Algebraic Structures

◼ Algebraic systems Examples and general

properties
◼ Semi groups
◼ Monoids
◼ Groups
◼ Abelian groups
 Algebraic systems

◼ N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.

Z = { 0,  1,  2,  3,  4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.
Q = Set of all rational numbers.
R = Set of all real numbers.
◼ Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a binary
operation (closed operation) on a non empty set A, if
a * b  A for all a, b  A (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication
but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
◼ Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more binary(closed)
operations defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic systems.
 Properties

◼ Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.

The operation * is said to be commutative in A if
a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
◼ Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be associative in A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
◼ Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to
be an identity element of A if
a * e = e * a = a for all a  A.
◼ Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is
unique.
◼ Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be
an element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e
 Semi group
◼ Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
◼ Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
◼ Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
◼ Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.

◼ Monoid: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the

following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
 Monoid
◼ Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to
multiplication.
◼ Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}
1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is
again a natural number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b  N
 Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c  N
3. Identity : We have, 1  N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a  N.
 Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
 Group

◼ Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if

the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.

◼ Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *) is

said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a*b =b*a a, b G.
 Algebraic systems

Abelian groups
Groups
Monoids
Semi groups
Algebraic systems
 Theorem
◼ In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c  b = c (left cancellation law)
a * c = b * c  a = b (Right cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
◼ In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.

◼ Order of a group : The number of elements in a group is called order

of the group.

◼ Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a

finite group.
 Ex. Show that, the set of all integers is a group with
respect to addition.
◼ Solution: Let Z = set of all integers.
Let a, b, c are any three elements of Z.
1. Closure property : We know that, Sum of two integers is again an
integer.
i.e., a + b  Z for all a,b  Z
2. Associativity: We know that addition of integers is associative.
i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a,b,c  Z.
3. Identity : We have 0  Z and a + 0 = a for all a  Z .
 Identity element exists, and ‘0’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a  Z , we have – a  Z such that
a+(–a )=0
Each element in Z has an inverse.
 Contd.,

◼ 5. Commutativity: We know that addition of integers is commutative.

i.e., a + b = b +a for all a,b  Z.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.
 Theorem

◼ Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the identity element is

unique.
◼ Proof :
a) Let e1 and e2 are two identity elements in G.
Now, e1 * e2 = e1 …(1) (since e2 is the identity)
Again, e1 * e2 = e2 …(2) (since e1 is the identity)
From (1) and (2), we have e1 = e 2
 Identity element in a group is unique.
 Theorem

◼ Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the inverse of any element is

unique.
◼ Proof:
◼ Let a ,b,c G and e is the identity in G.
◼ Let us suppose, Both b and c are inverse elements of a .
◼ Now, a * b = e …(1) (Since, b is inverse of a )
◼ Again, a * c = e …(2) (Since, c is also inverse of a )
◼ From (1) and (2), we have
◼ a*b=a*c
◼  b = c (By left cancellation law)
◼ In a group, the inverse of any element is unique.
 Finite groups

◼ Ex. Show that G = {1, -1} is an abelian group under multiplication.

◼ Solution: The composition table of G is
◼ . 1 –1
◼ 1 1 –1
◼ –1 –1 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are real numbers, and we know that
multiplication of real numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements
of
1 and – 1 are 1 and – 1 respectively.
 Contd.,

Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.

5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are
identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication..
 Ex. Show that G = {1, , 2} is an abelian group under multiplication.
Where 1, , 2 are cube roots of unity.

◼ Solution: The composition table of G is

◼ . 1  2
◼ 1 1  2
◼   2 1
◼ 2 2 1 

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 , 2 are 1, 2,  respectively.
 Contd.,

◼ Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.

◼ 5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
◼ Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.
 More on finite groups

◼ In a group with 2 elements, each element is its own inverse

◼ In a group of even order there will be at least one element (other
than identity element) which is its own inverse
◼ The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,…..m-1} is a group with respect to addition
modulo m.
◼ The set G = {1,2,3,4,….p-1} is a group with respect to multiplication
modulo p, where p is a prime number.
◼ Order of an element of a group:
◼ Let (G, *) be a group. Let ‘a’ be an element of G. The smallest
integer n such that an = e is called order of ‘a’. If no such number
exists then the order is infinite.
 Examples

◼ Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.The order –i is

a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 1
◼ Ex. Which of the following is not true.
◼ a) The order of every element of a finite group is finite and is a
divisor of the order of the group.
b) The order of an element of a group is same as that of its inverse.
◼ c) In the additive group of integers the order of every element
except
◼ 0 is infinite
◼ d) In the infinite multiplicative group of nonzero rational numbers
the
◼ order of every element except 1 is infinite.
◼ Ans. d
 Sub groups

◼ Def. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,

◼ if (H, *) is a group.
Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are trivial sub groups.
◼ Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.
H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.
◼ Ex. ( Z , + ) and (Q , + ) are sub groups of the group (R +).
◼ Theorem: A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G
iff
◼ i) a * b  H  a, b  H
◼ ii) a-1  H aH
 Modulo systems.

◼ Addition modulo m ( +m )
◼ let m is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
◼ a +m b = a + b if a + b < m
◼ a +m b = r if a + b  m where r is the remainder obtained
◼ by dividing (a+b) with m.
◼ Multiplication modulo p ( p )
◼ let p is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
◼ a p b = a b if a b < p
◼ a p b = r if a b  p where r is the remainder obtained
◼ by dividing (ab) with p.
◼ Ex. 3 5 4 = 2 , 5 5 4 = 0 , 2 5 2 = 4
 Cyclic group and subgroup
• A cyclic group is a group that can be
generated by a single element. Every element
of a cyclic group is a power of some specific
element which is called a generator. A cyclic
group can be generated by a generator ‘g’,
such that every other element of the group
can be written as a power of the generator ‘g’

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 Example

• The set of complex numbers {1,−1,i,−i} under

multiplication operation is a cyclic group.
• There are two generators (i and –i)
• as i=i,i^2=−1,i^3=−i,i^4=1, which covers all
the elements of the group. Hence, it is a cyclic
group
• Similarly we can check for –i.

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• Note − A cyclic group is always an abelian
group but not every abelian group is a cyclic
group. The rational numbers under addition is
not cyclic but is abelian.

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 Self study
• Congruence relation and quotient structure
• Permutation groups

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Thank You

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