REVIEWER: MATHEMATICS IN THE

MODERN WORLD
Mathematical symbols: ∑ (Summation), ∃
(There exists), ∀ (For every).

MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD

- Mathematics allows us to predict the future

SOME COMMON MATHEMATICAL
through calculations.
SYMBOLS:
- ∑: The sum of

FIBONACCI NUMBERS - ∃: There exists

- Fibonacci numbers follow a sequence of - ∀: For every (any)

- ∉: Not an element of
patterns: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and so on.

- ∈: Element of (member of a set)

- Each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones.

- ⊆: Subset of

THE GOLDEN RATIO (Φ) - ⇒: If… then

- The Golden Ratio is a constant, - ⇔: If and only if

- ℝ: Set of real numbers

approximately 1.618, that appears in various
natural patterns and designs.

- Formula: ϕ = Fₙ / Fₙ₋₁ - ℕ: Set of natural numbers

- ℤ: Set of integers

- ℚ: Set of rational numbers

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND
SYMBOLS - ∞: Infinity
The language of mathematics is:

1. Precise: Makes fine distinctions with

Mathematics is the language of sciences,
mathematical symbols.
architecture, business, economics, music,
2. Concise: Expresses long ideas or arts, and more.
sentences briefly.

3. Powerful: Communicates complex

thoughts efficiently. EXPRESSIONS AND SENTENCES IN
MATHEMATICS

EXAMPLE: - Mathematical Expression: A mathematical

"The sum of any two real numbers is also a object of interest.
real number."
- Mathematical Sentence: Must express a 1. Closure: Performing the operation on
complete thought. elements results in an element within the
set.

2. Commutativity: Changing the order of

EXAMPLES OF MATHEMATICAL operands doesn’t affect the result.
EXPRESSIONS:
3. Associativity: Grouping of operations
1. An ordered triple (a, b, c) doesn’t affect the result.

2. A matrix [½, 4/3] 4. Identity Element: An element that doesn’t

change other elements in an operation.
3. A function f(x)
5. Inverse: An element that, when combined
4. A set {1, 3, 5}
with another, results in the identity element.

EXAMPLES OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING IN MATHEMATICS

SENTENCES:
1. ∀x ∈ ℝ, x² > 0
- Inductive Reasoning: Deriving general
principles from specific examples.
2. ∀x, y ∈ ℝ, (x + y)² = x² + 2xy + y² Example: 5, 10, 15, 20... (adding 5 each
time)

- Deductive Reasoning: Reaching a

NUMBER TYPES conclusion based on general rules or
1. Cardinal Numbers: Used for counting principles.
and answer "how many."
Example: Solving a logic puzzle using
2. Ordinal Numbers: Tell the position of known facts.
things (e.g., 1st, 2nd).
PROBLEM SOLVING WITH PATTERNS
3. Nominal Numbers: Used only as a name
or identifier, not for value or position.  It is interesting to note that the
famous rabbit problem led to the
discovery of a remarkable sequence of
numbers known as the Fibonacci
OPERATIONS sequence.
 A sequence is an ordered list of
- Unary Operation: Operates on a single numbers. The numbers, separated by
value (e.g., -5, sin x). commas, are called the terms of the
sequence.
- Binary Operation: Operates on two
values, like the four basic operations Historical Note:
(addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division).  Leonardo of Pisa (1170-1250): One
of the best-known mathematicians in
Medieval Europe.

PROPERTIES OF BINARY
OPERATIONS
 POLYA'S PROBLEM-SOLVING 3. Point-Biserial Correlation: Measures the
STRATEGY relationship between a binary (dichotomous)
variable and a continuous variable.
George Polya (1887-1985) developed a four-
step strategy for solving problems in any
KARL PEARSON (1857-1936)
discipline:

1. Understand the problem.  Karl Pearson introduced a formula to

numerically measure the correlation
2. Devise a plan. between two data sets. This formula
not only shows how strongly two data
3. Carry out the plan. sets are correlated but also whether
the correlation is direct (positive) or
4. Review the solution. inverse (negative). It also reveals if
the data sets are not correlated.
 The formula named after him is called
the Pearson Product-Moment
FIBONACCI FORMULA Correlation Coefficient.

