid between the radiation source and the proportionalThe to
detector.
difference in the amountof radiation received by the detector, corresponds to
the liquid level in the tank. Thús, when liquid level rises,
the amount of
radiation received is reduced and vice versa. The radiation loss received by
the tank walls is constant whether the tank is full
or empty.
 Level Measurerment
239
7.16.2 Advantagos
Eallowing are the advantages of radiation level
COm There is no physical
i) They are suitable forcontact with the liquid.indicators:
molten metals as well as liguids of ali types
(corrosive, abrasive, highly viscou8, adherent).
iii) They are useful at very high
Ot
iv) They have good
accuracy and
(v) They have no moving parts.
temperatures/pressures.
response.
is
7.16.3 Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of radiation level
i) The reading is affected by indicators:
density change of liquid.
(ii) Radiation
(iii) Their cost sourceholders may be heavy.
is relatively high.
A7) Laser LevelSensors
7.17.1 | Working and Construction
Laser-based level measurement depends on the accurate detection of the time
it takes for a light pulse to travel to the
process
The velocity of light is affected by the index ofmaterial surface and back.
refraction of the
through which the light pulse travels. The velocity of light in a gas orvapors
is given as vapor
C= Co (7.5)
N
where, C= velocity of light
Co= velocity of light in 0 °Catmosphere air
N= index of refraction of light.
The values of index of light refraction N for a number of gases and vapor,
corresponding to atmospheric pressure and 0°C temperature conditions, is
shown in Table 7.1.
The actual index of refraction varies with pressure and temperature and is
expressed as

N= (No - 1) + 1 (7.6)
where, N= actual index of refraction under process conditions
NÍ= index of refraction at 0.°C temperature and 1013 milibars
pressure
P= actual pressure in milibars absolute
Po= 1013 milibars pressure
T= actual temperature in 0 °K
l,= 273 °K
Laser-based level measurement can be defined as distance measurement
from the top of the vessel to the surface of the measured product. It operates
On the principle that a transmitter mounted on the top of the vessel sends a
 242 x stri frnstn rentottonmd Controt
t) As the laser beam s almost completely parallel, interfering reflectiong
fhon struts, welkling joints, or material buildup on the walls of the tani
is not aproblem
7.17.3 Dsadvantages
The disadvantages of laser level measurement are
(i) Unagitated transparent liquids can cause problems, because the level
transmiter might detect the tank bottom instead of the liquid surface.
(i) Very shiny surface can cause errors by reflecting the light laterally, and
black surfaces can cause errors because they produce a weak returning
light signal.
(in) Laser level transmitter should not be used when the vapor space ab
sorbs the measurement signal, as is the case when steam, dust, or fog is
present in the vapour space.
7.18 Microwave Level Switches
7.18.1 Working and Construction
Microwave level detectors use electromagnetic radio waves, typically in ei
ther themicrowave X-band around 10 GHz or the microwave K-band around
24 GHz, for the level measurement. Wavelength can be
ing the wavelength in a vacuum by the square root of the
calculated by divid
windoW material's
dielectric constant.
Microwaves do not pass through metal walls, but they do pass through
fiber glass or plastic tank walls and through windows of
glass that are installed in metal vessel walls. As long asplastic, ceramic, or
has a relatively low dielectric constant (e.g. less the window material
thickness is close to an even multiple of a half than 4.0) and as long as
minimal. wavelength, attenuation is
Side-mounted microwave level
handle solid, liquid-solids interface,detectors (switches) are used on hard-to
and liquid-liquid interface
Top-mounted microwaves level detectors are used for
continuous
applications.
level mea
surement on liquid applications using radar
There are various microwave level technique.
liquid level switches that are used for liquid or
(i)
measurements such as
Reflection level switches
(ii) Beam-breaker level switches
Reflection Level Switches In microwave reflection
changes in the amplitude and/or phase of the level switches, the
reflected signal is used to
determine material presence. Figure 7.16 illustrates
tor level switch. the working of a reflec
Reflection is proportional to the
material immediately next to the process dielectric constant of the
window.
generated by the microwave generator and strikes theThe microwave signal is
tank through the microwave material
The reflected beam is surface by the
in
window.
microwave detector and it compares the return received the
a balanced bridge
circuit to provide additionalsignal to a reference signal in
sensitivity. This helps the
 243

MieroAvE
Generatot
Detecto
Outyt signat to
Electronic Processing Unit Microwave Window
ig. 7.16 Microwave
Reflection Level Detector.
detector to recognize low dielectric materials such as
tric of 1.1). plastic pellets (dielec
Microwave reflection level switches are useful for
on materials that liquid-liquid
and liquid-solid interface interface
detection
difference dielectric constant. On solid
in have as little as 0.1
nique is applications, reflection tecn
limited detecting particles with diameters less
to the
than 6
X-band detector and to 2.5 mm for a K-band detector. Above thismm for an
particles begin to scatter the beam and reduce the size, the
reflected directly to the detector. amount signal that 1s
of
The reflection type of microwave
up. It is useful on granular solids and detector is simpler to install and to start
black, and pelletized materials where it haspowders such as limestone, carbon
and coating resistance, as well as having noadvantages in terms of abrasion
mechanical part in the vessel
that can be broken or pulled off. It is also useful for
liquids that are viscous, toxic, or hazardous because the difficult-to-handle
from the vessel contents. detector is isolated
Figure 7.17 shows the microwave reflection characteristics of different
materials. Air, other gases, and foam have a low dielectric constant and
return little or no signal. Materials with high
dielectric constants, such as
water, tend to return all of the signals.
Beam Breaker Level Switches In microwave beam-breaker level switches,
a beam is sent across the measurement Zone, as shown in Fig. 7.18. When air
or vapour is in this zone, a strong signal is received at the detector. When
process material breaks the beam path, it reduces the signal received at the
detector due to signal reflection and due to beam absorption in the material
caused by molecular and ionic resonances. Beam-breaker level detectors use
very smallantennas so that the beam's included angle is fairy wide, about 26
degrees for K-type band and 50 degrees for X-band. Thus, alignment is not
critical. Although signal amplitude falls off rapidly proportional to the square
of the distance, separation distance can still be upto 30 meters, which is
considerably greater than with ultrasonic or nuclear techniques.
The beam-breaker technique is useful for detecting large and abrasive
materials such as coal, minerals, wood chips, and vegetable pulp. It is aiso
useful for detecting very light materials such as dry sawdust and powdered
 244 Industr #strumentotion ond Controt
Dielectric % Reftection
Constant
100

