14 Communication and internet

technologies
14 Communication and internet technologies

In this chapter, you will learn about

★ the need for protocols during communication
★ the implementation of protocols such as a stack
★ TCP/IP protocols, including the four layers (Application, Transport,
Internet and Link), the purpose and function of the four layers, and
application when a message is sent from one host to another on
the internet
★ HTTP, FTP, POP3/4, IMAP, SMTP and BitTorrent protocols (such as
BitTorrent provides peer-to-peer file sharing)
★ circuit switching (including benefits and drawbacks)
★ the benefits and drawbacks of packet switching
★ the function of a router in packet switching
★ the use of packet switching to pass messages across the network
(including the internet).

14.1 Protocols

WHAT YOU SHOULD ALREADY KNOW

In Chapter 2, you learned about networks. Try b) Explain the term queue.
these five questions before you read the first c) Give examples of the use of a stack and the
part of this chapter. use of a queue.
1 a) Explain the terms IP and TCP. 4 a) Explain what is meant by Ethernet.
b) What are protocols and why are they used? b) What is meant by IP conflicts when using
2 a) Explain how peer-to-peer networks Ethernet?
operate. Explain how they can be overcome.
b) What are the pros and cons of peer-to- 5 a) What is a DNS?
peer networks?
b) What is meant by HTTP?
3 a) Explain the term stack.
c) Explain the role of status flags.

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 Key terms
Protocol – a set of rules governing communication
across a network: the rules are agreed by both sender
checks for and downloads new emails from a server
and then closes the connection.
14
and recipient. Host-to-host – a protocol used by TCP when
HTTP – hypertext transfer protocol. communicating between two devices.
Packet – a message/data is split up into smaller groups Host – a computer or device that can communicate with
of bits for transmission over a network. other computers or devices on a network.
Segment (transport layer) – this is a unit of data BitTorrent – protocol used in peer-to-peer networks

14.1 Protocols
(packet) associated with the transport layer protocols. when sharing files between peers.
FTP – file transfer protocol. Peer – a client who is part of a peer-to-peer
SMTP – simple mail transfer protocol. network/file sharing community.
Push protocol – protocol used when sending emails, in Metadata – a set of data that describes and gives
which the client opens the connection to the server and information about other data.
keeps the connection active all the time, then uploads Pieces – splitting up of a file when using peer-to-peer
new emails to the server. file sharing.
Binary file – a file that does not contain text only. The Tracker – central server that stores details of all other
file is machine-readable but not human-readable. computers in the swarm.
MIME – multi-purpose internet mail extension. A Swarm – connected peers (clients) that share a
protocol that allows email attachments containing torrent/tracker.
media files as well as text to be sent. Seed – a peer that has downloaded a file (or pieces of a
POP – post office protocol. file) and has then made it available to other peers in the
IMAP – internet message access protocol. swarm.
TCP – transmission control protocol. Leech – a peer with negative feedback from swarm
members.
Pull protocol – protocol used when receiving emails,
in which the client periodically connects to a server, Lurker – user/client that downloads files but does not
supply any new content to the community.

14.1.1 The need for protocols

When communicating over networks, it is essential that some form of protocol
is used by the sender and receiver of the data. Both parties need to agree
the protocol being used to ensure successful communication takes place. In
Chapter 6, we discussed parity checking as a way of determining whether
data was transmitted correctly. With this method, it was essential to agree
the protocol: even or odd parity. Without agreeing this protocol, it would be
impossible to use parity checking. Many different protocols exist since there
are several activities taking place over the internet.
The next section considers one of the most common sets of protocols, which
are implemented by using a stack structure with several layers.

14.1.2 TCP/IP protocols

This is the four-layer structure for TCP/IP protocols:
Sending DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Receiving
Projects Agency) Layers

4 APPLICATION LAYER
3 TRANSPORT LAYER
2 INTERNET (NETWORK) LAYER
1 LINK NETWORK
▲ Figure 14.1 Four layer structure for TCP/IP
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 Using layers breaks the process down into manageable self-contained modules

14
(this process is known as decomposition), making it easier to develop and
easier to make software and hardware compatible.
When sending data across the internet (network), the layers are used in the
order layer 4 to layer 1; when receiving data across the internet (network), the
layers are used in the order layer 1 to layer 4. Each of the layers is implemented
using software.

