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Contents

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CHAPTER-1 ELECTRICAL SHOCKS AND PREVENTION 2

CHAPTER-2 ARC FLASH HAZARD ANALYSIS 17

CHAPTER-3 STATICS ELECTRICITY- ITS HAZARDS & CONTROL MEASURES 29

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CHAPTER-4 GROUNDING 38

CHAPTER-5 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION 47

CHAPTER-6 INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES 56

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 CHAPTER-1 ELECTRICAL SHOCKS AND PREVENTION

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Objectives:
Objectives of this chapter are to:
 Understand the various health effects related to shock
 Learn about the methods to prevent shock
 Identify the hazards associated with electric shock

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INTRODUCTION: The electricity is now being used in domestic, commercial, industrial, hospitals
and everywhere. Now the world has attained a condition where its majority of the actions take place
with the aid of electricity. Though it has become a vital part of our day today life, it poses huge danger
along with its purpose. The critical characteristics of electricity, which makes it even more danger, are
being invisible, odorless, but only its presence can be felt with its effects on equipment, human or
anything else.
The particularities of electricity are
 Good Servant but a Bad Master
 Invisible and Invincible
 Travels with speed of light
 Even a small disturbance can develop a catastrophe
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Like approaches carried out for any other workplace safety and health concerns, one must follow the
similar approach systematically to deal with electrical safety. It cannot be ignored or by passed as if
electric current exposed to the resultant can be lethal anywhere. Any electrical systems have the
inherent hazards.
EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY: there are several effects of electricity. The major effects of electricity
are
 Heating effect: Electricity or electric current is the flow electrons. When an electric current
flows through a conductor, it produces. The conversion of electrical energy into heat energy
when an electric current flows passes through a conductor is called heating effect. This heat
energy converted by heating effect is utilized for ironing the clothes, heating the water, etc.,
It can be expressed by Q= I2RT
Where, I is the flow of current measured in Amperes, A
R is the resistance measured in Ohms
T is the time taken measured in sec.
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 Chemical effect: As the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy takes place in
an electric cell, the opposite conversion is also achievable. That is some chemical reactions
can be produced by using electrical energy because there are few chemicals that allow the
electric current to pass through them in their molten state. copper sulphate solution, sulphuric
acid, etc., are few examples.

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  Mechanical effect: The mechanical effect of an electricity is that when a charge in motion or
a conductor that carries a current is kept in magnetic field it experiences a mechanical force.
The magnitude of a mechanical force is

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F= BqV sinØ,
B- field of induction,
V- speed,
Ø- angle
q- charge
 Magnetic effect: An experiment conducted by Oersted in 1820, depicted the magnetic effect
of electricity. He then stated that a magnetic field is created around a conductor and this

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effect is as magnetic effect of electricity,. The devices that function with the help of this
magnetic effect of electricity are ammeter, voltmeter, etc., The magnetic field’s direction
because of electricity are given by right-hand clasp rule, Maxwell’s cork screw rule and
Ampere’s swimming rule.

HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY: The primary hazards associated with electricity and its uses are:
A. SHOCK: “SUDDEN AND ACCIDENTAL STIMULATION OF BODY’ S CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
FOR THE PASSAGE OF EXTERNAL ELECTRIC CURRENT”
Shock occurs when human body forms a part of conducting path or influence of electric field.
It may directly/indirectly cause death/injury.
 Direct: Direct passage of current through human body causes major effects due to its’
thermal-burns, chemical-de-coloring of skin and/or physiological-increased rate of
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respiration, effects. Alternating Currents (AC) of power frequency (50-60Hz) of
magnitude 30mA can result in death by ventricular fibrillation.
 Indirect: Due to electro-magnetic/static induction, if a person got electrified, without
any direct physical contact with equipment/ conducting path, which may either lead to
electrocution (death/fatality due to electric shock)
B. BURNS: Pertains to thermal effects of electrical energy imposed on body in the form of arc
flashes/direct passages of currents. The damage caused would be irreversible and sometimes
may cause fatality in case vital organs are involved.
C. ARC-BLAST: Arc-flashes/blasts occur from passage of huge currents arcing through air.
This abnormal current flow is initiated by contact between two live points. “IT’S THE
LIGHTENING IN A BOX ” that releases heat, radiation and intense pressure/blast wave. This
actually is “arc flash accompanied by explosion” due to high over-pressure built-up inside an
equipment caused due to Contact can be caused by employee or tool-accidentally bridging
those live parts while working, or by equipment failure due to overload or short circuit.
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Temperatures as high as 4-5 times of surface temperature of sun been recorded in arc-blast
research. The three primary hazards associated with an arc- blast are:

 Thermal Radiation: Due to immense heat energy(temperature of approx. 35000 oC)

liberation, arc flash causes 3 rd degree burn often go fatal. Acc.to NFPA, 80% of death
tolls in electrical accidents are due to arc-flashes, in which burns take the major share.
Thermal energy of arc flash incidental on a distant point per unit area- known as

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 “Incident Energy”, normally is the measure of damage potential of heat. As human
skin 2 nd degree burn threshold was found to be 1.2cal/cm2as per NFPA70E and
IEEE1584-2, the following common provisions mandated by various country

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legislations:
i. Avoiding live line work as far as possible
ii. In case, if hot/live line work’s to be done, appropriate training, license and
permit are required along with PPEs of sufficient capacity for an authorized
person(s)
iii. Proper energy “Lock Out” provisions
iv. Keeping safe distances from live equipment, etc.,

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 Pressure Wave and Projectiles: Due to instantaneous melting/vaporization of contact
materials, enormous pressure built-up occurs in case of enclosed equipment such as
switch gear enclosed in a box/container, etc. and leads to explosion that carries projectiles
of debris, molten metal etc. it’s proved that arc flash/blast can injure a person
standing/working @ 60ft. off the equipment and can exert a force of 480lbs. on a person
@ 2ft. distance. Thus precautions as discussed in previous section (ref.-Thermal
Radiation), careful selection of electrical equipment with special schemes such as
explosion proof of protection particularly in areas susceptible to explosive environments.

D. EXPLOSIONS & FIRES: Electricity is a very good source of ignition. It can ignite explosive
atmosphere in 2 ways: by sparking/arcing and/or continuous heat dissipation. Historically
explosions in mine in the early days of industrialization were due to overheating/ loading of
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electrical equipment. Also, high powered equipment has innate ability to cause explosions
followed by arc flashes, short/open circuit faults. Safety precautions as stated in case of arc
blast are to be taken, along with the following:
 The surface temperature of electrical equipment must be controlled, in such a way that
it can’t ignite the explosive mixtures in hostile environments
 The sparks/arcs must be anticipated by design or at least must be suppressed by
incorporation of non-sparking, pressurization or any other means
 Fast acting protective devices must be installed to detect and de-energize in case of
abnormal/fault conditions.
 Installation of proper surge absorption devices
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 E. ELECTRICAL SHOCK: Being invisible energy with light speed of travel, electricity poses
immense dangers prevention/protection from which needs proper awareness and training. The
commonest of all hazards posed by electric energy is shock. Statistics show that every year, the

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fatalities due to electricity have a large share in total death tolls. Hence, it has been mandated
by several codes/standards/acts for safe handling of such energy.
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SHOCKS: Primary shock is an electric shock of such a
magnitude that it may produce direct physiological harm. The results of primary shocks
are:
i. Fibrillation (irregular heartbeat)
ii. Respiratory tetanus (continuous contraction of muscle)

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Secondary shock occurs due to abrupt reflex to passage/influence of electricity;
sometimes may cause fall from height and thus result in injury/death, even if the
magnitude of current is less than threshold.
OCCURRENCE OF ELECTRIC SHOCK: Electric current flow through human body is essential for
producing shock. Shock may occur in one or more of the following situations:
 Direct Contact: when person comes in contact with any live wire and earth/neutral body
at a time, or by touching two or more live wires of different potentials with or without
contact of earth
 In-direct Contact: When person comes under the influence of electric field (Ex: person
standing/working near to any energized power line lying on ground) can be electrocuted
by potential difference between across his feet (commonly known as step potential).
This kind of incidents are normally observed in construction sector, where cranes and
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other material handling equipment working in the vicinity of powered OH/UG lines.
Another possibility of indirect attack is by arc flash near to working area of personnel.

CONSEQUENCES OF ELECTRIC SHOCK: The effects of electric shock are burns, neurological
effects and effect on the chest. Apart from shock can throw the person and hence it has fall hazard too.
Burns: Burns are the primary effects of an electric shock. Different intensities of electric gives
different levels of burns from superficial burns for lower intensity to internal organs burns at
very high voltage.
Neurological effects: Normally an electric shock impacts the neurological system of humans.
It interferes with the nervous control of heart and lungs. Neuropathy is also a reason for death
due to continuous electric shocks. Loss of consciousness happens at a greater speed if the path
of current in the body is from top.
Effects on chest: Even a small amount of electric current in the range of 30 mA to 75 mA of
%0 to 60 Hz can cause ventricular fibrillation if it passes through the chest. If affected person
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is not given defibrillation without delay it can result in fatal.

The effects of electric shock on the affect person are,
 Person collapsing
 Fractures, unconsciousness or dislocation of joints due to rigorous contractions of muscle
 The heart may function improperly or stop functioning and paralysis of respiratory tract system
 Electric shock of high voltage can cause tissues death at the path of current.
 There will a malfunction or disturbances in the vitals of body.

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 CAUSES OF ELECTRIC SHOCK:
Various conditions may cause electric shock. They are as follows:
 Loose connection in the wiring

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 Any fault in the electrical system
 Over current and over voltage
 Arc flash.
 Any electrical system or equipment that is free from the above conditions is an ideal condition
to work with reduced threat of electric shock.

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GOVERNING FACTORS OF ELECTRIC SHOCK: As mentioned earlier, the shock intensity is
affected directly or indirectly by many factors such as magnitude of current, path of current, voltage
available at the instant, etc., and it’s important to know those ‘Governing Factors’ to ‘Prevent/Control’
shock. Here’s the list of those:
 Personal Factors
 System Factors
 Situational Factors
Personal factors are the characteristics of person that affect the shock intensity, ‘System Factors’ are
characteristics of supply system and ‘Situational’ depends on the time and environment of shock
occurrence. System and situational factors seems obvious whereas personal factors have some
ambiguity. How the ‘age’, ‘gender’, ‘Immunity’ affect the intensity of shock? - well this is answered
by international standard IEC 60479. However, it denies the relation of second factor- “Gender” with
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shock intensity, in contrast to many authors hypothetic opinion in late 80’s.
1. Personal Factors: Are given as follows:
a. Age: As per IEC 60479 part I, bio impedance of children and young (adolescent) people
is less than that of Adults.
b. Gender: Some authors argue that female is having lower bio-impedance value
compared to male. However, this argument was denied by IEC
2. System Factors: Are given as below:
a. Voltage:
Nominal/Rated Voltage- The rated voltage of equipment/system, higher the voltage
higher is the risk. However, the contrast of this statement is not at all true.
Contact Potential- Potential difference between the point of contact and immediate
ground point. Higher the touch potential, higher the risk of shock.
Step Potential: Potential difference between two feet/steps when standing in the
influence of electric field, for example in case of overhead (live) lines hanging below
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the clearance level or hanging/laying on ground electrifies the surrounding. If a person

under the influence of such surroundings try to move/walk will get electrified.

CLASSIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT BASED ON VOLTAGE: As discussed

earlier, high voltage poses definite health risks and thus the design, installation and
operation of electrical equipment must be according to its rated voltage.
Any electrical equipment can be categorized in one of the following three types based

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 on their rated voltage.
Low voltage -up to 250V (I phase)
Medium voltage -250 to 650V (3 Phase Industrial use)

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High voltage -650-33kV
Extra-high voltage - >33kV industrial substations

MYTH ABOUT VOLTAGE AND CURRENT:

‘IT’ S NOT THE VOLTS BUT AMPS THAT KILLS YOU’: Voltage, current, resistance and duration of
flow are the fundamental factors that decide the magnitude of damage, directly or indirectly.
‘Voltage’ is “The driving force that drives current flow across a path”. ‘Current’ (amperage)

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is “the quantum of electric charge flow per unit time”. Resistance denotes the electrical energy
loss.
As opposed by famous myth-” LOWER THE VOLTAGE -LOWER WILL BE THE RISK”, the damage
is directly related to the amount of current flow through the body. However, “ HIGHER THE
VOLTAGE , THE GREATER THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT”, but “ LOW VOLTAGE CAN ’T BE TRUSTED AS
SAFE”. Some people survived shocks of several thousand volts, while others have been killed
by voltages as low as 12V. For example, house hold 12V inverter battery/ automobile battery
may give as fatal shock as any 230V equipment. The magnitude of current depends on amount
of voltage imposed and ‘Resistance’ offered by the ‘Path of Flow’ of current. The dry outer
skin of the human body offers extremely high resistance to electrical flow. However, this
resistance is reduced by several times when the skin is wet, especially if the skin is wet because
of perspiration (IEC 60479-1).
b. MAGNITUDE OF CURRENT: Magnitude of current has direct relation with
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intensity of shock.
Currents as low as 30ma can cause fatality
Effects due to low currents(of few mA range) are sever(ref- table) than high currents
(few amps)
In case of low currents, the CNS gets affected, which brings in physiological strains
such as respiratory failure/paralysis, heart failure etc.,
In contrast, high currents involve thermal effects predominantly and mainly causes third
degree burns

EFFECT OF MAGNITUDE OF SHOCKS: The severity of the shock received when a person
becomes a part of an electric circuit is affected by three primary factors: The amount of
current flowing through the body (measured in amperes), the path followed by current
through body and duration of shock. The following table gives the magnitude of current
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and their effects:

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 Magnitude of current,50 Hz- Effect
60Hz RMS value
Below 1 milliamps Not perceptible

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1 mA Perception Threshold, mild sensation
1 mA to less than 10 mA Painful sensation
10 mA to less than 30 mA Cannot ‘Let-Go’ after 10mA and muscular
coordination lost
30 mA Respiratory Paralysis (Frequently fatal)

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75 mA Fibrillation can be caused for few 10’s of seconds
exposure (probably fatal), Heart Action disco-
ordinated

250 mA Fibrillation threshold-99.5% (< 5sec. exposure)

4A Heart Paralysis Threshold- beyond which
ventricular fibrillation doesn’t occur. Heart stops for
duration of current flow, may restart on interruption
of current
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> 5A Non-fatal unless vital organs are involved. Tissue
burning- may cause severe burns

TABLE 1.1 EFFECT OF MAGNITUDE OF CURRENT

c. Rate of Rise of Current:

 Due to faults/transients in system impulsive current strikes the contacts micro-
time interval, which amounts up to 3-7 times of rated current
 Thus causes immense effect, sometimes end-up in arc flash and thus must be
taken care
d. Frequency
 How AC affects the body depends largely on frequency
 Low-frequency (50- to 60-Hz) AC is used in US (60 Hz) and European (50 Hz)
households; it can be more dangerous than high-frequency AC and is 3 to 5
times more dangerous than DC of the same voltage and amperage
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 Low-frequency AC produces extended muscle contraction (tetany), which may

freeze the hand to the current’s source, prolonging exposure. DC is most likely
to cause a single convulsive contraction, which often forces the victim away
from the current’s source
 At very high frequencies, the body may not feel the shock, but the tissues are
sure to get damaged. This phenomenon is the skin effect, where the self-
inductance of a conductor causes a radially increasing (outward) impedance to

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 current flow to alternating current (as implied by the term, high frequency). The
phenomenon causes the current to flow through the outer layers, and thus avoid
the nerves and inner organs of the body

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3. Situational Factors:
a. WET/ DRY: The skin impedance lowers by 100-1000 times in wet conditions
compared to dry conditions
b. PARTS INVOLVED: Body Parts Involved- If the path includes vital organs, the effect
will be fatal
c. DURATION: with extension of shock duration, the skin resistance and so impedance
severely falls

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d. PATH FOLLOWED BY CURRENT:
i. Despite the nature of supply, current’s amplitude largely depends on path and
frequency
ii. what’s the path of the current-longitudinal or transverse (through or across the
body)
iii. whether incl. the vital organs of the body or not, like if heart encounters in the
path of current, it mostly ends-up with fibrillation

PREVENTION AND PROTECTION FROM ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

PREVENTION OF SHOCKS: Electrical safety is necessary both at home and at work. Following these
tips will ensure a safe environment:
 Equipment enclosures and metal bodies must be earthed
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 Current carrying conductors must be insulated properly
 Bare parts carrying electricity must be isolated to avoid human contact
 Proper clearances must be maintained from high energy parts/equipment
 Personnel Protective Equipment of sufficient capacity (insulation resistance and thermal
resistance) must be used by working personnel
 As far as possible, live line work must be avoided and standard procedures are to be developed
and followed to lockout such devices
 Personnel must be authorized and trained to carry out any routine/non-routine jobs
 Identify/Repair or replace damaged appliances, wiring, cords, and plugs (repairs should be
attempted only by people with proper training)
 As per factories act, appropriate cutout devices must be installed and maintained in such a place
accessible to authorized employee
 Over current/voltage and surge protection must be given to equipment to avoid hazards due
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to equipment fatigue

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PROTECTIVE DEVICES: The various protection devices installed in an electrical system or
equipment to prevent from electric shock are as follows:
 Over Current protection devices

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 Fuses: A metal wire/link that ‘Melts/Fuses’ whilst the occurrence of overload/over-current
and protects the device to which it has been connected. Following are the types of fuses:
o High voltage fuse
 Cartridge type fuse
 Liquid type fuse
 Metal cloud fuse
o Low voltage fuse

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 Replaceable fuse
 Link/cartridge fuse
 High rupturing capacity fuse
 Circuit breakers: Those have higher capacity and reliability than fuses, and can separate
equipment under any circumstances (load/no-load/fault). The following are the various types
of breakers used in day-to-day life:
o MCCB- Molded case circuit breaker
o MCB- Miniature circuit breaker
 Leakage protection devices: As discussed earlier, currents of even very low magnitude can
cause fatality to human life. Thus, it’s important to prevent and/or detect and mitigate the risks
due to leakage currents. The devices used for such purposes are leakage protection devices.
Here’s the list of few such devices:
o ELCB- is a leakage protection device that detects any leakage current flowing through
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earthed path. These are the types of ELCBs:
o Voltage type ELCB- Earth leakage circuit breaker
o Current type ELCB-
o RCCB/RCD- residual current circuit breaker
o GFCI-Ground fault current interrupter

INSULATION

A process of providing an outer sheath or cover to the current carrying wire or any part in order to
prevent direct contact with the current carrying part by any other foreign body so that short circuit,
electric shock can be avoided.

What’s an Insulator?
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A material which restricts the flow of current at normal temperature no material is a perfect insulator;
it becomes a conductor at particular temperature.

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Classes of Insulation: Classification of insulator based on the temperature capability of insulation
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Class Y A E B F H C

Temperature .C 90 105 120 130 155 160 180

TABLE 1.2 TEMPERATURE CAPABILITY OF INSULATION MATERIAL

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Class Materials

Y Cotton, Silk, and Paper with impregnation

A Cotton, Silk, Paper, Certain Synthetic Films, Varnish

and Synthetic resins are used as binders

E Mica, Glass fibres, etc., with suitable bond varnish

B Mica, Glass fibres, Asbestos and synthetic film

F Same as class B and with binder for higher temperature.

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H Silicon, Elastometer, lass fibres Asbestos

C Mica, Glass fibres, Porcelain, Quartz, similar in organic

materials.
TABLE 1.3 CLASSES OF INSULATION MATERIAL

INSULATION USED FOR TRANSFORMERS: Paper Board, or Synthetic resin bonded paper, impregnated
Glass fibers, ceramic materials, Glass Tapes.

Insulation used for Rotating Machineries: Mica, Varnish, Epoxy resin impregnation, Press board,
Hylam sheets, Steel lined with Micanite.
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Breakdown of Insulating materials arising in four ways:

Merely having insulation cannot serve the purpose, it has to be checked for continuity and insulation
capacity, which can otherwise lead to insulation failure. Failures are the results of inadequate electrical
breakdown strength of pure materials.

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The insulation may get damaged due to:
 Mechanically as by friction or tearing
 As result of excessive Electrical Stress

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 Excessive temperature or temperature cycling.
 Chemical and Physical reaction with other materials eg. Oxidation, contamination or leaching
out of ingredients.
Hence, regular maintenance and inspection of insulation is required for electrical equipment.

AC Shocks Vs DC Shocks The mechanism of electric shocks is related to central nervous system of
the body. Central nervous system controls vital functions of the body rhythmic control of muscles of

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heart and lung diaphragm, under normal state tiny cyclic electrical signals flow through the body from
muscles to brain and vice versa through the nervous system. Flow of Ac electric current from external
source into the body disturbs the natural periodic electric signals into the human body disturbs the
natural periodic electric signals in the body. Normal frequency of heart beat is 70 cycles per minute.
Ac supply has frequency of 50 cycles per sec. Hence AC is very dangerous to lungs and heart. The 50
Hz shock tends to operate the heart irregularly and too rapidly. The heart operates weakly and
erratically and pumping of blood is not accomplished. This phenomenon is called fibrillation.
Similarly, normal respiration is 12 to 16 cycles per minute frequency of AC current is too large for
frequency of lung muscles hence 50Hz current are too dangerous for lung activities. This does not
happen with DC shock currents. With DC shocks the disturbance in frequency of heart signals is only
once. Hence DC voltage levels produce the shock effects at higher voltage values than corresponding
AC voltages.
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First-aid procedures Even small amounts currents up to 30ma can also be fatal by causing
ventricular fibrillation. Ventricular fibrillation is the condition in which heart fails to pump blood in
rhythmic manner, instead it quivers. This is due to failure of natural pacemaker, located at left
ventricle of heart that has connection from central nervous system. Due to interference of high
frequency external electric field, this connection gets damaged and causes quivering of heart. if not
provided with necessary first-aid, it may cause death and moreover, the legislation says that it’s
mandatory to train employees in first-aid and emergency procedure and thus it’s necessary to
understand these procedures. The below figures shows the sequence of steps:
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FIG 1.1(B) E MERGENCY FIRST AID FOR ELECTRIC SHOCK VICTIM

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FIG 1.1(C) EMERGENCY FIRST AID FOR ELECTRIC SHOCK VICTIM (CONTINUED..)

Along with these all, the medical assistance shall be given to victim by moving him/her to hospital.