290

Water 6 80

A 27 70
Alcohol Solid with Water
+ 14 60

8 50 Alumina

Gypsum
5 40 Phenolic Resin
Sand
A
3 30
Oils Paper, Rubber, Sugar
2 20
Hydrocarbons Fly ash & Cement

1.4 10 Soap Powders

Coal
1.1

1
Liquids Air & other Gases Solids
Fig. 7.17 Microwave Reflector Characteristics for Different Materials.

Microwave
Microwave Window Reflected Transmitted Microwave
Transmitter Beam Beam Window
Microwave
Receiver

Solid Absorbed Beam

Material

Fig. 7.18 MicroWave Beam-breaker Level Detector.

materials in fluidized beds, especially with the K-band design, which is more
easily attenuated.
7.18.2 Advantages
Following are the advantages offered by the microwave level switches:
(1) In microwave measurements the emissions are at very low power levels
ranging from .1 to 5 mW/cm (mili watt per cm´). At these energy
 246 Irusfrol nstrunertatton Hd Controt

7.19.2 Advantage
The laser versions of optcal level detectors provide high precision on nar
row span application.
7.19.3 Disadvantages
The detector is adversely affected by changes
in reflecctivity of the pocess. Source Returr
Bearm Beam
7.19.4 Fiber-optic Level Detectors
Working and Construction The fiber-op
tic type of level detectors use thc principle of
light refraction. Figure 7.20 illustrates the
working of afiber-optic level detection sys
tem. A light beam travels through the fiber.
When there is no liquid on the fiber, the re Fiber
turn beam wilI have the same intensity as the
source beam. As the liquid covers the fiber,
the index of refraction increases, allowing light
to escape into the liquid and reducing the Fig. 7.20 Fiber-optic Level
strength of the return beam. Detection Protbe.

7.20 Ultrasonic Level Detectors

7.20.1 Working and Construction
Ulrasonic level detectors operate either by the absorption of acoustic
as it travels from source to receiver or by the attenuation (frequency energy
of a vibrating diaphragmn face, oscillating at-35 te-40 KHz. It operates change)
by
generating an ultrasonic(pulse and measuring thetÉme it takes for the echo to
return. When an ultrasonic transmitter is mounted at the top of the tank, the
pulse travels in air at a speed of. 331 meter/second at 0 °C. The time of travel
is an indication of the depth of the vapour space above the
If an ultrasonic transmitter is mounted on the bottom of
liquid in the tank.
the tank, the time of
travel reflects the depth of liquid in the tank and the speed of travel is a
function of what that liquid is. In case of(water at 25 °C, an ultrasonic pulse
travels at the speed of 1,496 meters/second. Figure 7.21 illustrates the work
ing of an ultrasonic level detector.
Temperature compensation is essential in ultrasonic level measurement
because the velocity of sound is proportional to the square root of tempera
ture and, in case of air, it changes by about 0.6 meter/second for per °C
change in temperature. The speed of travel rises with temperature, and it
amounts to about 0.18% per °C.
In order to measure the time of travel of the echo of an ultrasonic pulse, it
1s eSsential that some of the sonic energy be reflected. Liquids and solids
With large and hard particles are g0od reflectors. Loose dirt have poor re
flecting characteristics as they tend to absorb the sonic pulse. Since the angle
of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, it is important that the
retlect
ing surface be flat. If the sonic pulse is reflected from a sloping surface, ts
 Leve MCISUrErrent
247
Ultrasonie Echo
Puise
Electronic
Source Rebeiver Processing Unit
Liquid Level

Tank
Level Indicator
Liquid

Fig. 7.21 UltraSonic Level Detector.

cho will not be directed back to the
source and
will not accurately reflect the vertical distance. the round-trip travel time
diffuse reflection where only small portions of theIrregular surfaces result in
total echo travels verti
cally back to the source.
Ultrasonic level measuring devices can be used for both continuous and
point measurements. The point measuring ultrasonic detectors are used for
measurement of gas/liquid, liquid/liquid, or gas/solid interfaces.
7.20.2 Advantages
Following are the advantages of ultrasonic level detectors:
(i) Ultrasonic level detectors are non-contact type measurement
techniques.
They have the ability to mneasure level without making physical contact
with the process material.
(ii) They have no moving parts.
(ii) The reliability of the reading is unaffectedby changes in the composi
tion, density, moisture content, electrical conductivity,or dielectric con
stant of the process fluid.

7.20.3 Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of ultrasonic level detector:
() An ultrasonic transmitter is subject to many interferences, which affect
the strength of the echo it receives. The echo can be weak due to
dispersion (which reduces sound intensity by the square of distance)
and absorption (which in dry air reduces its energy level).
(1) Tenperature compensation is essential in ultrasonic level measurement.
(1) The dirt, irregular and slope surfaces affect the accuracy of the mea
surement.

7.21 Eddy Current Level Measurement Sensors