Application layer
14 Communication and internet technologies

The application layer contains all the programs that exchange data, such as
web browsers or server software; it sends files to the transport layer. This layer
allows applications to access the services used in other layers and also defines
the protocols that any app uses to allow the exchange of data.
There are several protocols associated with the application layer:

HTTP hypertext transfer protocol; this is a protocol responsible for correct

transfer of files that make up web pages on the world wide web
SMTP simple mail transfer protocol; this handles the sending of emails
POP3/4 post office protocol; this handles the receiving of emails
IMAP internet message access protocol; this handles the receiving of emails
DNS domain name service; protocol used to find the IP address, for example,
when sending emails
FTP file transfer protocol; this is a protocol used when transferring messages
and attachments
RIP routing information protocol; this is the protocol routers use to exchange
routing information over an IP network
SNMP simple network management protocol; protocol used when exchanging
network management information between network management and
network devices (such as routers, servers and other network devices)
▲ Table 14.1 Protocols associated with the application layer

It is worth re-visiting the terms packet and router.

Messages are split up into small groups of bits called packets (for example, a
web page would be split up into a number of packets before sending over the
network).
A router is used to transmit packets of data; routers contain connections to
many other routers; when packets arrive at a router it decides where next to
send them.

Important terminology: packets are known as frames at the data-link layer, datagrams
at the internet layer and segments at the transport layer. Different names are used as
each layer adds its own header to the packet.
Do not confuse ‘frames’ in this context with ‘frames’ when discussing paging memory
management in Chapter 16.

Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is probably the most important application layer protocol. Essentially,
this protocol underpins the world wide web. It is used when, for example,
fetching an HTML document from a web server (Figure 14.2).

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 layout of pages

This is one of the most

beautiful mountain
ranges in the southern
part of Brazil.
page text
14
images

Internet
The region is very Germanic in nature with many
towns and villages resembling the Bavaria region.
Click on the video link below to find out more.

web server

14.1 Protocols
Check out this video: video links
https://www.youtube.com/watch?MHsl34P90plm

advert links
Travel to Brazil with
Watson Travel Group
… visit our website

video server adverts server

▲ Figure 14.2 Fetching an HTML document from a web server

This makes use of hyperlinks (rules for the transferring of data over the
internet). HTTP is a client/server protocol: request messages are sent out to the
web servers which then respond.
HTTP protocols define the format of the messages sent and received. The web
browser (which is part of the application layer) initiates the web page request
and also converts HTML into a format which can be displayed on the user’s
screen or can be played through their media player.
The following summarises what happens when a user requests a web page from
a website.

n The user keys the URL into their browser.

n HTTP(s) transmits the request from the application layer to the transport layer (TCP).
n The TCP creates data packets and sends them (via port 80) to the destination port(s).
n The DNS server stores a database of URLs and matching IP addresses.
n The DNS server uses the domain name typed into the browser to look up the IP
address of the appropriate website.
n The server TCP sends back an acknowledgement (see the section on host-to-host
communication on page 333).
n Once communication has been established, the web server sends the web page back
in HTML format to the browser.
n The browser interprets the page and displays it or sends the data in the correct
format to the media player.