Jacques Binet (in 1543) discovered the Examples of Correlation with Scatter
formula for the nth Fibonacci number: Diagrams:

- Fₙ = (ϕⁿ - (1-ϕ)ⁿ) / √5  A. Perfect Positive Correlation, r=1r =

1r=1
- Where ϕ = (1 + √5) / 2 (the Golden Ratio)  B. Strong Positive Correlation, r≈0.8r \
approx 0.8r≈0.8
 C. Positive Correlation, r=0.6r =
0.6r=0.6
BLAISE PASCAL (1623-1662)  D. Strong Negative Correlation,
r≈−0.9r \approx -0.9r≈−0.9
- Famous for Pascal’s Triangle, which is  E. Negative Correlation, r≈−0.5r \
useful for binomial expansion. approx -0.5r≈−0.5
 F. Little or No Linear Correlation, r≈0r \
approx 0r≈0

MODULO OPERATION

- Modulo (n): Two integers a and b are

congruent modulo n if (a - b) is divisible by n. SPEARMAN'S RANK-ORDER
CORRELATION
Notation: a ≡ b (mod n)
This is another measure of correlation, often
used when data are ordinal or non-
parametric. Spearman's rank-order
STATISTICAL TOOLS correlation assesses how well the
relationship between two variables can be
1. Correlation: Measures the strength of the described by a monotonic function.
relationship between two variables (e.g., x
and y). SEVERAL TYPES OF DATA:
2. Spearman's Rank-Order Correlation: A
1. Artificial Nominal
non-parametric measure of the strength and
2. Real Nominal
direction of association between two ranked 3. Ordinal
variables. 4. Interval
5. Ratio Data
HYPOTHESIS TESTING only if every vertex of the graph has
an even degree.
 Euler Path Theorem: A graph
 Null Hypothesis (Ho): A statement
contains an Euler path if and only if it
being investigated, often stating that
has exactly two vertices of odd
there is no effect or no difference.
degree, with all other vertices having
 Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): The
even degrees.
hypothesis that contradicts the null
hypothesis, stating that there is an
effect or a difference. 5.3 HAMILTONIAN PATHS AND
CIRCUITS
CHAPTER 5: THE MATHEMATICS OF
GRAPHS  Hamiltonian Path: A path that visits
each vertex exactly once.
 Hamiltonian Circuit: A circuit that
5.1 GRAPH THEORY visits each vertex exactly once and
returns to the starting vertex. A graph
 Graph: A collection of points called containing a Hamiltonian circuit is
vertices or nodes and line segments called "Hamiltonian."
or curves called edges that connect
the vertices.
WEIGHTED GRAPHS
 Loop: An edge connecting a vertex to
itself.
 Multiple Edges: If two vertices are A weighted graph is one in which each edge
connected by more than one edge, is assigned a value, called a weight.
these are called multiple edges.
 Simple Graph: A graph with no loops TRAVELING SALESMAN PROBLEM
and no multiple edges. (TSP)
 Path: A sequence of vertices and
edges; it represents a trip from one
Since the 1920s, the TSP has been studied
vertex to another using the edges of
by mathematicians and later computer
the graph.
scientists. It involves minimizing the total
 Connected Graph: A graph is
distance traveled by a salesman visiting a
connected if there is a path
set of cities.
connecting all vertices.
 Circuit/Cycle: A path that begins and
 In 2010, researchers found a solution
ends at the same vertex.
to a TSP with 1,904,711 cities, where
 Adjacent Vertices: Two vertices are
the shortest distance was
adjacent if there is an edge joining
7,515,796,609 meters. However, it is
them.
still unknown if this is the optimal
 Complete Graph: If every pair of
solution.
vertices are adjacent, the graph is
complete. A complete graph with n
vertices is denoted by K. GRAPH COLORING
 Degree of a Vertex: The number of
edges attached to a vertex. In the mid-1800s, Francis Guthrie posed a
problem of coloring the map of England so
5.2 EULER PATHS AND CIRCUITS that no two adjacent regions shared the
same color. This leads to the concept of
 Euler Circuit: A closed path that uses graph coloring.
every edge exactly once, though it
may pass through vertices more than PLANAR GRAPH
once.
 Eulerian Graph Theorem: A graph is
Eulerian (has an Euler circuit) if and
A planar graph can be drawn so that no ∑ represents the sum of.
edges intersect each other, except at
vertices.  What does the symbol ∃ mean?

∃ means "there exists."

 What does the symbol ∀ represent?

∀ represents "for every" or "any."

 What does the symbol ⇔ mean?

⇔ means "if and only if."

CARDS (55)

What does mathematics allow us to do

What does the symbol ∈ indicate?

in terms of predictions? 