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Other Protection Measures: Apart from the above mentioned prevention methods and protection
devices the following can be implemented to avoid electric shock.
 The concern about electrical safety shall be taken right from the design stage so that the

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electrical device or system is inherently safer. That it satisfies all the legal, any relevant
standard, technical body’s requirements
 The construction of the equipment or system is as per the design and other requirements.
 The installation made for any electrical systems shall adhere to the appropriate requirements.
 The operation shall be carried out by trained personnel under proper supervision as per legal,
manufacturer and other relevant requirements.

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 The system shall be monitored, inspected and maintained periodically as required.
 All the workers working on any electrical line must be given proper training and supervision.
The tools and equipment used by them shall be of required standard and insulated one.
 Proper personal protective equipment must be provided to workers.
To work in an electrical equipment/system following measures must be followed
 The equipment or system shall be tested for its sound construction, installation, maintenance
and for required covers
 The electrical equipment must be guarded isolated with proper warning sign so that
unauthorized access is prohibited.
 The hazards must be identified and risk shall be evaluated. Once this is done all necessary
control measures to be put in place.
 Any work that has to be done in live line or that requires LOTO proper permit must be obtained
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 A safe system of work/ standard operating procedure must be framed for any electrical work.
 Proper tools and PPE’s must be provided.

Summary

Fatalities/accidents due to electricity shares a major percentage of death toll in industrial environments
and all these are caused by either of four effects of electricity viz. chemical, mechanical, magnetic and
thermal. When employees are exposed directly/indirectly to electrical energy, they get effected in four
ways: viz. shock, fire, flash and burns- all these are to be known as hazards of electricity. Various
prevention and protection measures like fencing, prevention of unauthorized access to electrical
energy, etc., must be put in place to avoid all these unwanted incidents.
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Review Questions:

What’s Electric Shock? How does it cause and effects human body?

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1.
2. List and explain various electrical hazards.
3. List and brief all the prevention and protection measures for avoiding electrical hazards.
4. Postulate and brief about various factors that govern severity of electric shock.
5. “It doesn’t matter how many volts but the amps you need to worry about”-explain the meaning
and give your opinion.
6. Explain the first aid procedures to be administered for the victim electric shock.

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7. Define Insulation. Explain various kinds of electrical insulating materials along with their
specifications.

References:
 Electrical Safety Handbook, Fourth Edition by: John Cadick, P.E. Mary Capelli-Schellpfeffer,
M.D, M.P.A,Dennis K. Neitzel, C.P.E
 Electrical Safety, Fire Safety Engineering and Safety Management Author S. Rao, R.K. Jain
and H.L. Saluja IEC 60479-1
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 CHAPTER-2 ARC FLASH HAZARD ANALYSIS

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Objectives:
Objectives of this chapter are to:
 Understand the various health effects related to arc flash
 Learn about the methods to prevent arc flash
 Identify the hazards associated with arc flash
 First aid methods needed to provide in the occurrence of an Arc flash.

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Introduction: 80% of the fatalities due to electricity occur due to arc flash. Arc or Arc Flash is
produced when electricity jumps through air gap. While jumping it releases huge amount of light and
heat in most of the times which causes 3 rd degree burns and sometimes may also cause explosion.
While exploding a huge amount of energy (Electrical to thermal) is released due to which the metallic
contacts and other metallic parts of the circuit melt, convert into vapor state very quickly. This gives
rise to abnormal over pressure built up and thus cause ‘Blast’.

Definition of Arc Flash: “The heat and light energy release caused by the electrical breakdown
of and subsequent electrical discharge through an electrical insulator such as air.”

WHATS IS AN ARC FLASH

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 “An arc flash is a high-amperage short circuit that sends an electric current through the air.”
 “It occurs when an electric current flows between separate energized conducting surfaces, such
as when circuit breakers and disconnects are opened and closed, when energized equipment is
touched with a tool, or when equipment fails”
 Most electrical arc flash injuries do not occur in the presence of high-voltage (above 600 volts)
electrical currents. Low voltage equipment sources (under 600 volts) account for most electrical
arc flash occurrences.
 However, high-voltage incidents can be the most catastrophic.
Causes: The initiation of Arcs can take place in various ways, however the basic underlined causes of
an arcing event are:
 When the potential difference between two points of a circuit such as switch gear exceeds the
insulation capacity of the surrounding air. This can be observed during lightning strikes or
switching surges.
 Due to overloading of equipment/conductor etc., that causes production of overheat. Example:
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if a wire of very thin in size is put under overload, the series of events take place with the
melting of wire, the air getting superheated and beginning of an arc.
 When a sudden separation of contacts carrying a very high current. In this case, the last point
of contact is superheated and an arc is created because of the inductive flywheel effect causes
the arc creation as the last contact point is superheated.

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Practically to understand the causes of arc flash at work place the following points can be noted:
 Tools dropped on conductors, circuit breakers, or other energized parts, which can cause a

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short-circuit;
 Accidental contact with electrical systems, such as a worker accidentally touching an
energized conductor thought to be
de-energized;
 Improper work procedures, such as working on energized equipment when it should have
been de-energized or locked out;
 “Insulation failure where the fault current’s magnetic effect causes conductors to separate,

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producing an arc”; Testing electrical equipment with inappropriate instruments; and
Inattentiveness to the risks posed by energized equipment.
 Buildup of dust, impurities, and corrosion on insulating surface
 “Sparks produced during racking of breakers, replacement of fuses, and closing into faulted
lines”
 Birds or rodents that break leads at connections

Effects: Arc flashes generates huge amount of thermal energy that arc flash from an MV equipment
can go up to 50,000 K.
 This can cause fatality or life loss. It can express its effects on exposed skin at distances of up
to 12 ft or 3.6 m or more.
 The heat energy of electric arcs can ignite any fibre cloth. Even after the removal of source of
)U
arc, clothes that are not flame resistant may burn continuously and cause serious physical
trauma.
 INCIDENT ENERGY of Arc Flash: “Incident energy is a measure of thermal energy at a
working distance from an arc fault. The unit of incident energy is cal/cm2.”
 “1.2 cal/cm2 is enough to cause second degree burns”. “1 cal/cm2 Equals the Exposure on the
tip of a finger by a Cigarette Lighter in One Second”

Hazards of arc flash: The hazards related to the electric arcs apart the burns are

• Electrical shock
• Molten metal
• Projectiles
• Blast and pressure waves
• Intense light
(c

• Intense sound
• Fire
• Effect of strong magnetic fields and plasma
• Toxic gases and vapours

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 S
ARC BLAST:
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FIG. 2.1: ARC FLASH HAZARDS

“Explosion followed by arc flash is known as arc blast”. This explosion is caused either by rapid
expansion of molten metal fumes/vapour or due to ignition of flammable of atmosphere present in the
vicinity of the equipment.
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PREVENTION OF ARC FLASH HAZARDS:

• Ensure that the design and manufacturing of electrical equipment has been done as per the
requirements of relevant legal, technical Body, etc. before working on any electrical equipment
• Ensure that the installation of the electrical equipment is made as per the requirements of
manufacturer, statutory, technical and etc.
• Check for the condition of the equipment, its maintenance records.
• Check for any faults, malfunctioning, and loose connections
• Ensure the installation of required covers, guards
• Lock-Out Tag-Out: The proper energy isolation technique must be followed to avoid working
on live lines particularly during maintenance, repair, adjustments etc.
(c

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ARC FLASH HAZARD PREVENTION:

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PE
FIG. 2.2: ARC FLASH WARNING L ABEL

The above picture gives the contents of the warning sign that has to be made available with the
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equipment that are capable of giving away arc flash.

ARC FLASH BOUNDARIES: As per NFPA 70 E “it is the distance at which an electrical arc can
flash outward, which may endanger employees working on electrical equipment”.
(c

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 S
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FIG. 2.3: ARC FLASH BOUNDARIES

FLASH PROTECTION BOUNDARY(FPB): As per OSHA “If an arc flash occurred, this boundary is
where an employee would be exposed to a curable second degree burn (1.2 calories/cm2)”. But the
problem regarding the arc flash is that the generated heat out of an arc flash may lead to burns.
)U
LIMITED APPROACH BOUNDARY(LAB): “Where there is a need for an unqualified person(s) to
cross the limited approach boundary, a qualified person shall advise him or her of the possible hazards
and continuously escort the unqualified person(s) while inside the limited approach boundary, under
no circumstances the escorted unqualified person(s) shall be permitted to cross the restricted approach
boundary”

RESTRICTED APPROACH BOUNDARY(RAB): “Only qualified person is allowed to work

provided that live part is insulated if operates at 50 or more Volts and an unqualified person shall not
permitted to enter spaces that areaccessible to qualified employees only unless the electric conductors
and equipment involved are in an electrically safe work condition”

PROHIBITED APPROACH BOUNDARY(PAB): “Prohibited approach boundary is applicable to the

situation in which approaching personnel are exposed to live parts”.
(c

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Safe work practices to prevent Arc flash hazard
• Read all warning signs
• Read the hot work permit
• Match the tools to the operation

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• Take whatever readings are necessary to quantify the system’s operation.
• Identify and inspect energized parts
• Respect the flash protection boundary
• Identify sharp objects and other obstructions
• Identify all environmental hazards
• Identify all possible sources of energy supply

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• Open disconnecting device(s)
• Verify device is open
• Apply lockout/tag out devices
• Test voltage—double check instrument rating

LOCKOUT/TAG OUT PROGRAM: The purpose of lockout/tag out is to prevent energy sources from
accidentally being released while a machine or equipment is being serviced. The ultimate goal of
LOTO is to protect the safety and health of employees. OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147 subpart J & L requires
employers to develop, document, and implement machine specific procedures for the control of hazard
energy source(s) during maintenance operations.
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(c

FIG. 2.4.1, 2.4.2 & 2.4.3: LOTO APPLIED ON EQUIPMENT

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Hazardous Energies: The following are defined as hazardous energies:
• Electrical
• Mechanical
• Chemical

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• Gravitational
• Hydraulic/Pneumatic
• Thermal
• Potential
• Nuclear/ Radiation
• Other

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Sources of all these energies must be identified and discharged/locked out to
prevent incidents/injuries.
Type of activities for which LOTO is to be applicable:

It’s impractical to enforce LOTO for all machine/process related activities. OSHA
defines the following activities on equipment/process require LOTO:
• Adjusting
• Inspecting
• Modifying
• Replacing parts
• Clearing jams
• Lubricating
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• Cleaning
• Tool changes
(c

23 | P a g e
 Exceptions to LOTO: As afore said, it’s impractical to apply LOTO for all
activities:
• Normal production operations
o Routine, repetitive, & integral to production

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o Guards/safety devices not bypassed
o Body part not placed in the point of operation or other dangerous
area during machine cycle
o Need to use alternative measures for protection
• Cord & plug connected equipment
o Plug is only source of energy

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o Plug is under continuous control of one person

Affected Employee:

An individual that operates the machinery but does not perform the lockout
procedures pertains to any employee whose job require them to work in an area
where maintenance is performed.

Authorized Employee: An individual who has been properly trained to use

lockout/tag out procedures on a machinery or equipment that is to be serviced.