File transfer protocol (FTP)

The file transfer protocol (FTP) is a network protocol used when transferring
files from one computer/device to another via the internet or other networks.
It is similar to HTTP and SMTP, but FTP’s only task is the application protocol
for the transfer of files over a network. Web browsers can be used to connect
to an FTP address in a way similar to HTTP, for example,
ftp://[email protected]/

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 Additional features of FTP include

14 » anonymous ftp – this allows a user to access files without the need to
identify who they are to the ftp server; for example, ‘331 Anonymous access
allowed’ would be a message received to confirm anonymous access
» ftp commands – a user is able to carry out actions that can change files
stored on the ftp server; for example, delete, close, rename, cd (change
directory on a remote machine), lcd (change directory on a local machine)
» ftp server – this is where the files, which can be downloaded as required by
a user, are stored.
14 Communication and internet technologies

A session would be started by typing in the ftp host_name (of remote system),
followed by a user id and password. The user would then be able to use ftp
commands to carry out a number of actions.
Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) is a text-based (and connection-based)
protocol used when sending emails. It is sometimes referred to as a push protocol
(in other words, a client opens a connection to a server and keeps the connection
active all the time; the client then uploads a new email to the server).
Since SMTP is text-based only, it doesn’t handle binary files (a binary file is a
file containing media/images as well as text and is regarded as being computer-
readable only). If an email contains attachments made up of, for example,
images, video, music then it is necessary to use the multi-purpose internet
mail extension (MIME) protocol instead. A MIME header is used at the
beginning of the transmission; clients use this header to select which media
player is needed when the attachment is opened.
POP3/4 and IMAP (post office protocol and internet message access protocol)
Post office protocol (POP3/4) and internet message access protocol (IMAP)
are protocols used when receiving emails from the email server. These are
known as pull protocols (the client periodically connects to a server; checks
for and downloads new emails from the server – the connection is then closed;
this process is repeated to ensure the client is updated). IMAP is a more a
recent protocol than POP3/4, but both have really been superseded by the
increasing use of HTTP protocols. However, SMTP is still used when transferring
emails between email servers.
Figures 14.3 and 14.4 give an overall view and a more detailed view of the
email protocol set up.

POP/IMAP SMTP
email server
(receive email) (send email)

▲ Figure 14.3 Overview of email protocol set up

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 uses SMTP/MIME
protocol

client
14

recipient

14.1 Protocols
client’s ISP internet
email server

uses POP/IMAP
protocol

recipient’s domain
email server

▲ Figure 14.4 Detailed view of email protocol set up

The main difference between POP3/4 and IMAP is synchronisation:

POP3/4 IMAP
POP3/4 does not keep the server and IMAP keeps the server and client in
client in synchronisation; when emails are synchronisation; only a copy of the email
downloaded by the client, they are then is downloaded with the original remaining
deleted from the server which means it is on the server until the client manually
not further updated. deletes it.
▲ Table 14.2

Transport layer
The transport layer regulates the network connections; this is where data is
broken up into packets which are then sent to the internet/network layer (IP
protocol). The transport layer ensures that packets arrive in sequence, without
errors, by swapping acknowledgements and retransmitting packets if they
become lost or corrupted. The main protocols associated with the transport
layer are transmission control protocol (TCP), user datagram protocol (UDP)
and SCTP. We will only consider TCP.
Transmission control protocol (TCP)
TCP is responsible for the safe delivery of a message by creating sufficient
packets for transmission. It uses positive acknowledgement with re-
transmission (PAR) which means it automatically re-sends a data packet if
it has not received a positive acknowledgement. TCP is also connection-
orientated since it establishes an end-to-end connection between two host
computers using handshakes. For this last reason, TCP is often referred to as a
host-to-host transmission protocol.
The term host has been used previously; this refers to a computer or device
that can communicate with another computer/device (host). Hosts can include
clients and servers that send/receive data, provide services or apps.
These are the steps taken when host computer ‘X’ communicates with another
host ‘Y’ (this is an expansion of what happens during TCP involvement shown in
the HTTP algorithm earlier on):

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 » Host ‘X’ will first of all send host ‘Y’ a segment (packet) which will include

14
synchronisation sequence bits so that segments will be received in the
correct order.
» Host ‘Y’ will now respond by sending back its own segment (containing an
acknowledgement together with its own synchronisation sequence bits).
» Host ‘X’ now sends out its own acknowledgement that the segment from ‘Y’
was received.
» Transmission of data between ‘X’ and ‘Y’ can now take place.
14 Communication and internet technologies

