EXP.

1 | Composting

Guide questions

1. Greens (Nitrogen-rich materials)

1. Vegetable Scraps: Items like carrot tops, lettuce leaves, and celery ends.
2. Fruit Scraps: Apple cores, banana peels, and citrus rinds.
3. Grass Clippings: Freshly cut grass from your lawn.
4. Coffee Grounds: Used coffee grounds and their filters.
5. Manure: Animal manure from herbivores, such as cows or horses.

Browns (Carbon-rich materials)

1. Dry Leaves: Autumn leaves that have dried and fallen.

2. Cardboard: Shredded cardboard from boxes or packaging materials.
3. Paper: Plain paper, such as newspaper (avoid colored or glossy types).
4. Wood Chips: Small pieces of untreated wood or sawdust.
5. Straw or Hay: Dried plant material, often used in gardening.

2.

● Too much moisture

● Improper materials utilized
● Incorrect proportions of green & brown leaves
● Wrong placement of where to let it stay

3.

According to the compost chemistry of science engineering, the ideal ratio between carbon to
nitrogen is at 30:1. The reason for this is that the nitrogen has the capability to cause
unpleasant odor due to its capability to be as an ammonia gas. In addition to this, the ratio is
also dependent on the materials and whether the composition has high nitrogen content or
carbon content.

4.

AEROBIC COMPOSTING - This is the most common mode of composting, where sometimes it
can be called hot composting due to the occasional addition of oxygen. The materials are
broken down by microorganisms with the support of oxygen.

ANAEROBIC COMPOSTING - This digresses from traditional composting where oxygen is not
involved in the process. Specifically, the material in this process is fermented and broken down,
rather than being decomposed.
WINDROW COMPOSTING - This method is utilized for composting activities that requires a
method that can handle large capacities. It can be done through automated or manual
operations.

VERMICOMPOSTING - The difference from traditional composting is that vermicomposting

utilizes a variety of worm species which still involves aerobic process (oxygen). Unlike the
windrow composting, vermicomposting does not require the turn of material pile.

5.

Yes, composting is one of the major contributors of reducing the emission of greenhouse
gasses. According to recent findings, composting reduces the emission of methane and is
recognized as one of the most natural ways to recycle.

Analysis - During the 7-week composting process, organic waste changes in texture, color, and
smell. In the first couple of weeks, the material is chunky and moist, with an earthy, slightly sour
smell as decomposition begins. As the pile heats up and microbes break down more complex
materials in weeks two and three, the texture becomes finer, and the smell gets stronger, but
still earthy, not foul. By week four, as the pile cools, the compost turns darker and more crumbly.
By week seven, it has a rich, dark brown or black color, a soft, soil-like texture, and an earthy
smell, with no signs of the original waste. This indicates that the compost is fully matured and
ready for use in gardening or agriculture.

Conclusion - @/Ganda ni aika

The experiment is focused on the concept of understanding the process of composting. There
are a variety of considerations in order to properly conduct the experiment, such as, the proper
ratio of materials, proper placement of the compost, and proper monitoring in order to produce a
successful/good compost. (TBC-)

Reflection - This experiment taught us a lot about managing organic waste. We faced
challenges, especially with keeping moisture levels steady, which showed the importance of
monitoring conditions closely. It also highlighted how composting can benefit our communities
and the environment.

EXP. 2 | Noise-level Survey

GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. How can noise affect human's health?
Prolonged noise exposure can cause hearing loss, increase stress levels, disturb sleep,
raise blood pressure, and contribute to heart disease and mental fatigue.

2. How can you control noise?

 Noise can be controlled by using sound barriers, insulating buildings, limiting exposure
time, maintaining quieter equipment, and using personal protective equipment like
earplugs.

3. What are the possible sources of error in conducting this experiment?

In a noise-level survey, errors can arise from improper calibration of sound meters,
environmental conditions like temperature, and the location of measurements near
reflective surfaces, which can distort results. Human error can also contribute to
inaccuracies. Lastly, variations in noise throughout the day can lead to inconsistent
results if not properly accounted for.