7-step process
1. Announce and Prepare for shutdown: Inform to all the employees
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(affected and authorized) about the shutdown of the machine and reduce
all the load on machine.
2. Shut down equipment: Now turn off the power source for the machine
and bring machine/equipment to zero energy state
3. Isolate all energy sources: Now isolate all the energy sources from the
machine. Remove all types of energy sources from the machine so that
there is no hidden source of power in the machine. there will be so many
sources of energy such as mechanical electrical chemical etc.,
4. Install Locks and Tags Now the person who is performing the
maintenance operation must lock the power source and he must attach a
lock to the machine also. He must keep a tag to the machine so that all
the persons who are employing in the region us know that the machine is
under lock out and tag out
5. Verify stored energy: Now once recheck the machine for any sort of
(c

power source left after the shutdown of the machine and now start
performing the maintenance operation
6. Verify equipment isolation Release from Lockout now verify the
isolation from the equipment and start the maintenance operation
7. Remove the lock and tag finally the maintenance work is done now
remove the lock and tag from the machine and the normal operation of
the machine can be started again

24 | P a g e
 HAZARDS:
1. Mechanical hazards parts that are still in motion Parts that store energy
sources A chipper or hog can remain in motion long after power is locked
out.

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Ex : Parts that store energy sources , a plywood press has stored energy
by the hydraulic actuators it uses
2. Electrical hazards these can cause the hazards such as shock electrocution
and sometimes fatal accidents also occur during the maintenance.
3. Thermal hazards there are hot equipment such as boilers heating coils
grinders crushers etc which have the heat source even after turning of the
machine so check the equipment so that the all the parts are at room

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temperature.
4. Pneumatic hazards are the energy of compressed gases
a. Uncontrolled release can cause injury
b. Properly vent all systems before starting maintenance
c. Six-point hasp used to lockout air valve
5. Chemical hazards Machinery that use any chemicals have energy that can
start fires, cause skin burns and generate harmful gases or fumes
6. Hydraulic hazards Energy of liquids under pressure
a. Pressure can cause parts to move
b. Rapid release can cause injury
c. Hydraulic fluid can burn you
d. Hydraulic values must also be locked out
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ARC FLASH PROTECTION/MITIGATION: Arc flash can be prevented by
the following ways;
• Determine and communicate the Hazards
o Identify energized parts
o Respect the flash protection boundary
o Display necessary warning signs
• Develop procedures
o Establishing and adhering to SOPs for equipment/process
installation/operation/service/maintenance
o Permit to work
• Training the employees
o Technical training-must be provided by authorized and
competent person to selected group of personnel working near to
any hazardous machinery/process (Job Specific)
(c

o All the employees must be given general electrical safety training,

incl. emergency procedures
• Match the tools to the operation: Tools/ancillaries used must be
according to equipment specifications. For example, in an arc welding
set, the extension cable and sockets used must match the power
requirement of the set.

25 | P a g e
 • Protective Devices: Impact of flash can be minimized and flash can be
detected and suppressed by installing the protective devices such as
Surge protector, Arc flash circuit/current interrupter.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) that includes:
o Head protection- Safety Helmets

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o Arc-rated face shield
o Eye protection and Safety gloves
o Rated boots
o Rated flame-resistant clothing
o No metal button, clasps, or zippers
o PPE CATEGORIES AS PER NFPA 70E: Though, personal

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protective equipment(PPE) is the last resort to deal with risks, it
reduces the impact of flash on employees and thus NESC
(National Electric Safety Code, USA, NFPA 70E), defined 5-
categories of PPEs CAT-0 to 4 as given below table:

Category Description Other PPEs Incident Layers Applicable

Energy Of PPE Boundary
Cal/Cm2
“0” “Long Sleeve Shirt & “Hard hat 0 ONE Outside
Pants Safety glasses or FPB
Hearing Protection safety goggles (SR)
Safety Glasses or Hearing protection
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Goggles” (ear canal inserts)
Heavy-duty leather
gloves
Leather footwear
(AN)”
“1” “Arc Rated FR Shirt “Hard hat FOUR ONE FPB to
& FR Pants Safety glasses or LAB
or safety goggles (SR)
FR Coverall" Hearing protection
(ear canal inserts)
Heavy-duty leather
gloves
Leather footwear
(AN)”
(c

“ 2” “Arc Rated FR Shirt “Hard hat EIGHT ONE OR FPB to

& FR Pants Safety glasses or TWO LAB
or safety goggles (SR)
FR Coverall” Hearing protection
(ear canal inserts)
Heavy-duty leather

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 gloves
Leather footwear
(AN)”

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“3” “Arc Rated FR Shirt “Hard hat TWENTY TWO LAB to
& FR Pants Safety glasses or FIVE OR RAB
or safety goggles (SR) THREE
FR Coverall; Hearing protection
& (ear canal inserts)

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Arc Flash Suit that Leather footwear”
Meets Minimum Arc
Rating”
“4” “Arc Rated FR Shirt “Hard hat FORTY THREE RAB to
and FR Pants Safety glasses or OR PAB
or safety goggles (SR) FOUR
FR Coverall; Hearing protection
& (ear canal inserts)
Arc Flash Suit that Leather footwear”
Meets Minimum Arc
Rating”
TABLE 2.1 PPE C ATEGORIES AS PER NFPA 70 E
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METHODS OF REDUCING RISK:
 As far as possible avoid the interface between operator and live electrical
for example “remote operation”
 Usage of current Limiting Fuses on LV Switchgear
 Usage of ARC Resistance MV Switchgear
 High Resistance (neutral) Grounding on LV and MV Systems
(c

27 | P a g e
 Summary: Almost 80% of the fatalities in case of electrical accidents are due to
Arc Flash. Arc Flash is a momentary flash of energy between two conducting
parts. Dropping of tools, defective equipment/conductors/fittings and/or over

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currents are some of the main causes of arc flash. Molten metal splashes,
projectiles and huge amount of thermal energy released as a result of arc
flash/blast pose many personal and safety hazards at workplace. Thus prevention
methods such as avoiding live work, maintaining the proper clearances between
equipment and personnel etc and protection methods such as installation of arc
flash protection devices, grounding system installation and maintenance are to
be applied to reduce the life risk.

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Review Questions
1. What is arc flash? What are the causes of arc flash?
2. Mention some protection and prevention methods for the Arc Flash
3. What are the hazards involved in Arc Flash?
4. What is Arc Blast? What is the difference between Arc Flash and Arc
Blast?
5. Mention the Steps of a proper Lock Out and Tag Out Process
6. Explain about the different boundaries of the Arc Flash

References:
1. Electrical Safety Handbook, Fourth Edition by: John Cadick, P.E. Mary
Capelli-Schellpfeffer, M.D, M.P.A,Dennis K. Neitzel, C.P.E
)U
2. ARC Flash Hazard Analysis and Mitigation Book by J. C. Das
3. IEEE 1584-2
4. NFPA 70E
(c

28 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-3 STATICS ELECTRICITY- ITS HAZARDS & CONTROL
MEASURES

Objectives:

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Objectives of this chapter are to:
• Understand the various health effects related to static electricity
• Learn about the methods to prevent static accumulation
• Identify the hazards associated with static electricity
• Control measures needed to prevent the static accumulation

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Introduction: Dr. William Gilbert considered as the father of electricity found
that many objects displayed the characteristics of attracting lighter particles
towards it when rubbed and became electrified such as Rubber, Glass, etc.,
Attraction being the most common property of a body that is under the influence
of electrification; repulsion is also its property.
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FIG 3.1 EXAMPLE OF STATIC ELECTRICITY GENERATION

STATIC ELECTRICITY

It is a surface phenomenon involving high voltage and low current. It is an

electrical charge (potential). It is produced by separation and contact of two
dissimilar bodies. A mechanism of coming into contact and separation of two
bodies with dissimilar properties generates static electricity. This causes both
objects to become electrically charged. The charge levels of the separated objects
(c

depend on the dissipation rate of the objects, the charge builds up to if not rapidly
eliminated. Thus adequate amount of energy is developed for the charges to jump
in the form of spark on to any object with less charge that lies in close proximity
to nullify the potential difference.

29 | P a g e
 S
PE
FIG 3.2 COMMON SOURCES OF STATIC ELECTRICITY

EXAMPLES OF STATIC ELECTRIC PHENOMENON:

• Automobile moving on road
• Persons moving/ walking on insulated (carpet) flooring
• Belt moving on pulleys/ rollers
• Air craft flying in the air
• Light petroleum products flowing in pipe lines
• Pneumatic transferring of dust
• Filtering, crushing, grinding, sieving, pouring, mixing/ blending,
pumping petrol/ Naphtha, light solvent
• Manufacture of cotton, silk, rayon, woolen fabrics
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• Leakage of steam from pipe line
HAZARDS OF STATIC ELECTRICITY
• SHOCK
• FIRE
• EXPLOSION
TYPES OF INDUTRIES/OPERATION PRONE TO FIRE/ EXPLOSION
• Petroleum
• Chemical
• Explosive
• Pharmaceutical
• Dust processing
Static Electricity Poses Danger Only Under 4 Conditions:
• An inflammable / explosive atmosphere of ignitable vapor or dust
(c

mixture shall be present

• Static charge development is possible
• An electric charge shall be generated and accumulated on PLANT /
PRODUCT / OPERATOR and produced in an electric field greater than
the breakdown field strength of the surrounding atmosphere to produce a
SPARK
• The resulting SPARK must have energy greater than the minimum spark
ignition energy of the surrounding atmosphere

30 | P a g e
 Prevention of Fire Or Explosion Due To Static Electricity:
The fire or explosion cannot occur due to static electricity if any one of the above
4 conditions is not satisfied.
Safety precautions therefore arise at elimination of one or more of the above

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conditions/ factors (with minimum interference to the operation of the plant and
process).
Control of Static Electricity Hazards: The electrostatic hazard being caused
by static electricity can be controlled by the following measures.
• Control of charge generation
• Control of charge accumulation
• Elimination of flammable / explosive atmosphere

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• Design operating procedure to minimize possibility of spark
1. Control of Charge Generation:
• Reduce unnecessary friction process / operation
• Control flow velocity (Ensure streamline flow instead of turbulence
flow)
• Avoid / reduce free fall (Ensure subsurface filling)
• Control of Charge Generation By Subsurface Filling:
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FIG 3.3 CONTROL OF CHARGE GENERATION
2. Reduction of Charge Accumulation: There are many control measures
that can help in dissipation of the static charges without any danger
before the onset of spark.
Few measures that prevent accumulation of static charges are:
• Grounding, Bonding
• Artificial Humidification
(c

• Static collectors
• Anti-Static Additives

31 | P a g e
 2.1 GROUNDING, BONDING:
These two are the most common measure to control the accumulation of static
chars. If conductive objective are connected with the aim of balancing the charge

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among them it is bonding.