Internet/network layer and network/data-link layer

The internet layer identifies the intended network and host. The common
protocol is IP (internet protocol). The concept of IPv4 and IPv6 was covered in
depth in Chapter 2.
The network/data-link layer identifies and moves traffic across local segments,
encapsulates IP packets into frames for transmission, maps IP addresses to MAC
(physical) addresses and ensures correct protocols are followed. The physical
network layer specifies requirements of the hardware to be used for the
network. The data-link layer identifies network protocols in the packet header
(TCP/IP in the case here) and delivers packets to the network.
This is a summary of the IP functions:
» Ensure correct routing of packets of data over the internet/network.
» Responsible for protocols when communicating between networks.
» Take a packet from the transport layer and add its own header which will
include the IP addresses of both sender and recipient.
» The IP packet (datagram) is sent to the data-link layer where it is assembles
the datagrams into frames for transmission.

Ethernet protocols
Ethernet is a system that connects a number of computers or devices together
to form a LAN. It uses protocols to control the movement of frames between
computers or devices and to avoid simultaneous transmission by two or more
devices. It is a local protocol and does not provide any means to communicate
with external devices; this requires the use of IP which sits on top of the
Ethernet protocol.
Figure 14.5 shows the make-up of a typical frame used by the Ethernet protocol.

Pre-amble Start frame Ethernet data Interpacket gap

(8 bytes) (1 byte) (64–1518 bytes) (12 bytes)

Destination Source Ethernet type/ Actual message Frame check

(6 bytes) (6 bytes) length (2 bytes) (46–1500 bytes) sequence (4 bytes)

▲ Figure 14.5 A typical frame used by the Ethernet protocol

If VLAN is used, the Ethernet data size increases from 1539 bytes to around
9000 bytes per frame.
The components that make up Ethernet data are
» destination – this is the MAC address of the destination computer or device
(it is possible to use the value FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF as the MAC address if the
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 sender wishes to target every device (for example, to advertise services) or

14
if they do not know the MAC address of the destination device)
» source – this is the MAC address of the source computer (using the usual
MAC address format of 6 bytes)
» Ethernet type or length – if the frame length ≤ 1539 then the value here is
the length of the Ethernet frame; if the frame length > 1539 then the value
here is the Ethernet type (IPv4 or IPv6 in our example)
» frame check – this will include a checksum to provide a method of checking
data integrity following transmission of the frame.

14.1 Protocols
Wireless (WiFi) protocols
Wireless LANs (standard IEEE 802.11 protocol) use a MAC protocol called carrier
sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) (not to be confused
with CSMA/CD considered in Chapter 2, since this is a totally different concept).
CSMA/CA uses distributed control function (DCF) to ensure a WiFi device can
only transmit when there is a free channel available. Since all transmissions are
acknowledged when using DCF, if a device does not receive an acknowledgement
it will assume a collision will occur and waits for a random time interval before
trying again. This is an important protocol to ensure the security and integrity
of data being sent over a wireless network (such as WLAN).
Bluetooth protocols
Bluetooth was considered in Chapter 2; it uses the standard IEEE 802.15
protocol for short-range data transmission/communication. There are numerous
additional Bluetooth protocols due to the many applications that may use this
wireless connectivity; this is outside the scope of this textbook.
WiMax
Worldwide interoperability for microwave access (WiMax) runs under IEEE 802.16
protocol. This connectivity was designed originally for wireless MANs (WMAN).
Fixed WiMax networks are based on the IEEE 802.16-2004 protocol, whereas
mobile WiMax is based on IEEE 802.16-2005 protocol.
Peer-to-peer file sharing/BitTorrent protocol
The BitTorrent is a protocol which is based on the peer-to-peer networking
concept (this was covered in Chapter 2). This allows for very fast sharing of
files between computers (known as peers). While peer-to-peer networks only
work well with very small numbers of computers, the concept of sharing files
using BitTorrent can be used by thousands of users who connect together over
the internet. Because user computers are sharing files directly with each other
(rather than using a web server) they are sharing files in a way similar to that
used in a peer-to-peer network; the main difference is that the BitTorrent
protocol allows many computers (acting as peers) to share files.
Suppose computer ‘A’ wishes to share a file with a number of other interested
peers. How can we use the BitTorrent protocol to allow this file sharing?
Initially, to share a file, the peer (computer ‘A’) creates a small file called a
torrent (for example, MyVideoFile.torrent). The torrent contains metadata
about the file about to be shared.
The actual file is broken up into equal segments known as pieces (typically a
20 MiB file may be broken up into 20 × 1 MiB pieces).