4. What are the exposure limit values?

Exposure limit values for noise are set to protect against harmful effects. In many
workplaces, the limit is 85 decibels (dB) over an 8-hour period, according to OSHA and
WHO guidelines. For every 3 dB increase above this, the permissible exposure time is
halved (e.g., 88 dB for 4 hours, 91 dB for 2 hours). A peak sound pressure of 140 dB is
considered the upper limit, as exposure beyond this can cause immediate hearing
damage.

5. What is peak sound pressure?

Peak sound pressure is the highest level of pressure caused by a sound wave,
measured in decibels (dB) or pascals (Pa), reflecting the maximum intensity of a noise.

No. of Trials Time of Sampling Maximum Noise Level (MNL)

1 (Clinic)

2 (Gym Weight Room) 66.7

3 (View Deck) 59.0

ANALYSIS
Taken from the data gathered, it is evident that the view deck acquired the lowest level of noise
at a rate of 59.00 db, while on the other hand, the gym weight room has the highest noise level
of 66.70 db. The reason for this is due to the amount of people present in these areas where the
majority of the noise level factors came from people talking.
CONCLUSION
Overall, the experiment allowed the class to understand the concept behind noise levels and the
factors affecting it such as the number of individuals present, the activities done in the area, and
the structure of the area itself where will it be capable of keeping the noise in or let it easily
move out.
REFLECTION
The noise level survey experiment offered insights into sound control and significantly enhanced
our group’s understanding of noise management. It highlighted the importance of continuous
monitoring to maintain a safe and comfortable environment, ensuring that we are proactive in
mitigating the adverse effects of excessive noise exposure.

EXP. 3 | pH Level Measurement

Guide Questions:

1. HOW DO YOU COMPUTE FOR PH?

pH is calculated using the formula:

+
𝑝𝐻 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻 ]
+
where [𝐻 ] is the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution (in moles per liter). A pH
meter can be used to directly measure the pH of a liquid, converting the measured
potential difference between two electrodes into a pH value.

2. HOW SHOULD AN ELECTRODE BE RECONDITIONED?

Reconditioning an electrode typically involves soaking the electrode in a storage

solution, often a KCl (potassium chloride) solution, to restore its responsiveness. If the
electrode has dried out or isn't performing well, it may require soaking in the KCl solution
for several hours or overnight. Additionally, cleaning procedures with acidic or alkaline
solutions may be required to remove any contaminants or buildup.

3. HOW SHOULD AN ELECTRODE BE CLEANED?

To clean an electrode for pH level measurement, rinse it with deionized water

after each use. For more thorough cleaning, soak the electrode in a cleaning solution
specific to the type of contamination (e.g., protein, oil, or salt deposits) for 10-15 minutes.
Avoid wiping the electrode with a cloth, as this can damage the sensitive glass
membrane. Instead, gently rinse and allow it to air dry.

4. HOW SHOULD AN ELECTRODE BE STORED WHEN NOT IN USE?

When not in use, store the pH electrode in a storage solution, typically a 4 M

potassium chloride (KCl) solution. Ensure the electrode bulb remains moist to maintain
its sensitivity. Avoid storing the electrode in distilled or deionized water, as this can
deplete the hydration layer and reduce its lifespan.

5. WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE EXPERIMENT?

Possible sources of error in pH level measurement include improper electrode

calibration, contamination of the electrode, incorrect storage, and using expired or
contaminated buffer solutions. Additionally, temperature variations and inadequate
sample mixing can affect the accuracy of the measurements.
Data Sheet

Sample pH Temperature

Tap Water 6.39 28.3oC

Garden Water 6.34 28.9oC

Pond Water 6.74 27.7oC

Rain Water 6.86 28.7oC

Mineral Water 7.01 27.2oC

Analysis

The pH results from the water samples reveal slight acidity across most sources, with Mineral
Water being the only sample that approaches neutrality with a pH of 7.01. The other samples,
such as Tap, Garden, Pond, and Rain Water, exhibit pH levels between 6.34 and 6.86, which
indicate mild acidity. This suggests that environmental factors such as soil composition,
exposure to air pollutants, and the presence of dissolved gases like carbon dioxide may play a
role in altering the water's pH. For example, rainwater often absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere,
forming carbonic acid, which can lower its pH slightly. Additionally, garden and pond water are
more exposed to organic matter and soil, which could contribute to their slight acidity. In terms of
temperature, the range observed (from 27.2°C to 28.9°C) is narrow but still significant enough to
influence biological activity, particularly in natural water sources. The higher temperature in
Garden Water may encourage more microbial or plant growth, as warmer conditions tend to
accelerate biological processes in water.

Conclusion

All the water samples tested fall within generally acceptable pH ranges for everyday use,
whether for drinking or irrigation. However, the slightly acidic nature of most samples, aside from
Mineral Water, highlights how environmental factors contribute to minor variations in water
chemistry. While these pH values do not present any immediate risks for consumption or
domestic use, they could have implications for aquatic ecosystems, where even slight changes
in acidity may affect plant and animal life over time. For instance, pond water with a lower pH
might foster environments more conducive to certain algae or bacteria, potentially disrupting the
 natural balance of aquatic ecosystems. The temperature differences, while small, could further
influence these biological processes, especially in garden and pond water, where higher
temperatures might promote more rapid microbial growth or plant development.

Reflection

This experiment underscores the importance of understanding how environmental factors

influence the physical and chemical properties of water, even when sourced from locations
within the same region. Variations in pH and temperature, though minor, can have significant
effects on water quality and usability, depending on the intended purpose. For drinking water, a
pH closer to neutral is desirable, as seen in Mineral Water, which is treated to meet these
standards. On the other hand, natural sources like rain, pond, and garden water are subject to
environmental influences that may render them more acidic or susceptible to temperature
fluctuations. By recognizing these factors, individuals and communities can make informed
decisions about water management, ensuring that it is suitable for consumption, irrigation, or
supporting ecosystems. This experiment demonstrates the need for regular monitoring and
treatment of water sources to maintain quality, as well as the broader environmental
considerations in preserving natural water bodies.

EXP. 4 | Dissolved Oxygen

EXP. 5 | Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids

Guide questions

1. WHY DO WE MEASURE THE MLSS OF A WASTEWATER SAMPLE?

MLSS (Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids) is measured to determine the concentration of

suspended solids in the mixed liquor of an aeration tank in wastewater treatment. These solids
represent a combination of microorganisms and organic/inorganic materials, and measuring
them helps assess the efficiency of biological treatment processes. It is a critical parameter in
maintaining proper biomass concentrations for treating the wastewater.

2. WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR FOR THIS EXPERIMENT?

Possible sources of error in this experiment may include:

● Incomplete drying of samples, leading to inaccurate weight measurements after the oven
process.
● Contamination during sample handling or measurement.
 ● Inconsistent oven temperature, which may affect the evaporation of moisture from the
samples.
● Miscalibration of the balance or inaccurate tare weights for the evaporating dish.

3. DEFINE MIXED LIQUOR.

Mixed liquor refers to the combination of wastewater or sewage and biological solids
(microorganisms) in an aeration tank during the activated sludge process. It is crucial for the
breakdown of organic matter in wastewater treatment.

4. DIFFERENTIATE MLSS(MIXED LIQUOR SUSPENDED SOLIDS) TO MLVSS (MIXED

LIQUOR VOLATILE SUSPENDED SOLIDS)

MLSS measures the total concentration of suspended solids, including both organic and
inorganic matter, in the mixed liquor. In contrast, MLVSS refers to only the volatile portion of the
suspended solids, representing the organic, biodegradable matter that microorganisms feed on.
MLVSS is often used as a more direct indicator of the biological activity within the system.