FIG 3.4 BONDING TWO CONDUCTIVE OBJECTS

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The connection of parts of electrically separated equipment is also known as
bonding and it does not help in elimination of static charge but equalizes the
charge deposition. Grounding is the process of making a connection with
conductive mass of earth and helps in draining the static charges produced.
Connectors for this must provide a good conductive path. A flexible connector
with vibration or continuous movement shall be used to connect metal with
another metal.
)U
FIG 3.5 SOME EXAMPLES OF CONNECTORS

During the transfer of liquids from its container by using mechanically or by

gravity, the mechanical components such as valves, pumps shall be designed in
such a such a way that it feasible for bonding. The bonding of both containers
(source container to the container in to which the liquid has to be transferred)
shall be ensured before starting the transfer of liquids.
(c

32 | P a g e
 S
FIG 3.6 BONDING AND GROUNDING WHILE DISPENSING FIG 3.7 BONDING AND GROUNDING

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WHILE TOP LOADING A TANK TRUCK

Bonding and grounding will not eliminate the surface charge on vessels holding
flammable liquids. To prevent static in liquid filling cases, it is better to go for
subsurface filling or side filling than conventional filling. When filling a fixed
roof tank, limit the filling rate to velocities less than 1m /sec for about 30
minutes. This is to prevent the incoming jet of charged liquid from reaching the
surfaces of the liquid in the tank before the charge has had time to leak away.
Use Anti-static additives to control static charges. Avoid using insulative
containers (plastic) for holding flammable liquids. Research work has shown that
water free products can be pumped at velocities up to 7 m/sec through pipes up
to 20 cm. For larger diameters, velocity to be reduced.
2.2 Artificial Humidification: “Relative humidity of 60% to 70% at 21C may
prevent paper or layers of cloth and fibers from sticking together”. A relative
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humidity of higher value cannot guarantee against static charge accumulation.
Relying solely on humidification is not advised in areas where there are
flammable atmosphere is present. Ignition can be prevented by displacing the air
with an inert gas to lower the oxygen content
2.3 STATIC COLLECTOR: Static collectors come in the form of needle pointed
copper combs, spring copper brushes and metallic tinsel bars. Static collector
works by its closeness to the source that generates static electricity. These find
use on moving belts, plastic film and similar non-conductive materials.
Discharges are captured by highly conductive collector preventing sparks to
occur. Static collectors must be properly grounded
(c

FIG 3.8 LOCATION OF IONIZING DEVICE FOR DISSIPATING STATIC CHARGE FROM DRIVE AND CONVEYOR BELT
33 | P a g e
 S
FIG 3.9 RING BAR IONIZER FIG 3.10 LAMINAR FLOW

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BLOWER /IONIZER
Applications of Static Collectors: The static collectors are used in many
applications. Mainly it is used in manufacturing industries. Some of their
applications are:
- Film extrusion - Plastic bottle Making
- Injection Molding - Printing
- Bag making - Adhesive tapes
- Coating Applications

2.4 ANTI-STATIC ADDITIVES: Most of the industrial chemicals (flammable

or combustible liquids) having low conductivity when combined or mixed with
other materials may cause thermal runaway due to static charge accumulation.
)U
To avoid this, anti-static Additives are added to these liquids. The additives are
long-chain aliphatic amines, amides or phosphate esters.

3. ELIMINATE FLAMMABLE/ EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERE:

The elimination of flammable/ explosive atmosphere can be achieved by
diluting the atmosphere with better ventilation, dust control by sprinkling
of water.

4. MINIMIZE POSSIBILITY OF SPARK:

Use intrinsically safe electric equipment (with very low current and
voltage): Intrinsically safe electric equipment is one in which the energy
produced by the equipment even at the time of any fault or malfunction
is incapable of causing the ignition of explosive atmosphere.
(c

Use pressurization, Use segregation: Segregating the area that has

inherent risk and the electrical equipment that can produce spark and
keeping the electrical equipment under pressure can minimize the risk of
static electricity.

34 | P a g e
 S
FIG 3.11 PRESSURIZATION AND SEGREGATION

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STATIC CHARGE & PETROLEUM PRODUCT:

The probability of a vapor/air mixture being flammable is dependent on vapor

pressure (VP) and the flash point (FP) of the product. Low VP with FP>37.5C
products are Furnace oil, Kerosene, Diesel fuel etc. Intermediate VP with
FP<37.5C products are Aviation turbine fuel, Xylene, Benzene etc. These
products are likely to create flammable mixture. High VP are products such as
Aviation and motor gasoline, some forms of Naphtha. These will produce a rich
mixture, flammable in a restricted vapor space.

HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS-SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

Filling of road tank cars or rail tank wagons: Velocity to be kept at 1m/sec
)U
Drums and cans: Metal drums and cans filled on metal conveyors bonded to fill
cans, require no additional protection. Bottles of LPG should be filled on earthed
metal stand. Metallic funnels should be maintained in contact with the drum
being filled
Containers of non-conductive material: Insert an earthed metal wire into the
vessel before hand, preferably one that is attached to the filling spout or have
long metal nozzles to reach bottom

Synthetic fiber cords : The operator must be adequately earthed. The sampling
equipment must be non-conductive material. Natural fibers such as sisal and
manila have sufficient conductivity to prevent the operator from becoming
charged by handling it
Tank cleaning: Use dry or superheated steam. Earth all conducting equipment
Sand or shot blasting: Bonding must be provided between sand or shot blast
(c

nozzle and the work surface. Ground the work surface. Hoses carrying the sand
or shot should not pass through where flammable mixtures exist. Atmosphere
around the tank to be blasted and within 15 meters of the sand or shot blasting
operation must be gas free
Wearing apparels: Strictly avoid Nylon, Rayon and synthetic fabrics

35 | P a g e
 CASE STUDIES:

1. “Ganpat Rao follows all safety rules meticulously. He wears a helmet

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and insulating shoes while inside the factory. He was filling a 10 liter
metal container filled with acetone, to be transported to the outlet
store. Holding the container in one hand he tried closing the valve in
the acetone line before leaving. Unfortunately, as soon as he touched
the metal valve acetone ignited killing him & spreading fire across the
building! Can you guess his mistake?”

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2. “A tanker having many tanks containing naphtha collided with the
dock at Bombay harbour spilling some naphtha. The owners of the
tank could shift the remaining naphtha into another vessel & asked
help from shipping authority to move the ship to the shipyard so that
it could be gas freed and the damage could be surveyed. The
authorities and the fire department at the dock suggested to inert the
tanks with CO2. Accordingly hoses were filled and first two tanks
were inserted without incident. When CO2 was discharged into 3 rd
tank, explosion occurred killing 4 men and rest of the tanks caught
fire too!”

3. “The process for the manufacture of tyres at Vikrant Tyres involves

)U
coating of the collapsible-cylindrical-metal mould with a release agent
while rubber is moulded to tyres. The company changed to an alternate
release agent as a cost cutting exercise. The change resulted in fire
during molding process”.

ANSWERS:

Incident 1: “Metal container on rubbing with rubber shoes developed a static

charge which got transported to the valve (which was grounded) through Ganpat
Rao’s hand and a spark occurred igniting acetone vapour

Incident 2: “Adiabatic cooling caused solidification of CO2 discharged” into

the tanker, which while falling down collected static electric charge. They
discharged a spark on grounding, igniting the naphtha vapour & air mixture in
(c

the tank”

Incident 3: “The new release agent had high static electricity generating
property and discharge rate was much slower than the earlier release agent.
After moulding, when the mould collapses to release the tyre, the separation
would result in spark leading to fire.”

36 | P a g e
 Summary:

Static Charge Generation is a common phenomenon observed in day to day

activities. However, it is one of the reasons for fires and/or explosions in case of

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hazardous materials such as hydrocarbons. When two dis-similar bodies are
frequently brought in contact with each other both of them get oppositely
charged. Proper care must be taken while handling hazardous substances to avoid
accidents/incidents. Grounding and bonding, controlling the flow speed, sub
surface filling are some of the prevention and protection measures.

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Review Question:
1. What is static electricity? What is the cause of Static electricity?
2. What are the hazards and dangers associated with static electricity?
3. Mention preventive and protection measures to prevent static
accumulation
4. What is grounding and bonding? What is difference between them?
5. What is the effect of humidity on static electricity?
6. What is the role of anti-static additives in prevention static accumulation?

References:

1. Electrical Safety, Fire Safety Engineering and Safety Management

Author S. Rao, R.K. Jain and H.L. Saluja
)U
2. Electrical Safety Handbook, Fourth Edition by: John Cadick, P.E. Mary
Capelli-Schellpfeffer, M.D, M.P.A,Dennis K. Neitzel, C.P.E
(c

37 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-4 GROUNDING

Objectives:
Objectives of this chapter are to:

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 Define and brief the concept of grounding
 Discuss the significance of grounding
 Enumerate various kinds of grounding

Introduction: Grounding/Earthing is the common word normally used by

electricians particularly in industrial workplaces. It is even applicable to

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residential/domestic usage of appliances to ensure safe operation. For example,
in a household electric rice cooker, improper grounding may cause damage to
heating plate (over heating) and in case of industry explosions in storage tanks
while filling/transferring fluids is the commonest of all. Thus, it’s necessary to
know few ‘HOW ABOUTs’ of grounding.

What’s Grounding? Making continuous connection of non-conducting/ live

(electrical) parts of equipment/process, etc., with conductive mass of earth. This
requires three main things (components):
 The grounding point in equipment (ground and/or neutral point/
enclosure of electrical equipment)
 Conductive mass of earth (earth/ground rod or ground/earth electrode)
 Continuous connection between both of these (ground/earth wire)
)U
Indian domestic 1-ᴓ supply systems normally consists of three wires namely:
 Lin(v)e/Hot wire-that carries the electrical energy to the
system/equipment to which it’s connected
 Neutral/Cold wire- that forms return path of current from equipment
 Earth/Ground wire- that is in turn connected(bonded) with neutral
and/or metallic frames of equipment (such as switch board frame) and
connected with earthing electrode, normally used to drain off extraneous
energy into conductive earth mass
(c

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 Earth Vs Ground: Despite having a very small difference, ‘Earthing’ and
‘Grounding’ are the terms used synonymously.

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FIG 4.1. E ARTHING IN DOMESTIC/RESIDENTIAL PLACES FIG 4.2. COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC E ARTHING SYSTEM

The difference is that ‘Grounding’

means connection of parts that conduct current during normal operation (such as
neutral), with conductive mass of earth for discharging unwanted
currents/leakage currents, whereas ‘earthing’- means connection of parts that
won’t conduct current during normal operation (such as frames of equipment).
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To avoid ambiguity ‘Neutral earthing/grounding’- will be referred as
‘Grounding’ and earthing the metallic bodies as ‘Earthing’

Significance of Earthing/ Grounding: Earthing/Grounding is normally done to

discharge extraneous amounts of currents so as to safeguard equipment and/or
working personnel from impact of heavy fault currents, lightening strokes and/or
leakage currents, in case of any mal-operation/fault/overloading/short or open
circuits, etc., due to the reason that even 30mA is enough to cause fatality to
person.
Let’s understand this with the help of an example as shown in below figure (4.3).
(c

FIG. 4.3. SYSTEM WITHOUT AND WITH GROUNDING

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 Consider any appliance connected with supply(transformer) for which earthing
is not provided, in case of fault the current passes through the person if he/she is
in contact with the equipment. However, with earthing most of the fault current
is directed to earth and even though the person is in contact it may

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reduce/eliminate the chance of shock occurrence.
Similarly, grounding (neutral)- reduces the chance of damage to equipment by
diverting residual imbalance currents to conductive mass of earth.

Types of Earthing: There’re two main categories of ‘Earthing’ (based on type

of earth electrode used):
 Conventional: Normal methods used in industries

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o Pipe Earthing
o Rod Earthing
o Wire Earthing
o Plate earthing
o Sheet/strip earthing
 Non-conventional: Uses chemical rods that adjusts specific resistance
(Ω-m) according to environmental and soil conditions.