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 Other peers who wish to download this file must first obtain the torrent and

14
connect to the appropriate tracker – a central server that contains data about
all of the computers connected to it.
As each peer receives a piece of file they then become a source for that piece
of file. Other peers connected to the tracker will, therefore, know where to find
the piece of file they need.
Once a peer has downloaded a file completely and they make the file (or
required pieces of the file) available to other peers in the swarm (a group of
peers connected together), they become a seed. The more seeds in the swarm,
14 Communication and internet technologies

the faster the file downloading process between peers.

Logging off once the full file download has been completed is frowned upon by
the swarm community; such a peer is termed a leech.
Usually, once a file is fully downloaded, a peer is requested to remain online so
they can become part of the seeding process until all peers have received the
whole file. Note that file pieces may not be downloaded sequentially and have
to be rearranged in the correct order by the BitTorrent protocol to produce the
final file (quite important if the file is a video!).
At the time of writing, BitTorrent was responsible for about 12% of the video file
sharing, for example, being carried out over the internet. This is only a fraction
of the video file activity which uses YouTube (which is about 50% of all of the
video file sharing over the internet), but is still a considerable amount of data.
Here is a summary of some of the terms used when discussing BitTorrent:
» Swarm – a group of peers connected together is known as a swarm; one
of the most important facts when considering whether or not a swarm can
continue to allow peers to complete a torrent is its availability; availability
refers to the number of complete copies of torrent contents that are
distributed amongst a swarm. Note: a torrent is simply the name given to a
file being shared on the peer-to-peer network.
» Seed – a peer that has downloaded a file (or pieces of a file) and has then
made it available to other peers in the swarm.
» Tracker – this is a central server that stores details about other computers
that make up the swarm; it will store details about all the peers
downloading or uploading the file, allowing the peers to locate each other
using the stored IP addresses.
» Leech – a peer that has a negative impact on the swarm by having a poor
share ratio, that is, they are downloading much more data than they are
uploading to the others; the ratio is determined using the formula:
amount of data the peer has uploaded
ratio =
amount of data the peer has downloaded
If the ratio > 1 then the peer has a positive impact on the swarm; if the
ratio < 1 then the peer has a negative effect on the swarm.
» Lurker – a peer that downloads many files but does not make available any
new content for the community as a whole.
In Figure 14.6, we will assume 12 peers have connected to the tracker. One peer
has begun to upload a video file and six peers are acting as seeds. Two peers
are behaving as leeches and three peers have just joined and have requested a
download of the video file. The arrangement would look something like this:

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 Key
new peers
requesting
download
14
original peer
uploading file

peers acting
as seeds

tracker peers acting

14.2 Circuit switching and packet switching

as leeches

upload/down
load pieces
download file
only
upload file
only
request for file
download

▲ Figure 14.6 The arrangement of peers during the download and upload of file (pieces)

14.2 Circuit switching and packet switching

WHAT YOU SHOULD ALREADY KNOW

In Chapter 2, you learnt about communications. Try these two questions
before you read the second part of this chapter.
1 a) Explain how PSTN is used when making a phone call.
b) Explain how it is possible to use VoIP to make a video call over the
internet.
2 Draw a diagram to show how a message containing three packets of
data could be routed from computer ‘A’ to computer ‘B’.