5. DISCUSS THE FOOD TO MICROORGANISM RATIO (F:M)

The Food to Microorganism (F/M) ratio is a crucial metric in wastewater treatment, particularly in
the activated sludge process, as it measures the balance between the organic matter (food)
available and the microorganisms responsible for breaking it down. A well-balanced F/M ratio
ensures efficient treatment, stable microbial activity, and proper sludge production. High F/M
ratios indicate abundant food and rapid microbial growth, but may lead to excess sludge and
incomplete treatment, while low F/M ratios can cause microbial starvation and system instability,
potentially leading to issues like filamentous bacteria growth. The F/M ratio is calculated using
influent BOD, flow rate, MLVSS, and the volume of the aeration tank, and can be controlled by
adjusting sludge removal, return activated sludge (RAS) rate, and aeration tank volume to
maintain optimal treatment efficiency and stability.

Analysis

In this experiment, the measurement of MLSS was essential to understanding the solid content
in wastewater samples before and after treatment. By comparing the weight differences of the
samples before and after the oven process, we can determine the concentration of suspended
solids. The accurate measurement of these solids is crucial for the effective operation of
wastewater treatment facilities. Errors in drying or weighing the samples could result in
significant inaccuracies in the calculated MLSS values. Therefore, maintaining precise
experimental conditions, such as consistent drying times and temperatures, is vital.

Conclusion

The results highlight the importance of monitoring MLSS in wastewater treatment, as it directly
relates to the efficiency of the biological processes in breaking down organic matter. Accurate
MLSS measurements are necessary for optimizing the treatment process and maintaining the
health of the microbial population in the aeration tank. Additionally, understanding the difference
between MLSS and MLVSS helps operators focus on the volatile, organic portion of the solids
that contribute to the system's biological activity.

Reflection

EXP. 6 | Sludge Volume Index

1. Compute for the SVI
2. What are the possible sources of error in this experiment?
3. What is 1hc the significance of measuring the SVI of wastewater samples? Discuss.
4. Why do we get the sample from the aeration tank?
5. Differentiate viscous and Filamentous bulking

Analysis
Conclusion
Reflection

EXP. 7 | Filtration

Guide questions:

1. HOW DOES FILTRATION CLEAN WATER? DISCUSS

Filtration removes contaminants from water by passing it through a porous material or a series
of materials that trap particles. The filter medium retains solids such as sediments, biological
organisms, and chemical pollutants, leaving cleaner water. The process primarily involves
physical, chemical, or biological mechanisms, depending on the filtration media used. It can also
reduce the concentration of solids, microorganisms, and harmful chemicals, thus making water
safer for consumption.

2. HOW ARE FILTERS CLEANED?

Filters are typically cleaned by backwashing, which involves reversing the flow of water through
the filter to dislodge and remove trapped particles. This process helps in maintaining filter
efficiency and longevity by preventing clogging. Other cleaning methods include physical
removal of the filter medium for rinsing or replacing it, depending on the type of filter used.

3. WHAT ARE THE FACTORS AFFECTING FILTER EFFICIENCY?

Several factors influence filter efficiency:

● Size and type of filter media: Smaller pore sizes trap finer particles but may require more
frequent cleaning.
● Flow rate: A higher flow rate may reduce contact time, decreasing filtration efficiency.
● Water quality: Heavily contaminated water with large particles may clog filters faster.
● Maintenance frequency: Regular backwashing or cleaning ensures the filter remains
effective over time.
● Filter depth and type: Multi-layered filters with varying media types tend to be more
efficient as they trap different particle sizes at different stages.

4. WHAT ARE THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF FILTERS? DISCUSS EACH.

● Mechanical filters: These use a physical barrier, like sand or gravel, to trap particles. They
work primarily through sieving.
● Activated carbon filters: These adsorb contaminants like chlorine and organic compounds
through the surface area of carbon granules.
● Ion exchange filters: They are used to remove dissolved ions, such as calcium and
magnesium, replacing them with more desirable ions, typically sodium.
● Biological filters: These encourage beneficial microorganisms to break down
contaminants, mainly used in biological water treatment processes.