Plate Earthing: In this type of earthing, Cu plate with dimensions 60cm x 60cm
x 3.18mm or GI Plate with dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 6.35 mm is buried
vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be less than 3m (10ft) from the
ground level. In order to maintain proper functioning of earthing system, the
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moisture content in the soil must be maintained appropriately.
(c

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 S
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FIG 4.4 PLATE EARTHING

Pipe Earthing: Pipe earthing is the commonest of all earthing methods. “A

galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing”. The diameter and
thickness of pipe depends on system characteristics. In general, the dimension of
the pipe is usually 40mm in diameter and 275cm in length for ordinary soil or
greater for dry and rocky soil. Length of the pipe depends on soil
characteristics(resistivity). In general , buried length of pipe should be 475cm.
(c

41 | P a g e
 S
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FIG. 4.5. PIPE EARTHING

Rod Earthing: It is as same as pipe earthing expect that the earthing electrode
is cu or GS rod(solid) of dimensions 12.5mm diameter or 16mm diameter
respectively or hollow rod of 2.5cm of GI pipe of length above 250 cm are
buried vertically in the earth. Length of electrode buried under earth reduces
(c

earth resistance.

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 S
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FIG. 4.6 COPPER ROD ELECTRODE EARTHING SYSTEM

Earthing through the Waterman: In this method of earthing, the waterman

(Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing purpose. Make sure to check the
resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to minimize the resistance for
proper earthing connection.
If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of
the wire and make sure it is in the straight and parallel position which is possible
then to connect tightly to the waterman pipe.

Strip or Wire Earthing: In this method of

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earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not
less than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x 0.06in) is
buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum
depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-section
of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a
dimension of 3.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron
or steel. If at all round conductors are used,
their cross-section area should not be too FIG. 4.7. STRIP EARTHING
small, say less than 6.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized

iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground would give a
sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than 15m.

Types of Grounding: There are 4-types of ‘Grounding’:

(c

 Solid Grounding
 Resistance Grounding
 Low Resistance Grounding
 High Resistance Grounding
 Impedance Grounding
 Resonant Grounding

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 Solid Grounding: When the fault current is expected to be low and not likely to
cause damage to plant, cables and loss of stability of system, the
earthing may be done directly through metallic conductor from
system neutral to the main earthing ring without any impedance in

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the circuit. It should be ensured that the impedance between the
“N” and E is so low so that if an earth fault occurs in one phase of
the system sufficient current will flow to operate to protective
devices as shown in below figure. Fig 4.8. Solidly Grounded
system
Resistance Grounding: Resistance earthing is generally used
when the fault current is likely to be so high as to cause damage to transformers.

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If a resistance is inserted between the
neutral and earth, quick action protective
devices are also used as shown in fig. 4.9.
The resistors shall comprise of metallic
resistance units supported in insulation in
a metal frame or shall be a liquid resistor
of a weak aqueous solution either of zinc
chloride or sodium carbonate.
All neutral earthing resistances should be
designed to carry their rated current for a short period, usually 30 seconds. The
earth resistance shall be of such a value if a fault is outside the equipment, the
fault current will be restricted to the rated
FIG 4.9. RESISTANCE GROUNDING
full load current if the equipment. If the
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earth resistance is too low, for any occurrence of the earth fault, the equipment
will be subjected to shock due to load resulting from the power loss in the
resistor.

Reactance/Impedance Earthing: When the zero sequence reactance

of generators or transformers is as low as to cause excessive fault
current, usually reactance earthing is used. A single phase reactor is
inserted between the neutral and the earth to limit fault current to the
maximum of three phase short circuit current. Here the current due to
earth fault on one phase is limited to minimize damage the equipment.
Care should be taken to see that dangerously high transient voltage FIG. 4.10. REACTANCE/IMPEDANCE
during system fault or switching operations do not occur due to high GROUNDING
value of reactance of earthing reactor as shown in fig. 4.10.
(c

Resonant Grounding: In high voltage systems with isolated

neutrals over voltages caused by switching surges or by
lighting may cause a line to each. Considerable current will
be drawn through the arc to charge the system capacitance
to earth. The arc is quenched at zero voltage but may restrict
at a higher voltage. This successive restricting if the arc often
causes very high voltages to be built upon the transmission
lines, and is known as “arcing grounds”. To avoid isolation FIG. 4.11. RESONANT GROUNDING
44 | P a g e
 of system under earth fault conditions, arc-suppression coils are sometimes used.
Arc suppression coil, also known as Peterson coil, is a tuned earthing reactor as
shown in fig. 4.9

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It is to the system capacitance in such a way as to make the reactance of the zero
sequence networks practically infinite, so that no fault current flows to the earth
and there is no tendency for arcing grounds to occur. With the use of Peterson
coil, arc current is reduced to such a small value that it is usually self-
extinguishing, which increases continuity in service.

Earthing System Construction: The usual method of earthing of electric

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equipment, devices and appliances are as follow:
1. First of all, dig a 5x5ft (1.5×1.5m) pit about 20-30ft (6-9 meters) in the
ground. (Note that, depth and width depends on the nature and structure
of the ground)
2. Bury an appropriate (usually 2’ x 2’ x 1/8” (600x600x300 mm) copper
plate in that pit in vertical position.
3. Tight earth lead through nut bolts from two different places on earth
plate.
4. Use two earth leads with each earth plate (in case of two earth plates) and
tight them.
5. To protect the joints from corrosion, put grease around it.
6. Collect all the wires in a metallic pipe from the earth electrode(s). Make
sure the pipe is 1ft (30cm) above the surface of the ground.
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7. To maintain the moisture condition around the earth plate, put a 1ft
(30cm) layer of powdered charcoal (powdered wood coal) and lime
mixture around the earth plate of around the earth plate.
8. Use thimble and nut bolts to connect tightly wires to the bed plates of
machines. Each machine should be earthed from two different places.
The minimum distance between two earth electrodes should be 10 ft
(3m).
9. Earth continuity conductor which is connected to the body and metallic
parts of all installation should be tightly connected to earth lead.
10. At last (but not least), test the overall earthing system through earth tester.
If everything is going about the planning, then fill the pit with soil. The
maximum allowable resistance for earthing is 1Ω. If it is more than 1
ohm, then increase the size (not length) of earth lead and earth continuity
conductors. Keep the external ends of the pipes open and put the water
(c

time to time to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode
which is important for the better earthing system.

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Summary:

Earthing and grounding is the technique used to prevention accumulation of

static electricity on metallic parts or on the equipment to protect it from the over
currents. Based on the topography of the area and the equipment which is

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required to be protected, different types of earthing is used.

Review Questions:

1. What is earthing and grounding? What is the difference between them?

2. Mention the different types of earthing? Explain in brief.
3. What are the different types of grounding?
4. What is the difference between resistance grounding and resonant
grounding?
5. Explain the procedure for installation of earthing system.

References:
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1. Handbook of Electrical Earthing – Indian Authority.
2. Electrical Safety, Fire Safety Engineering and Safety Management
Author S. Rao, R.K. Jain and H.L. Saluja
(c

46 | P a g e
 S
CHAPTER-5 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION

Objectives:
Objectives of this chapter are to:
 Identify the different hazardous areas and classifying
 Learning about the different classification of the hazardous areas
 Learning about the precautions and prevention that should be taken in different

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hazardous areas

Definitions: Hazardous Area is defined as:

 “Any area in which the explosive/flammable/combustible materials

(gases/vapours) are present, most likely to be present or may present
during normal condition/ repair/maintenance/leak of the
equipment/system & which needs to require special precautions for the
construction, installation and use of electrical apparatus”.
-As per IS 5572-2209
OR
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 “An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is or may be expected to
be present, in quantities such as to require special precautions for the
construction, installation and use of equipment”.
-As per IEC 60079-10-
1

Explosive gas atmosphere: “Mixture with air, under atmospheric

conditions, of flammable substances in the form of gas or vapor, which,
after ignition, permits self-sustaining flame propagation”.

Lower explosive limit (LEL): “The concentration of flammable gas,

vapor or mist in air below which an explosive gas atmosphere will not be
formed”.
-As per IEC-60050 – 426
(c

Upper explosive limit (UEL): “The concentration of flammable gas,

vapor or mist in air above which an explosive gas atmosphere will not be
formed”.
-As per IEC-60050 – 426
Flashpoint: “Lowest liquid temperature at which, under certain
standardized conditions, a liquid gives off vapours in a quantity such as
to be capable of forming an ignitable vapour/air mixture”.

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 Auto Ignition Temperature: “The Lowest temperature at which a
substance Spontaneously ignites at normal temperature without any
External source of Ignition like Spark or Flame”.

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Classification of Hazardous Area: Classification of Hazardous area consists
of three elements.
a) Area Classification
b) Classification of equipment based on
a. Type of material present in the atmosphere

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b. Maximum surface temperature of Equipment.
c. Type of protection applied

 As the O&G/Petroleum sector always associated with such kinds of

atmospheres, it’s obvious to consider these special considerations.
However, the level of protection will be based on quantum of hazardous
content being handled/stored/processed in a particular area.
 Along with this, determination of probability and severity of occurrence
such atmospheres is necessary in an area is vital, because it’s infeasible
to provide higher degree of protection in area where it is not necessary.
Similarly, inferior protection in potential risk areas will leads to
devastating results.
 Hence, in a particular area where a specific material is being handled the
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risk of explosion will be decided by probability of occurrence of such
flammable/explosive atmosphere.
 By considering above said as criterion, a particular area containing
specific hazardous material, is classified into sub divisions/zones (acc. to
IEC 60079-10-part-1, IS 5572:2009, NEC chapter V: zonal
classification) as under:
 Zone-0: (Gas and Vapours) “an area in which an explosive gas
atmosphere is present continuously or for long periods or frequently”.
Examples for Zone 0 locations:
1. Space inside a tank containing volatile flammable Liquid.
2. Pits or hatches near to storage or process areas of heavier than air gases.
Eg: LPG
 No electrical equipment should be installed in Zone 0 locations
(c

unless it is mandate for the process. Only intrinsically safe

equipment should be used only after the system is purged with
inert gases.
 Zone-1(Gas and Vapours): “an area in which an explosive gas
atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation occasionally”.
Examples for Zone 1 Locations:
1. Locations where liquefied flammable gases transferred between
two containers, in areas the vicinity of spraying and painting

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 operations
2. Locations which are ventilated adequately and contains oil and
Fat extraction machines using flammable solvents.
3. Compartments or Drying rooms which are ventilated adequately

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used for the evaporation of flammable solvents.
 Zone-2(Gas and Vapours): “an area in which an explosive gas
atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation but, if it
does occur, it will exist for a short period only”.
 “The Zone 2 classification usually includes locations where
flammable liquids or flammable gases or vapours are used, but
which would become hazardous only in case of an accident or of

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some unusual operating condition”.
* Ref.IS 5572 :2009, IEC 60079-10 : part-1, NFPA 497 :2008 &
NFPA70(NEC) :2011

Note: some companies follow the standardized frequency rate, which supposes
as under:
 Zone-0: Area where chance of occurrence of explosive atmosphere >
1000hrs./year
 Zone-1: Area where chance of occurrence of explosive atmosphere >
100hrs./year and < 1000 hrs./year
 Zone-2: Area where chance of occurrence of explosive atmosphere <
100hrs./year
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For Dust: For the areas prone to combustible dust/fibers the following
classification is followed:
Zone 20: “A place in which Explosive atmosphere is in the form of combustible
dust in air is present continuously for a long period of time and frequently”
Zone 21: “A place in which explosive atmosphere (combustible dust) in air is
likely to occur in normal operation occasionally”.
Zone 22: “A place in which explosive atmosphere (Combustible dust) in air is
not likely to occur in normal operation but if occur it persists for small duration
only”.
* Ref.IS 5572 :2009, IEC 60079-10 : part-1
According to NFPA 70 the hazardous area Is classified in to Divisions.
Class I : Gas and Vapors
Class II : Dust
Class III : Fibre and Flyings.
(c

Now for Every class the Will be two divisions.