Key terms
Circuit switching – method of transmission in which a dedicated circuit/channel lasts
throughout the duration of the communication.
Packet switching – method of transmission where a message is broken into packets
which can be sent along paths independently from each other.
Hop number/hopping – number in the packet header used to stop packets which
never reach their destination from ‘clogging up’ routes.
Header (data packet) – part of a data packet containing key data such as destination
IP address, sequence number, and so on.
Routing table – a data table that contains the information necessary to forward a
package along the shortest or best route to allow it to reach its destination.

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 14.2.1 Circuit switching
14 The concept of circuit switching was introduced in Chapter 2 during the
description of how a public switched telephone network (PSTN) was used to
make a phone call. Circuit switching uses a dedicated channel/circuit which
lasts throughout the connection: the communication line is effectively ‘tied
up’. When sending data across a network, there are three stages:
1 First, a circuit/channel between sender and receiver must be established.
2 Data transfer then takes place (which can be analogue or digital);
14 Communication and internet technologies

transmission is usually bi-directional.

3 After the data transfer is complete, the connection is terminated.
The pros and cons of circuit switching are summarised in this table. Figure 14.7
shows an example of circuit switching.

Pros Cons
the circuit used is dedicated to the single it is not very flexible (for example, it will
transmission only send empty frames and it has to use a
single, dedicated line)
the whole of the bandwidth is available nobody else can use the circuit/channel
even when it is idle
the data transfer rate is faster than with the circuit is always there whether or not
packet switching it is used
the packets of data (frames) arrive at the if there is a failure/fault on the dedicated
destination in the same order as they were line, there is no alternative routing
sent available
a packet of data cannot get lost since all dedicated channels require a greater
packets follow on in sequence along the bandwidth
same single route
it works better than packet switching in prior to actual transmission, the time
real-time applications required to establish a link can be long
▲ Table 14.3 Pros and cons of circuit switching

device
R1
‘A’
R3
R2 R4 router
R5 ‘B’
router
‘A’ R7
R6
R10
R8
device
R9 ‘B’

▲ Figure 14.7 An example of circuit switching

The dedicated route from ‘A’ to ‘B’ is first of all established (shown in orange on
the diagram). The following connections are then partially implemented: A–R2,
R2–R5, R5–R8, R8–R7, R7–R10 and finally R10–B. All packets (frames) follow
this single route and communication will take place, provided ‘B’ is not busy.
The main uses of circuit switching include public telephone networks, private
telephone networks and private data networks.

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 14.2.2 Packet switching
Packet switching was introduced in Chapter 2 when describing VoIP, together
with a diagram to show how the individual packets are routed from client to 14
client.
Packet switching is a method of transmission in which a message is broken up
into a number of packets that can be sent independently to each other from
start point to end point. The data packets will need to be reassembled into
their correct order at the destination. Figure 14.8 shows an example of packet

14.2 Circuit switching and packet switching

switching.
Note that
» each packet follows its own path
» routing selection depends on the number of datagram packets waiting to be
processed at each node (router)
» the shortest path available is selected
» packets can reach the destination in a different order to that in which they
are sent.

computer
‘B’
computer
R1
‘A’
R3
R2 R4 router
R5 ‘B’
router
‘A’ R7
R6
R10
R8
R9

▲ Figure 14.8 An example of packet switching

As Figure 14.8 shows, the message sent by computer ‘A’ was split into four
packets. The original packet order was: and they arrived in the order:
which means they need to be reassembled in the correct order at the
destination.

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 The pros and cons of packet switching are summarised in this table.