5. GIVE EXAMPLES OF FILTER MEDIA THAT CAN BE USED IN FILTRATION. DISCUSS

EACH.
● Sand: A common medium used in mechanical filtration that captures larger particles by
sieving.
● Activated carbon: An effective medium for removing organic compounds and odors from
water.
● Gravel: Used in combination with sand, it supports the filter bed and assists in removing
coarse particles.
● Zeolite: A natural mineral that can capture ammonia and other harmful substances, often
used in water softening processes.

Analysis:

Filtration is one of the most fundamental processes in water treatment, utilized for removing
physical, chemical, and biological contaminants from water. The effectiveness of filtration lies in
the design of the filter and the properties of the filter media used. Mechanical filtration primarily
uses physical barriers, such as sand or gravel, to trap particles, while other filters like activated
carbon and ion exchange filters address chemical impurities and dissolved ions. A properly
designed filtration system not only ensures the removal of undesirable substances but also
reduces the risk of clogging or system failure by using backwashing or other cleaning
techniques. The factors that influence the efficiency of filtration, such as flow rate, media type,
and water quality, are critical in optimizing water treatment for different applications, from
potable water production to wastewater management.
Conclusion:

The filtration process plays a vital role in producing clean water for a variety of uses. Different
types of filters, from mechanical to biological, target various contaminants. For filtration to be
effective, both the filter media and the design of the system must be appropriate for the specific
contaminants in the water source. Additionally, regular cleaning of the filter, such as through
backwashing, is essential to maintain efficiency and prolong the system's life. Filters offer a
versatile solution, and their success is largely dependent on the careful balance of water quality,
flow rates, and media properties. The flexibility of filtration, paired with ongoing maintenance,
makes it one of the most reliable and adaptable methods of water purification.

Reflection:

Understanding the mechanics and science behind filtration has deepened the appreciation of
how vital this process is in ensuring the availability of clean and safe water. Filtration is not just
about removing particles; it involves a complex interplay between different types of
contaminants and filter designs. Each type of filter serves a specific function, and learning how
to maintain and optimize these filters is critical for long-term effectiveness. Additionally, this
knowledge can be applied not only in large-scale water treatment plants but also in domestic
settings and personal water purification methods. The insights gained from this experiment
emphasize the importance of continued innovation in filtration technologies to address emerging
contaminants and the growing global need for clean water.

EXP. 8 | Adsorption

Guide questions:

1. WHAT CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED USING ADSORPTION?

Adsorption is a process that can effectively remove contaminants from water or air by adhering
molecules of the contaminants to the surface of an adsorbent material. This can remove a wide
range of pollutants such as organic compounds, heavy metals, and odors. The process is widely
used in water treatment, air purification, and industrial processes to purify or separate
substances.

2. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADSORPTION AND ABSORPTION?

Adsorption involves the accumulation of molecules on the surface of a solid or liquid, while
absorption is the process where substances penetrate into the bulk of a material. In adsorption,
the contaminant is only attached to the surface, whereas in absorption, the substance is taken
up internally by another material.
3. WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR IN THIS EXPERIMENT?

Some potential sources of error could include:

● Inaccurate measurement of the adsorbent mass or the solution concentration.

● Incomplete mixing of the adsorbent and adsorbate during the experiment.
● Temperature variations that could influence adsorption capacity.
● Presence of impurities or contaminants in the experimental setup that could affect the
results.

4. DISCUSS THE VAN DER WAALS FORCES.

Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular forces that play a significant role in adsorption
processes. These forces arise from interactions between molecules or atoms due to transient
dipoles created by fluctuations in electron distributions. Though weak compared to chemical
bonds, they are essential in physical adsorption, where no new chemical bonds are formed
between the adsorbent and the adsorbate.