Division 1 : ‘Explosive atmosphère Is présent or likely to be present in Normal
Operations’.
Division 2 : ‘Explosive atmosphere is not likely to bé présent in normal
Operations but could be présent in abnormal Operations’. Ref. NFPA 497 :2008
& NFPA70(NEC) :2011
Classification of Groups based on Flammability:
For this purpose, IEC 60079-20-part-1 gives the guidance to group/classify the

49 | P a g e
 equipment based on gases/vapours flammable properties, which follows as
below:
 Group I: Equipment used in underground installations, example mines
where dusty atmosphere is present
 Group II: equipment’s used in above ground locations where explosive

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gas atmosphere is present and is classified based on MSEG (Maximum
Experimental Safe Gap) and MIC (Minimum Ignition Current
Ratio) (even tough other classifications are there solely based on MSEG
or MIC ratio this classification is in common with NEC & CEC too)
 Group IIA: Materials having “MESG ≥ 0.9 mm, or MIC ratio> 0.9”.
 Group IIB: Materials having “0.55 mm <MESG <0.9” mm, or “0.5 <

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MIC ratio < 0.8”;
 Group IIC: Materials having “MESG <0.5 mm, or MIC ratio <
0.45mm”.

Hence, above classification is to be determined before deciding the level of

protection.

NFPA 70 IEC Some Examples of

Hazardous material in
surroundings
Group A IIC “(C2H2) or Equivalent
Hazard”
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Group B IIB + H2 Hydrogen(H 2),and its
equivalent.
Group C IIB Diethyl oxide((C2H5)2 O),
Ethene(C2H4) or Gases of
Equivalent Hazard
Group D IIA* Gasoline(C4–C12),
Acetone(C3 H6O),
Ammonia(NH3), Methane,
Natural gas, Naphtha(C6–
C13), Propane((C3H8) Etc.
Group E -- “Metal Conductive dusts
including (Al), (Mg) and
their Alloys or other
(c

Combustible Dusts”.
Group F -- “Carbon black and coal dust
and its equivalent hazards”.
Group G -- Flour, Sugar, Starch grain,
Wood and Plastic Dusts.
TABLE 5.1: GAS AND DUST GROUPS

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 Maximum Experimental Safe Gap (MESG): “The maximum of the joint
between two parts of interior chamber of a test apparatus that, when the internal
mixture is ignited and under specific conditions, prevents the ignition of external
gas mixture by propagating through a 25mm long joint, for all concentrations of
tested gas or vapour in air”. * Ref. (API 505-3.2.39)

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Minimum Ignition Current Ratio (MIC Ratio): “The minimum energy
required from a captive spark discharge to ignite the most easily ignitable
mixture of gas or vapour divided by the minimum current required from and
inductive spark discharge to ignite methane under the same test conditions”.
* Ref. NFPA 497 :2008

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Temperature Classes: Based on their ignitibility Explosive gas atmosphere is
divided in to Temperature Classes. Gas – Air mixture can be ignited by coming
in contact with hot surfaces also.so based on their maximum surface temperature
all electrical equipment used in hazardous areas are classified.

“Maximum surface temperature is the highest temperature attained by any part

of electrical equipment in its service under the specified conditions described in
standards, which can ignite the surrounding Explosive atmosphere”.

Maximum Permissible Surface Class

Temperature of Electrical
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0
Equipment ( C)
“450” “T1”
“300” “T2”
“200” “T3”
“135” “T4”
“100” “T5”
“85” “T6”
TABLE 5.2: TEMPERATURE C LASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC
EQUIPMENT *As per NEC 500 – 5(d)

Protection Methods: There should be some specific type of electrical

Equipment to be used in Hazardous areas according to their Zones. An Explosion
occurs when:
1. If explosive atmosphere is present.
(c

2. There is presence of any ignition source

3. There is transmission of explosion.

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 Following are the protection schemes for eliminating any of these conditions,
which prevents Explosion in Hazardous Area. There are seven types of
Protection Schemes.
1. Intrinsically safe (i)

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2. Flame Proof (d)
3. Increased Safety(e)
4. Pressurized Equipment(p)
5. Non – Sparking (n)
6. Oil Immerged (o)
7. Sand Filled (s)

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Intrinsically Safe (i):

This type of protection will eliminate any source of

ignition such as Sparks, Over heating etc. The
Spark’s thermal energy in electrical equipment is
incapable under test conditions to cause ignition of
explosive atmosphere.
F IG 5.1 SCHEMATIC OF INTRINSICALLY SAFE APPARATUS

The Principle of intrinsic safety applicable to electric equipment’s in which

output Energy or consumption of Energy is so small than Ignition Energy of
Explosive atmosphere.
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Increased Safety (e): This is based on German concept. This is used to motors
used both in coal mining and chemical / petro chemical industries. “Increasing
safety means of additional mechanical, electrical and thermal protection
methods. Increased security against temperature, arcs and sparks during normal
service of life of the machine”.

Flame Proof(d): It is recognized explosion may occur inside the enclosure, but
the enclosure is sufficiently strong to withstand an interval and is so constructed
that flame passing from inside to the outside is cooled. This is achieved by
controlling the length of the possible flame paths.

Pressurized Equipment(p): Pressurization is, the dangerous parts are enclosed

in housing purged with fresh air or inert gas. The gas is then prevented reentering,
the enclosures by maintaining its internal pressure slightly above atmosphere.
(c

The normal safety devices are

a) Pressure measuring device: - “These devices should be provided
for the operation alarm or trip devices”.
Safe Starting Devices: - “These devices should be provided to ensure that no
apparatus with in the enclosure”.

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 Non Sparking (n): The ‘N’ motors are similar in basic concept to type ‘e’
motors, but with some relaxation in requirement. Mechanical clearances are
similar to type ‘e’ but clearance, temperature are less than ‘e’ type. High quality
installation system is required for motor winding. Frame sizes of type ‘N’ motors

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are generally the same as for general purpose motors.

Oil Immersed (O): In this type of electrical apparatus, all parts on which arcs
may occur in normal service are immersed in oil to prevent ignition of an
explosive gas mixture. This type of protection is commonly used in the case of
transformer, switch gear and control gears. While designing the oil immersed
electrical apparatus, case is taken that the temperature rises and the temperature

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of the oil at the surface as well as the temperature of any part of the enclosure.

Sand Filled(s): Electrical apparatus all live parts filled with mass of powder
material. If an arc occurs within the enclosures this arc will not be liable to ignite
the outer explosive atmosphere. The following material should be 100%
noncombustible and should meet requirements for its electrical strength, degree
of purity and processing. Quartz is used as a common filling material.

Ingress Protection (IP) Rating of Electrical Equipment:

These developed by European committee for electro technical standardizations
(NEMAIEC 60529) degrees of protection provide by enclosure- IP code.
The IP rating normally has either 2 or 3 numbers;
1. Protection from solid object
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2. Protect from liquids
3. Protections against mechanical impacts. (not a part of IEC
60529)\
Example (IP rating 54 means, 5 describe the protection from solid object and 4
describe level of protection from liquids)
TABLE 5.3 P ROTECTIONS AGAINST SOLIDS. INGRESS P ROTECTION (IP) 1ST NUMBER *As per
“0” “No special protection needed”
“1” “Protection against solid object more
than 50mm”
“2” “Protection against solid object more
than 12 mm”
“3” “Protection against solid object more
than 2.5 mm”
“4” “Protection against solid object more
(c

than 1 mm”
“5” “Protection against dust”
“6” “Totally against dust”
(NEMA IEC60529)

TABLE 5.4 PROTECTION AGAINST LIQUIDS, IP 2ND NUMBER *As per

(NEMA IEC60529)
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 “0” “No protection”
“1” “Protection against falling drops of
water or condensation”
“2” “Protection against direct spray of

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water up to 150 from vertical”
“3” “Protection against direct spray of
water up to 600 from vertical”
“4” “Protection against water spray from
all directions – limited ingress
permitted”
“5” “Protection against low pressure jets of

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water spray from all directions- limited
ingress”
“6” “Protection against temporary flooding
of water – limited ingress protection”
“7” “Protected against the effect of
immersion b/w 15cm and 1m”.
“8” “Protection against long periods of
immersion under pressure”

0 No protection
1 Protects against impacts of 0.225 joule
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2 Protects against impacts of 0.375 joule
3 Protects against impacts of 0.5 joule
4 Protects against impacts of 2 joule
5 Protects against impacts of 6.0 joule
6 Protects against impacts of 20.0 joule
T ABLE 5.5 IP 3’RD NUMBER (NOT AS A PART IEC 60529)

Summary: “An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is or may be

expected to be present, in quantities such as to require special precautions for
the construction, installation and use of equipment”.

Classification of Hazardous area consists of three elements.

1. Area Classification – based on frequency of occurrence of
(c

flammable/combustible atmosphere
2. Material Group of equipment- based on nature of material present in
atmosphere
3. Temperature classification - based on maximum surface temperature of
equipment
4. Type of protection applied- based on type of protection scheme applied

54 | P a g e
 All these details must be given on name plate of equipment, along with the
certifying standards. NFPA and IEC are the two mostly accepted and adopted
international standards and hence, classifications as per both of them are to
be understood. However, India adapted IEC standards. Apart from these,

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name plate details also represent the type of ingress protection given to
equipment. Based on all these ratings/specifications equipment must be
selected, installed, operated and maintained in hazardous areas.

Review Questions:
1. What is hazardous area?

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2. What is the classification of hazardous area based on NFPA and IS
standards?
3. What are the different classes and zones of hazardous areas in NFPA and
IS respectively?
4. What are the different ingress protection of an equipment?
5. What is the standard of hazardous area classification in NFPA and IS?
6. What is MESG and MIC Ratio and the classification based on these?
7. What are the temperature classification as per NFPA and IS?

References:
1. Electrical Safety, Fire Safety Engineering and Safety Management
Author S. Rao, R.K. Jain and H.L. Saluja
2. DS/EN 60079-10-1 & UK
)U
3. DS/EN 60079-10-2 & UK
4. IP15
5. IES 5572
6. NFPA70
(c

55 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-6 INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES

Objectives:
Objectives of this chapter are to:

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 Discuss the safety provisions made under Indian Electricity Rules in brief

Introduction: Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 were framed under Indian

Electricity Act, 1910 and serving as guidelines for safety of installations and
personnel, even the act has completely been changed. Here’re the brief contents

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of important sections that deal with safety and security.

RUL PARTICULARS PROVISIONS MADE UNDER

E
“All electric supply lines and apparatus shall
NO.
29 “Construction installation, be of sufficient ratings for power, insulation
, protection, operation and estimated fault current and of
and maintenance of sufficient mechanical strength”.
electric
supply lines and apparatus” “The material and apparatus used shall
conform to the relevant specifications of the
Bureau of Indian Standards”.
“Ensure that they are inaccessible”
34 “Accessibility of bare
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conductors” “Provide in readily accessible position
switches for rendering them dead whenever
“The
necessary”.
owner of every medium, high and extra-
35 “Danger Notices” high voltage installation shall affix
permanently in a conspicuous position a
danger notice in Hindi or English and the
local language of the district, with a sign of
skull and bone”.
“Before any conductor or apparatus is
36 “Handling of electric supply handled adequate precautions shall be taken,
lines and apparatus” by earthing to discharge electrically such
conductor or apparatus”
“Every person who is working on an electric
supply line or apparatus be provided with
(c

proper personal protective equipment’s”.