14 Pros
no need to tie up a communication line
Cons
the protocols for packet switching can
be more complex than those for circuit
switching
it is possible to overcome failed or faulty if a packet is lost, the sender must re-send
lines by simply re-routing packages the packet (which wastes time)
it is easy to expand the traffic usage does not work well with real-time data
14 Communication and internet technologies

streams
circuit switching charges the user on the the circuit/channel has to share its
distance and duration of a connection, but bandwidth with other packets
packet switching charges users only for the
duration of the connectivity
high data transmission is possible with there is a delay at the destination while
packet switching packets are reassembled
packet switching always uses digital needs large amounts of RAM to handle the
networks which means digital data is large amounts of data
transmitted directly to the destination
▲ Table 14.4 Pros and cons of packet switching

Comparison of circuit switching and packet switching

Feature Circuit Packet

switching switching
actual route used needs to be set up before transmission can begin  
a dedicated transmission path is required  
each packet uses the same route  
packets arrive at destination in the correct order  
all the bandwidth of the channel is required  
is bandwidth wasted?  
▲ Table 14.5 Comparison of circuit switching and packet switching

Sometimes it is possible for packets to get lost and keep ‘bouncing’ around
from router to router and never actually get to their destination. Eventually,
the network could grind to a halt as the number of ‘lost’ packets mounts up and
clogs up the system. To overcome this, a method called hopping is used. A hop
number is added to the header of each packet. Each packet is only allowed to
hop a finite number of times (this number is determined by the network protocol
and routing table being used). Each time a packet passes through a router, the
hop number is decreased by 1. If the packet has not reached its destination and
the hop number = 0, then it will be deleted when it reaches the next router.
Each packet also contains an error checking technique such as a checksum or
parity check. If a checksum is used, this value is calculated for each packet
and is added to the header. The checksum for each package is recalculated at
the destination to ensure no errors have occurred. If the checksum values are
different, then a request is made to re-send the packet. A priority value is
sometimes also added to a header. A high priority value indicates which packet
queue should be used.

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 This is the make-up of a packet header (together with the data in the message

14
being sent) if TCP/IP protocol is being used when sending packets:
sequence
IP number of
IP address current hop length of number
address of packets checksum
of source number of packet in to allow
destination in the value
computer data packet bytes reassembly
computer message
of packets
▲ Figure 14.9

14.2 Circuit switching and packet switching

More generally, packet headers contain the following information (the
information used with TCP/IP protocol headers is highlighted in green)
» 4 bits to identify protocol version (such as IPv4, IPv6 – in the example
above we assume IP)
» 4 bits to identify header length (in multiples of four; for example, a value of
six implies 6 × 4 = 24 bytes)
» 8 bits to represent packet priority
» 16 bits to identify the length of the packet in bytes
» 3 bits are used for fragmentation; the DF flag indicates whether a packet
can be fragmented or not (DF = do not fragment) and the MF flag indicates
whether there are more fragments of a packet to follow (MF = more fragments)
0 DF MF
» 13 bits to show fragmentation offset to identify the position of the
fragments within the original packet
» 8 bits that show the current hop number of the packet
» 16 bits to show the number of packets in the message
» 16 bits to represent the sequence number of the packet
» 8 bits that contain the transmission protocol being used (TCP, UDP)
» 16 bits that contain the header checksum value
» 32 bits that contain the source IP address
» 32 bits that contain the destination IP address.

Routing tables
Routing tables contain the information necessary to forward a package along
the shortest/best route to allow it to reach its destination. As soon as the
packet reaches a router, the packet header is examined and compared with
the routing table. The table supplies the router with instructions to send the
packet (hop) to the next available router.
Routing tables include
» number of hops
» MAC address of the next router where the packet is to be forwarded to
(hopped)
» metrics (a cost is assigned to each available route so that the most efficient
route/path is found)
» network destination (network ID) or pathway
» gateway (the same information as the next hop; it points to the gateway
through which target network can be reached)
» netmask (used to generate network ID)
» interface (indicates which locally available interface is responsible for
reaching the gateway).

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 routing table

14
alternative
packet header router
routes
14 Communication and internet technologies

the packet header is compared to the routing

table; the next router in the path is
determined; once established, a new MAC
address is added to the packet header so
that the packet knows which router is next; if
no route can be found or hop number = 0,
then the router deletes the data package

▲ Figure 14.10

Example 14.1 Suppose we are carrying out video conferencing using packet switching as the
method of routing data. The performance of the communication is not very good.
a) Describe some of the poor performance you might expect.
Give a reason for this poor performance.
b) What features of circuit switching could potentially improve the performance?