5. DISCUSS THE ADSORPTION EQUILIBRIUM AND ADSORPTION DYNAMICS.

Adsorption equilibrium occurs when the rate of adsorption onto a surface equals the rate of
desorption, resulting in a stable concentration of the adsorbate on the adsorbent's surface. At
this point, the system reaches a balance, and no further adsorption takes place unless
conditions change (e.g., pressure, concentration). Adsorption dynamics, on the other hand, refer
to the time-dependent process of reaching this equilibrium. Initially, the rate of adsorption is
high, but as the available surface area of the adsorbent decreases, the rate slows down until
equilibrium is achieved.

Analysis:

Adsorption is a valuable process in environmental science, particularly in removing

contaminants from water and air. The success of adsorption depends on the material's surface
properties, as well as the environmental conditions like temperature and pressure. By
understanding the equilibrium and dynamics of adsorption, we can design more efficient
systems to treat pollution. Factors like Van der Waals forces influence how well molecules
adhere to the surface, which affects the overall effectiveness of the process.

Conclusion:

The study of adsorption allows us to harness the power of surface interactions to remove
unwanted contaminants. In industrial and environmental applications, adsorption is vital for
purifying water, cleaning the air, and even in catalysis processes. However, careful control of
experimental conditions is necessary to ensure reliable and efficient adsorption. Understanding
the fundamental differences between adsorption and absorption is crucial, as each plays a role
in different industrial applications.
Reflection:

The insights gained from this experiment emphasize the importance of molecular interactions in
everyday applications, from clean water to air purification. The role of Van der Waals forces
highlights how even weak forces can lead to significant effects when it comes to adsorption.
Additionally, recognizing potential sources of error encourages careful experimentation and
consideration of all variables. Adsorption may seem like a simple process, but it is complex and
highly dependent on surface properties and environmental conditions. Through this experiment,
a deeper appreciation for material science and its environmental applications is gained.

EXP. 9 | Ion Exchange

Guide Questions:

1. WHAT IS THE PRINCIPLE OF ION EXCHANGE PROCESS?

The ion exchange process involves exchanging ions between an electrolyte solution and
an ion exchange material. This reversible chemical reaction allows ions in the solution to be
replaced with ions of a similar charge from the ion exchange material, typically resins.

2. HOW CAN IT HELP ADDRESS IMPURITIES IN WATER?

Ion exchange is effective in removing undesirable ions from water, such as calcium and
magnesium in water softening, or nitrates, arsenic, and sulfates in deionization and
demineralization processes. This makes the water safer and more suitable for various uses

3. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THIS TECHNOLOGY?

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Efficient removal of specific ions. Resins can foul or degrade over time.

Can produce high-purity water. Requires careful handling of regenerant

chemicals.

Regenerable resins reduce operational costs. Not effective against non-ionic contaminants

Applicable in various industries, including Operating costs can be high due to frequent
water softening, deionization, and heavy resin regeneration and replacement
metal removal

Analysis

In the ion exchange experiment, the effectiveness of the resin in removing specific ions
from water was measured. The ion exchange capacity and the quality of the treated water were
analyzed to determine the efficiency of the process. The experiment demonstrated the
importance of maintaining the resin and the system to ensure consistent performance.

Conclusion

The ion exchange process successfully removed targeted impurities from the water,
demonstrating its effectiveness in water treatment. The experiment highlighted the importance
of proper resin maintenance and regeneration to ensure consistent performance. Despite some
disadvantages, the benefits of ion exchange, such as high efficiency and versatility, make it a
valuable technology in water treatment.

Reflection
This experiment underscored the practical applications of ion exchange in water
treatment. It also revealed the need for ongoing monitoring and maintenance to address
potential issues like resin fouling and bacterial growth. Understanding the advantages and
limitations of ion exchange technology is crucial for optimizing its use in various applications.
The insights gained from this experiment can guide future improvements and innovations in
water treatment processes.