Mathematics allows us to predict the ∈ indicates "element of" or "member

future through calculations. of a set."

 What is the sequence of Fibonacci  What does the symbol ℝ represent?

numbers?
ℝ represents the set of real numbers.
 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and
What does the symbol ⊆ signify?
so on.


⊆ signifies "subset of."

 Each number is the sum of
the two preceding ones.

 What is the approximate value of the  What does the symbol ⇒ represent?

⇒ represents "if… then."

Golden Ratio (Φ)?

What does the symbol ℕ denote?

The Golden Ratio is approximately
1.618. 

 How is the Golden Ratio (Φ) ℕ denotes the set of natural numbers.

What does the symbol ℤ signify?

mathematically defined?


ℤ signifies the set of integers.

Φ = Fₙ / Fₙ₋₁

What are the characteristics of

What does the symbol ℚ represent?

mathematical language? 

1. Precise: Makes fine ℚ represents the set of rational

distinctions with symbols. numbers.
2. Concise: Expresses long
ideas briefly.
3. Powerful: Communicates  What does the symbol ∞ indicate?
complex thoughts efficiently.
∞ indicates infinity.
 What does the symbol ∑ represent in
mathematics?
 In which fields is mathematics  Unary Operation: Operates
considered the language? on a single value (e.g., -5,
sin x).
 Sciences
 Binary Operation: Operates
 Architecture on two values (addition,
subtraction, multiplication,
 Business division).

 Economics  What are the properties of binary

operations?
 Music
1. Closure
 Arts 2. Commutativity
3. Associativity
 What is a mathematical expression? 4. Identity Element
5. Inverse
 A mathematical object of
interest.  What is inductive reasoning in
mathematics?
 Examples include:
Inductive reasoning derives general
3. An ordered triple (a, b, c) principles from specific examples.
4. A matrix [½, 4/3]
5. A function f(x)  What is deductive reasoning in
6. A set {1, 3, 5} mathematics?

 What is a mathematical sentence? Deductive reasoning reaches a

conclusion based on general rules or
 Must express a complete principles.
thought.
 What is Polya's problem-solving
 Examples include:
strategy?
3. ∀x ∈ ℝ, x² > 0
4. ∀x, y ∈ ℝ, (x + y)² = x² +
1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
2xy + y²
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
 What are the types of numbers in
mathematics?
 Who discovered the formula for the
nth Fibonacci number?
1. Cardinal Numbers: For
counting.
Jacques Binet discovered the formula
2. Ordinal Numbers: Indicate
position (e.g., 1st, 2nd). for the nth Fibonacci number.
3. Nominal Numbers: Used as
names or identifiers.  What is the formula for the nth
Fibonacci number?
 What are unary and binary
operations? Fₙ = (ϕⁿ - (1-ϕ)ⁿ) / √5
 What is the value of ϕ in the Fibonacci  What is Spearman's Rank-Order
formula? Correlation used for?

ϕ = (1 + √5) / 2 It is used when data are ordinal or

non-parametric.
 What is Blaise Pascal known for?
 What are the several types of data in
Blaise Pascal is famous for Pascal’s statistics?
Triangle.
1. Artificial Nominal
 What does the modulo operation 2. Real Nominal
signify? 3. Ordinal
4. Interval
5. Ratio Data
Two integers a and b are congruent
modulo n if (a - b) is divisible by n.
 What is a null hypothesis (Ho)?

 What are the statistical tools A null hypothesis is a statement being

mentioned?
investigated, often stating no effect or
difference.
1. Correlation
2. Spearman's Rank-Order
Correlation  What is an alternative hypothesis
3. Point-Biserial Correlation (Ha)?

 Who introduced the formula to An alternative hypothesis contradicts

measure correlation between two data the null hypothesis, stating there is an
sets? effect or difference.

Karl Pearson introduced the formula to  What is a graph in graph theory?

measure correlation.
 A collection of points called
 What does the Pearson Product- vertices or nodes.
Moment Correlation Coefficient
measure?  Line segments or curves
called edges connect the
It measures the strength and direction vertices.
of correlation between two data sets.  What is a loop in graph theory?
 A loop is an edge connecting a vertex
to itself.
 What are the examples of correlation
with scatter diagrams?

1. Perfect Positive Correlation,

r=1
2. Strong Positive Correlation,
r≈0.8
3. Positive Correlation, r=0.6
4. Strong Negative Correlation,
r≈−0.9
5. Negative Correlation, r≈−0.5
6. Little or No Linear
Correlation, r≈0