Solution
a) Answers might include: picture and sound may not be in synchronisation
(packets arriving at different times); video not continuous – pauses (time delay
in reassembling the packets of data); degraded quality of sound and video
(possibly caused by competing traffic in communication lines); possible drop
out (packets take different routes, so it is possible for packets to be lost).
b) Answers might include: only one route used in circuit switching; therefore,
all packets arrive in correct order; dedicated communication channel with
circuit switching; therefore, full bandwidth available; there is no loss of
synchronisation with circuit switching.

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 Example 14.2 How would packet switching be used to download a page from a website?

Solution
14
Answers might include
l the web page is divided up into data packets
l each packet has a header, which includes the IP address of the destination
l the router checks the header against values stored in the routing table …

14.2 Circuit switching and packet switching

l … to determine which router the packet needs to be sent to next (hopped) …
l … the MAC address of the next router is added to the package header
l the hop value is checked to see if it equals zero
l each packet may go by a different route
l the destination computer reassembles the packets building up the final
web page.

ACTIVITY 14A
1 a) Name the four layers which show the TCP/IP protocols.
b) Name one protocol associated with each layer.
c) i) Describe the use of protocols when sending and receiving emails.
ii) What is the difference between SMTP and MIME when sending
emails?
2 a) What is an Ethernet?
b) Describe the contents of an Ethernet frame.
c) Ethernet protocols do not provide a means to communicate with
devices outside a LAN.
How can external devices be communicated with when using an
Ethernet?
3 a) Explain the following terms used in peer-to-peer BitTorrent.
i) peer iv) leech
ii) swarm v) seed
iii) tracker
b) Explain how it could be possible to deal with peers acting as leeches.
4 a) Describe the difference between a packet header and a routing table.
b) How are the packet header and the routing table used to route a
package?
5 A person is making a video call using VoIP software.
Explain how packet switching could be used and describe any problems
that might occur.

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 End of chapter 1 a) Copy the diagram below and connect each peer-to-peer term to its
14 questions correct description.
Peer-to-peer term Description
[5]

central server that contains

lurker details of other computers
in a peer-to-peer swarm
14 Communication and internet technologies

peer in a peer-to-peer system

leech uploads files for other
peers to download

peer with a negative feedback

seed from other peers in a
peer-to-peer system

protocol used in peer-to-peer

tracker when sharing files
between peers

peer that downloads files but

BitTorrent does not supply new content to
the peer-to-peer community

b) Copy and complete the diagram to show the layers in a TCP/IP protocol. [3]

internet (network) layer

c) Describe the protocols used when sending and receiving emails. [4]
2 a) An Ethernet frame contains a section called Ethernet data.
Copy and complete this diagram to show the other four items missing from
the Ethernet data section. [4]
Ethernet type

b) State what is meant by the term metadata.[1]

c) Describe how files can be shared using the BitTorrent protocol. [4]
3 a) Explain what is meant by circuit switching.[2]
b) There are many applications in which digital data are transferred across a
network. Video conferencing is one of these.
For this application, circuit switching is preferable to the use of packet
switching. Explain why this is so. [6]
c) A web page is transferred from a web server to a home computer using the
Internet.
Explain how the web page is transferred using packet switching. [3]
Cambridge International AS & A Level Computer Science 9608
Paper 32 Q3 November 2015
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 4 a) This table shows some statements about circuit switching and packet

14
switching.
Copy the table and indicate which statements are true () and which are
false ().[5]

statements circuit packet

switching switching
a dedicated circuit/path is needed at all times
the same route/circuit is used for every packet in

14.2 Circuit switching and packet switching

the message
bandwidth is shared with other packets of data
none of the bandwidth available is wasted during
transmission
packets arrive at the destination in the correct
order

b) Explain the following terms and why they are used when sending packets
across a network.
i) hop number/hopping [2]
ii) checksum [2]
c) Describe how headers and routing tables are used to route packets efficiently
from a sender to recipient. [5]

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