“No person shall work on any live electric
supply line or apparatus”.
“Precautions to be adopted by “Electrical additions, alterations repairs,
45 consumers, electrical adjustments to existing installations should
contractors, electrical workmen done by an electrical contractor licensed in
and suppliers” this behalf by the State Government”.

56 | P a g e
 46 “Periodical inspection and “Installation shall be periodically inspected
testing of consumer‘s and tested at intervals not exceeding five years
installation” either by the Inspector or by the supplier as
may be directed by the State or Central

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Government”.
1. “Upon receipt of an application for a new or
additional supply of energy and before
47 “Testing of connecting the supply or reconnecting the
consumer‘s installation” same after a period of six months, the supplier
shall inspect and test the applicant’s
installation”.

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2. “The supplier shall maintain a record of test
results obtained at each supply point to a
consumer, in a form to be approved by the
1. “Where any consumer or occupier installs a
Inspector”.
47A “Installation and Testing of generating plant, he shall give a thirty day’s
Generating Units” notice of his intention to commission the plant
to the supplier as well as the Inspector”.
2. “Provided that no consumer oroccupier
shall commission his
generating plant of a
capacity exceeding 10KW without the
approval in writing of the Inspector”

(i) “A linked switch with fuse(s) or a circuit

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50 “Supply and use of energy” breaker by low and medium voltage
consumers”.
(ii)”A linked switch with fuse(s) or a circuit
breaker by HV consumers having
aggregate installed
transformer/apparatus capacity up to 1000
KVA to be supplied at voltage upto 11 KV and
2500 KVA at higher voltages (above 11 KV and
not exceeding 33 KV)”.
(iii) “A circuit breaker by HV
consumers having an aggregate installed
transformer/apparatus capacity above 1000
KVA and supplied at 11 KV and above 2500
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KVA supplied at higher voltages (above 11 KV

and not exceeding 33 KV”.

57 | P a g e
 “Except with the written consent of the
54 “Declared voltage of supply to consumer or with the previous sanction of the
consumer” State Government a supplier shall not
permit the

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voltage at the point of commencement of
supply”
“In the case of low or medium voltage, by more
than 6 per cent”
“In the case of high voltage, by more than 6 per
cent on the higher side or by more than 9 per
cent on the lower side”

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“In the case of extra-high voltage, by more
55 “Declared frequency of supply to “Except with the written consent of the
than 10 per cent on the higher side or by
consumer” consumer or with the previous sanction of the
more than
State Government a supplier shall not permit
12.5 per cent on the lower side”.
the frequency of an alternating current
supply to vary from the declared frequency
by “Any
1. more meter
than or
3 per cent” demand indicator
maximum
57 “Meters, maximum demand or
indicators and other apparatus other apparatus placed upon a consumer‘s
on consumer‘s premises in accordance with section 26 shall
premises” be of appropriate capacity and shall be
deemed to be correct if the limits of error
do not exceed
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3 per cent above or below absolute accuracy at
all loads in excess of one tenth of full load and
up to full load”.
2. “Every supplier shall maintain a register
of meters showing the date of the last test, the
error recorded at the time of the test, the limit
of accuracy after adjustment and final test,
the date of installation, withdrawal,
reinstallation, etc., for the examination of the
Inspector or his authorized representative”.
“Where any electric supply line for use
60 “Test for at low or medium voltage has been
resistance of disconnected from a system for the purpose
insulation” of addition, alteration or repair, such electric
(c

supply line shall not be reconnected to the

system until the supplier or
the owner has applied the test”

61 “Connection with earth” 1. “In the case of a system comprising

electric supply lines having concentric
cables, the external conductor of such cables
shall be earthed by two separate and distinct
connections with earth”.
2. “In a direct current three wire system the
middle conductor shall be earthed at the
58 | P a g e generating station only, and the current from
the middle conductor to earth shall be
continuously recorded by means of a
recording ammeter, and if any time the
current exceeds one-thousandth part of the
 “The supplier shall ensure that the high or
63 “Approval by Inspector” extra- high voltage electric supply lines or
apparatus belonging to him are placed in

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position, properly joined and duly
completed and examined”.
“The owner of any high or extra-high
voltage installation who makes any
additions or alterations to his installation
shall not connect to the supply his
apparatus or electric supply lines,

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comprising the said alterations or
“The consumer
additions unlesshas
andprovided and
until such agrees to
alterations
64 “Use of energy at high and maintain
or additionsa separate
have beenbuilding
approvedorina writing
locked
extra- high voltage” weather-proof and fire-proof enclosure of
by the Inspector”.
agreed design and location, to which the
supplier at all times have access for the
purpose of housing his apparatus and
metering equipment, or where the
provision for a separate building or
enclosure is impracticable, the consumer
has segregated the aforesaid”
“The windings of motors or other
apparatus within reach from any position
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in which a person may require to be shall
be suitably protected so as to prevent
danger”.
“Where transformer or transformers are
used, suitable provision shall be made,
either by connecting with earth a point
of the circuit at the lower voltage or
otherwise, to guard against danger by
reason of the said circuit becoming
accidentally charged above its normal
voltage by leakage from or contact with the
circuit at the higher voltage”.
“A sub-station or a switch station with
apparatus having more than 2000 liters of
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oil shall not be located in the basement

where proper oil draining arrangement
cannot be provided”.

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 68 “General conditions as to “Sub-stations and switch-stations shall
transformation and control of energy” preferably be erected above ground, but

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where necessarily constructed
underground due provisions for
ventilation and drainage shall be made
and any space housing switchgear shall
not be used for storage of any materials
especially inflammable and combustible

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materials”.
“Outdoor sub-station is except pole type
sub- stations and. outdoor switch
“All
stations shall be of
conductors efficiently
overheadprotected
lines otherby
74 “Material and strength” fencing
than not specified
those less than 1.8 meters inof
in sub-rule height
rule
or shall
86 otherhavemeans so as to strength
a breaking prevent access
of not
to thethan
less electric-supply
350 kg”. lines and apparatus
“Where
therein by anvoltage
the unauthorized
is low andperson”.
the span
is of less than 1 meters and is on the
1. “Joints-Joints
owner‘s betweenpremises”
or consumer‘s conductors of
75 “Joints between conductors of overhead lines shall be mechanically
overhead lines” and electrically secure under the
conditions of operation”.
2. “The ultimate strength of the joint
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shall not be less than 95 per cent of that
“The
of theminimum
conductor, factorandof safety for stay-
the electrical
76 “Maximum stresses” wires, guard-wires
conductivity not lessor bearer wiresofshall
than that the
be 2.5
conductor”.based on the ultimate tensile
strength of the wire”
“The minimum factor of safety for
conductors shall be 2, based on their
ultimate tensile strength”.
“The maximum wind pressure and
“No conductor
temperature shallofbean suchoverhead line,
as the State
77 “Clearance above ground of the lowest including
Government may specify
service in eachacross
lines, erected case”.a
conductor” street shall at any part thereof be at a
height of less than”
(1)”low and medium voltage lines-5.8
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meters”
(2) “high
“When thevoltage lines-6.1
line passes above meters”
the building
79 (3) “extra-high
“Clearances from buildings of low and a vertical clearance of 2.5 metersmeters
voltage lines-5.2 from
medium voltage lines and service’ plus 0.3 meter
the highest point” for every 33,000 volts”
“When the line passes adjacent to the
building a horizontal clearance of 1.2
meters from the nearest point”.
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 “Vertical clearance above the highest
80 “Clearances from buildings of high and part of the building immediately
extra-high voltage lines” under such line, of not less than

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1.For high voltage lines up to and
including 33,000 volts-3.7 meters”
“For extra-high voltage lines3.7
meters plus 0.30 meter for every
“Under
additionalno33,000
circumstances
volts” rods, pipes
82A “Transporting and Storing of material or other similar materials shall be
near overhead lines” brought within the flash over distance

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of bare live conductors or lines”
“No material or earth work or
agricultural produce shall be dumped
or stored or trees grown below or in
the vicinity of bare overhead
conductors lines”
“All conductors shall be attached to
85 “Maximum interval between supports at intervals not exceeding
supports” the safe limits based on the ultimate
tensile strength
“Every overheadof telecommunication
conductor”.
86 “Conditions to apply where line erected on supports carrying a
telecommunication lines and power lines power line shall consist of conductors
are carried on same supports” each having a breaking strength of
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not less than 270 kg”
“Every telephone used on
telecommunication line erected on
supports carrying a power line shall
“Where an guarded
be suitably overheadagainst
line crosses or is
lightning
87 “Lines crossing or approaching each in andproximity to anotherby
shall be protected overhead line,
cutouts”.
other” guarding arrangements shall be
provided so as to guard against the
possibility of their coming into
contact with each other”.
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 1. “Every guard-wire shall be connected
88 “Guarding” with earth at each point at which its
electrical continuity is broken”.

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2. “Every guard-wire shall have an actual
breaking strength of not less than 635 kg
and if made of iron or steel, shall be
galvanized”.
“Service-lines from Overhead “No Service-line or tapping shall be taken
89 lines” off an overhead line except at a point of
support”.

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1. “Metallic bearer wire used for
90 “Earthing” supporting insulated wire of low and
medium voltage overhead service lines
shall be efficiently earthed or insulated”.
2. “Each stay-wire shall be similarly earthed
unless insulator has been placed in it at a
height not less than 3.0 meters from the
ground”.

1. “The owner of every overhead line

92 “Protection against lightning” sub-station or generating station which is
so exposed as to be liable to injury from
lightning shall adopt efficient means for
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diverting to earth any electrical surges due
to lightning”.
2. “The earthing lead for any lightning
arrestor shall not pass through any iron or
steel pipe, but shall be taken as directly as
possible from the lightning- arrestor”.
1. “Where necessary to prevent danger
114 “Isolation and fixing of of mechanical damage transformers and
transformer, switchgear” switchgear shall be placed in a separate
room, compartment or box”.
2. “No inflammable material shall be
used in the construction of any room,
compartment or box containing apparatus”
(c

62 | P a g e
 “The operation of the switchgear and the relays
116 “Protective equipment” shall be recorded daily at the generating station,
sub-station or switch station in a register kept for
the purpose”.
“The effectiveness of the switchgear and the

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protective system shall always be kept and
maintained in working order, shall be checked
once (othermonths”.
every three
“All cables than the outer conductor of a
122 “Cables” concentric cable) shall be covered with insulating
material and shall be efficiently protected from
mechanical damage and supported at sufficiently
frequent intervals”.

Summary: IE Rules, 1956 laid the basic and standard mandates for safety and
security along with penal procedures, framed under IE act, 1910. Though, the
act is obsolete, still the rules are in place, serving better as standard guidelines
in power sector.
UP
Review Questions:
1. What are the clearances for overhead electrical lines as mentioned in
IER?
2. What procedure should be followed in case of an Electrical accident as
mentioned in IER?
3. Explain the importance of hazardous communication?
4. Mention the duties of electrical inspector as mentioned in IER?
5. When was the IER rules established?
6. What are the procedures to be followed for earthing and grounding as
mentioned in IER?

References:
1. Electrical Safety, Fire Safety Engineering and Safety Management
Author S. Rao, R.K. Jain and H.L. Saluja
2. The Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 (As Amended Upto 25 Th Nov., 2000)
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